MNRUT309 Fundamentals of Instrument Technology Toc H Institute of Science and Technology

MODULE 3

Syllabus: Temperature Sensors: Thermistors, Thermocouples, Motion sensor: Encoder

sensors, LVDT, Accelerometer, gyroscope-working principle only, PIR sensor, Range Sensors:
RF beacons, Ultrasonic Ranging, Reflective beacons.

Text books/ References

[1] Sensors and actuators: Engineering system instrumentation, De Silva, Clarence W
CRC Press
[2] Instrumentation: Devices and Systems, Rangan & Mani, McGraw Hill
[3] Process Control Instrumentation Technology, Curtis D. Johnson, Prentice Hall India

Temperature Sensors [1][2]

The temperature of a substance or medium is a phenomenon expressing its degree of
hotness or coldness, and is related with reference to its power of communicating heat to the
surroundings. It is one of the fundamental parameters, denoting a physical condition of matter,
similar to mass, length, and time. However, temperature denotes basically an intensive property
of the matter. It is a measure of the mean kinetic energy of the molecules of the substance and
represents the potential of heat flow. This phenomenon is not measurable by use of the basic
standards for direct comparison purposes.
When a body is heated or cooled, various primary effects can result, and one of these
effects can be employed for measurement purposes. They include:
(a) change in the physical or chemical state,
(b) change in physical dimensions,
(c) variation in electrical properties,
(d) generation of an emf at the junction of two dissimilar metals, and
(e) change in the intensity of the total radiation emitted.
Changes in the physical or chemical state are seldom employed for direct temperature
measurements even though this property is a basic reference as a temperature standard, e.g.
freezing, melting, boiling, or condensation of solids, liquids, or gases throughout the
temperature ranges. The temperature at which a change in chemical state occurs, such as the
ignition temperature of combustible materials can be utilized to determine the order of
magnitude of the temperature scale, but even this is not a very practical method. The change in
dimensions accompanying a temperature change forms the basis of operation of the common
liquid in glass thermometers and bimetal thermometers.
In most temperature measuring devices, the temperature is sensed through heat transfer
from the source to the measuring device. The physical (or chemical) change in the device
caused by this heat transfer is the transducer stage. Temperature sensing, based on the method
of measuring energy radiation from a hot body, is also a standard optical method of
measurement, especially at very high temperatures. A comparison table surveying the
characteristics of various temperature-measuring devices is given in Table 1.

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Table 1: Temperature Measuring Devices

Sl MEASURING DEVICE TEMPERATURE REMARKS

No. RANGE, K
1. Mechanical Sensors
a. Liquid in glass thermometer
i. Mercury thermometer 235 to 903 Direct Reading
ii. With wetting thermometric 73 to 473
liquids
b. Liquid filled thermometers 238 to 773 Conversion to electrical output
feasible
c. Vapour pressure thermometer 233 to 623
2. Electrical Sensors
a. Thermoelectric thermocouples
i. Cu constantan 73 to 673 Remote indication possible,
multiplexing feasible
ii. Fe constantan 73 to 673
iii NiCr-Ni 273 to 1273
b. Resistance thermometer
i. Thermistors 173 to 573 High sensitivity, small size, but
poor linearity.
ii. Semiconductor resistance 173 to 453 High sensitivity, small size, but
good linearity.
thermometer
3. Optical Sensors
i. Spectral pyrometers 823 to 3773 Indirect method of
measurement, only high
temperature measurements and
emission property of body
should be known.
ii. Band radiation pyrometers 773 to 2273 Indirect method of
measurement, only high
temperature measurements and
emission property of body
should be known.

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Thermocouple [1][2]

Thermocouples are perhaps the most commonly-used electrical devices for temperature
measurement. The sensing is based on the principle that a current flow in a closed circuit made
up of two dissimilar metals if the junctions of the two metals are kept at different temperatures.
In each lead, the concentration of valence electrons is proportional to the temperature, and at
the point of contact, the electron diffuses through the boundary layer between the two leads,
resulting in one lead becoming positive, and the other becoming negative. Thus, the emf
generated is proportional to the temperature difference in a predictable manner. This
phenomenon is known as Seebeck effect.
The Seebeck coefficient or sensitivity S of a thermal element is given by,
S = e/t = a + bt + ct2

where e is the emf generated from the junction, t is the change in temperature, and a, b and c
are constants determined by measuring the value of e at three standard reference temperatures.
The magnitude of S depends upon the chemical composition and the physical treatment of the
materials used.
When the temperature changes at the junction formed by joining two unlike conductors,
its electron configuration changes due to the resulting heat transfer. This electron
reconfiguration produces a voltage (emf or electromotive force), and is known as the Seebeck
effect. The devices that measure temperatures on the basis of thermoelectric principle are called
thermocouples. Two junctions (or more) of a thermocouple are made with two unlike
conductors such as iron and constantan, copper and constantan, chrome and alumel, and so on.
One junction is placed in a reference source (cold junction) and the other in the temperature
source (hot junction), as shown in Figure.

Figure: Thermocouple

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The voltage across the two junctions is measured to give the temperature of the hot
junction with respect to the cold junction. The presence of any other junctions, such as the ones
formed by the wiring to the voltage sensor, does not affect the reading as long as these leads
are maintained at the same temperature. Very low temperatures as well as very high
temperatures can be measured using a thermocouple. Since the temperature–voltage
relationship is nonlinear, correction has to be made when measuring changes in temperature,
usually by using polynomial relations. Sensitivity is quite reasonable (e.g., 10 mV=8C), but
signal conditioning may be needed in some applications. Fast measurements are possible with
small thermocouples having low time constants (e.g., 1 ms).

Thermistors [1][2]
They are semiconductor devices which behave as thermal resistors having a high
negative temperature coefficient of resistance. The sensors are made of sintered ceramics,
usually from mixtures of oxides of iron, manganese, nickel, cobalt, and copper in the form of
beads or discs. The resistance value at the ambient temperature may range from 100 ohms to
100 kilo ohms. The variation of resistance with temperature is non-linear, decreasing with
temperature. The resistance R of a thermistor at a temperature (T) can be expressed by the
equation

RT= a. eb/T
where a and b are constants determined by the structure and material.
The resistance change is detected through a bridge circuit or a voltage divider circuit.
Even though the accuracy provided by a thermistor is usually better than that of Resistance
Temperature Detector (RTD). Thermistors are quite robust and they provide a fast response and
high sensitivity.
Two types of thermistors:

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1) Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) Thermistor: Negative Temperature Coefficient

(NTC) Thermistor: NTC thermistors decrease resistance with increasing temperature
2) Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) Thermistor: Positive Temperature Coefficient
(PTC) Thermistor: PTC thermistors increase resistance as temperature rises.

The relationship between resistance and temperature in an NTC thermistor (commonly used)
is governed by the following expression:

where:
• RT is the resistance at temperature T (K)
• R0 is the resistance at temperature T0 (K)
• T0 is the reference temperature (normally 25oC)
• β is a constant, its value depends on the characteristics of the material. The nominal
value is taken as 4000.

Thermistor Construction:
Thermistors are made from semiconductor powders, shaped into beads, disks, or washers, and
coated with glass for stability. Two or more semiconductor powders made of metallic oxides
are mixed with a binder to form a slurry. Small drops of this slurry are formed over the lead
wires. For drying purposes, put it into a sintering furnace. During this process, the slurry will
shrink onto the lead wires to make an electrical connection. This processed metallic oxide is
sealed by putting a glass coating on it. This glass coating gives a waterproof property to the
thermistors – helping to improve their stability.

The thermistor is made of oxides of metals such as Nickel, Manganese, Cobalt, Copper,
Uranium, etc.
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• Thermistors are available in different models: bead type, rod type, disc type, etc.
• The major advantages of thermistors are their small size and relatively low cost.
• The typical size of a thermistor is 0.125mm to 1.5 mm.
• Commercially available thermistors have nominal values of 1K, 2K, 10K, 20K, 100K,
etc. This value indicates the resistance value at a temperature of 25oC
Uses of Thermistors: Thermistors are used in Digital thermometers, Automotive applications,
Household appliances, and Circuit protection

Motion Sensor [1][3]

By motion, we particularly mean one or more of the following four kinematic variables:

• Displacement (including position, distance, proximity, size or gage)

• Velocity (rate of change of displacement)
• Acceleration (rate of change of velocity)
• Jerk (rate of change of acceleration)
Motion measurements are extremely useful in controlling mechanical responses and
interactions in control systems. Numerous examples can be cited: The rotating speed of a
workpiece and the feed rate of a tool are measured in controlling machining operations.
Displacements and speeds (both angular and translatory) at joints (revolute and prismatic) of
robotic manipulators or kinematic linkages are used in controlling manipulator trajectory.
Proximity sensors (to measure displacement) and accelerometers (to measure acceleration) are
the two most common types of measuring devices used in machine protection systems for
condition monitoring, fault detection, diagnostic, and online (often real-time) control of large
and complex machinery.
A special class of transducer is used to measure the velocity and acceleration is used to
measure the velocity and acceleration of objects in industrial processes and testing. Often, these
variables are not under specific control but are used to evaluate the performance, durability,
and failure modes of manufactured products and the processes that produce them.
Types of Motion
The design of a transducer to measure motion is often tailored to the type of motion that is to
be measured.
I. Rectilinear
This type of motion is characterized by velocity and acceleration, which is composed of
straight-line segments. Thus, objects may accelerate forward to a certain velocity, deaccelerate
to a stop, reverse, and so on. There are many types of transducers designed to handle this type
of motion. Typically, maximum accelerations are less than 10 gs, and no angular motion (in a
curved line) is allowed. It is perhaps too strong to say that no angular motion is allowed. Rather,
if there is angular motion, then several rectilinear motion transducers must be used, each
sensitive to only one line of motion. Thus, if vehicle motion to be measured, two transducers

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may be used, one to measure motion in the forward direction of vehicle motion and the other
perpendicular to the forward axis of the vehicle.
II. Angular
Some transducers are designed to measure the only rotations about some axis, such as the
angular motion of the shaft of a motor. Such devices cannot be used to measure the physical
displacement of the whole shaft, but only its rotation.
III. Vibration
In the normal experiences of daily living, a person rarely experiences accelerations that
vary from 1 g by more than a few percent. Even the severe environments of a rocket launching
involve accelerations of only 1 g to 10 g. If an object is placed in periodic motion about some
equilibrium position as in Figure , very large peak accelerations may result that reach to 100 g
or more. This motion is called vibration.

Figure : An object in periodic motion

In general, vibrations are somewhat random in both the frequency of periodic motion
and the magnitude of displacements from equilibrium. For analytical treatments, vibration is
defined in terms of a regular periodic motion where the position of an object in time is given
by where
x(t) = xo Sin ωt
where x(t) = object position in m
xo = peak displacement from equilibrium in m
ω = angular frequency in rad/s
The definition of ω as angular frequency is consistent with the reference to ω as angular
speed because they are the same. If an object rotates, we define the time to complete one
rotation as a period T that corresponds to a frequency f = 1/T. The frequency represents the
number of revolutions per second and is measured in hertz (Hz), where I Hz = 1 revolution per
second.
An angular rate of one revolution per second corresponds to an angular velocity of 2π
rad/s because one revolution sweeps out 2π radians. The f and ω are related by, ω = 2πf, because
they are related by a constant, we refer ω as both angular frequency as well as angular velocity.
Vibration position, velocity and acceleration are all periodic functions having the same
frequency and period.
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IV. Shock
A special type of acceleration occurs when an object that may be in uniform motion or
modestly accelerating is suddenly brought to rest, such as from a collision. Such phenomena
are the result of very large accelerations or deaccelerations, such as an object being dropped
from some height onto a hard surface. The name shock is given to deacceleration that are
characterized by very short times, typically in the order of milliseconds.

Encoder Sensors
The encoder is an electromechanical device that can measure displacement. Encoders
are normally digital displacement transducers, consisting of a mechanical element and a
sensing head, typically of optical type. The mechanical element can be a disc (for rotary type
encoders) or a ruler (for linear type encoders) with deposited or carved patterns. The sensing
head includes a light source (LED) and a light sensor (photo detector) to read the generated
code (the encoder output).
The most widely used classification refers to the type of movement (linear or rotary).
In both cases they can be incremental, semi-absolute or absolute.

Encoder: The encoder is a digital optical device that converts motion into a sequence of digital
pulses. By counting a single bit or by decoding a set of bits, the pulses can be converted to
relative or absolute measurements. Thus, encoders are of incremental or absolute type. Further,
each type may be again linear and rotary.
• An encoder is a communication device that controls the motion of an operating device.
• Encoders are used to translate rotary or linear motions into a digital signal, helping to
determine the speed or position of a motor or other moving equipment.
• The encoder is a digital optical device that converts motion into a sequence of digital
pulses.
• By counting a single bit or by decoding a set of bits, the pulses can be converted to
relative or absolute measurements.
• Thus, encoders are of incremental or absolute type. Further, each type may be again
linear and rotary.
Encoders are classified into
Linear: It responds to motion along a path
Rotary: It responds to rotation motion
A rotary encoder is an electromechanical device that converts the angular position or motion
of a rotating shaft into digital or analog signals.

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• Encoder measurement type:

• Absolute encoders: Capable of providing unique position values from the

moment they are switched on
• Incremental encoders: An incremental encoder that generate an output each
times a shaft rotates

a) Incremental Linear Encoder

It has a transparent glass scale with opaque grating. The thickness of grating lines and
the gap between them is made same, which are in the range of microns. One side of the scale
is provided with a light source and a condenser lens. On the other side there are light-sensitive
cells. The resistance of the cells (photodiodes) decreases whenever a beam of light falls on
them. Thus, a pulse is generated each time a beam of light is intersected by the opaque line.
This pulse is fed to the controller, which updates a counter (a record of the distance travelled).

Figure: Incremental linear encoder

b) Absolute Linear Encoder

It is similar in principle as the incremental linear encoder. The difference is that it gives
absolute value of the distance covered at any time. Thus, the chance of missing the pulses at
high speeds is less. The output is digital in this case. The scale is marked in a sequence of
opaque and transparent strips, as shown in Fig. below.

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Figure : Absolute linear encoder

In the scale shown, if the opaque block represents 1 (one) and the transparent block as
0 (zero) then the leftmost column will show a binary number as 00000, i.e., a decimal value of
0, and the rightmost column will show a binary number 11111, i.e., a decimal value of 61.

c) Rotary Encoder

• Shaft: It is directly connected to the motor and is responsible for transmitting the
mechanical rotation to the internal disc.
• Code Disc / Wheel: It is attached to the shaft and usually made up of glass, plastic and
metal.
• LED light source: It is used in an optical rotary encoder to emit a focused beam of
light through the code disc. As the disc rotates, the pattern on the disc modulates the
light signal.
• Photodetector/Phototransistor Array: It is positioned opposite the light source to
sense the interrupted or transmitted light pattern from the rotating disc and convert it
into electrical signals.
• Magnetic Sensor: It detects the changes in the magnetic field generated by the rotating
magnetic disc,
• Signal Processing Circuitry: It interprets the raw signals from the sensor array and
amplifies, filters, and processes data into usable output signals such as digital pulses or
absolute position codes.
• There are two main types of rotary encoder: absolute and incremental.
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• The output of an absolute encoder indicates the current shaft position, making it an
angle transducer.
• The output of an incremental encoder provides information about the motion of the
shaft, which gives information such as position, speed, and distance.

d) Incremental Rotary Encoder

• When the shaft is rotating, the disk also rotates. This is also known as a ‘codewheel’.
• The slots in the wheel are used to generate ‘pulses’ each time a slot comes in alignment
with the sensor.
• Incremental rotary encoders use technologies such as magnetic, optical, inductive,
capacitive and laser to generate this pulse train.
• The above diagram illustrates the operation of an optical incremental rotary encoder.
• A light source (LED) is placed across the disk and the receiving device (a
photodiode/phototransistor) is placed in the line of sight.
• When the disk rotates, the slots momentarily allow light to pass through. At this
moment, the light beam reaches the receiver, and outputs a logic HIGH signal.
• When the disk rotates further, the light beam is obstructed and the receiver does not
receive the beam. This causes the output of that corresponding channel to go logic
LOW.

The counting of the number of transitions that occur in the (reflective / opaque and
nonreflective / transparent) disc sectors is related to the concept of resolution. The resolution
may be defined as the smallest change in a quantity under measurement that causes a noticeable
change in the corresponding outcome.

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In this case, the resolution of the disc corresponds to its minimum angular variation that
causes a transition at the logical output level. As there are nine 0 to 1 transitions in a complete
rotation of the disk, its resolution is: 360° / 9 = 40. So, the 40°value matches the period of
the blue wave shown in fig. below.

Figure 6: Two square waves in quadrature

How can we detect the direction of disc rotation?

This solution with only a sensing head is not able to identify the direction of disc
rotation. To solve this problem another optical sensing head is used, with its output signal offset
from the first by 90; in other words, the optical sensing head signals are in quadrature. This
layout produces two square waves in quadrature, corresponding each to one sensing head
(channels A and B), as shown in Figure 6.
With each change of state from 00 to 01, etc., the new combination gives rise to another
step in the counting operation. Consequently, the resolution is increased 4 times, as given by:
360º / (9 x4) = 10º.

e) Absolute Rotary Encoder

They are used to measure the following parameters of rotating objects like shafts or axles:
Angular velocity,Position information, and Distance.
These sensors output a unique word (a word is a set of bits) according to the current position of
the sensor. This is different from incremental rotary encoders as incremental encoders are
designed to output a continuous stream of pulses while absolute encoders output a unique set
of bits per each position of the sensor. This allows us to measure the exact(absolute) position of
the shaft rather than calculating the change in position.
• Similar to the incremental rotary encoders, absolute encoders also have a rotating shaft
attached to the sensor.
• The shaft is connected to a disk with a carefully placed set of slots. This wheel is also
known as the ‘codewheel’.
• The codewheel has a unique bit pattern.
• Unlike incremental encoders where all the slots are placed in a repeating pattern,
absolute encoder codewheel’s slots are different from each other.

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• When the shaft rotates, the codewheel also rotates along with it.
• There are a set of LEDs that emit beams of light onto the codewheel.
• When the light beams align with the slots, the beams pass through the codewheel, the
fixed slit and illuminate the phototransistors.
• Each phototransistor works independently and when illuminated, they output a logic
HIGH signal. When there is no beam present at a particular phototransistor, it outputs
logic LOW.
• The number of phototransistors and levels of slots engraved in the codewheel
determines the accuracy and resolution of the absolute rotary encoder.
• This is usually stated in bits.
• For example, an 8-bit resolution absolute encoder can provide 256 position information,
and can measure angular displacements of 1.41 degree increments.
• An absolute encoder maintains position information when power is removed from the
encoder.
• The position of the encoder is available immediately on applying power.
An 8-bit resolution means
• An 8-bit encoder can output 2^8 =256 unique digital values.
• These 256 distinct codes each correspond to a different angular position of the shaft
over one full revolution.
• Angular resolution per step=360° / 256 =1.41
Potentiometers

A potentiometer, is a variable resistance device that expresses linear or angular

displacements in terms of voltage. It consists of a wiper that makes contact with a resistive
element, and as this point of contact moves, the resistance between the wiper and end leads of
the device changes in proportion to the displacement, x and θ for linear and angular
potentiometers, respectively is shown in Fig. below.

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Figure : Potentiometer

Variable Inductance Transducers [1]

Motion transducers that employ the principle of electromagnetic induction are termed
variable-inductance transducers. Variable-inductance transducers are generally
electromechanical devices coupled by a magnetic field.
There are many different types of variable-inductance transducers. Three primary
types can be identified:
1. Mutual-induction transducers
2. Self-induction transducers
3. Permanent-magnet transducers.

1. Mutual-induction transducers

The basic arrangement of a mutual-induction transducer constitutes two coils, the

primary winding and the secondary winding. One of the coils (primary winding) carries an
alternating-current (ac) excitation, which induces a steady ac voltage in the other coil
(secondary winding). The level (amplitude, rms value, etc.) of the induced voltage depends on
the flux linkage between the coils. None of these transducers employ contact sliders or slip-
rings and brushes as do resistively coupled transducers (potentiometer). Consequently, they
have an increased design life and low mechanical loading.
In mutual induction transducers, a change in the flux linkage is effected by one of two
common techniques. One technique is to move an object made of ferromagnetic material within
the flux path between the primary coil and the secondary coil. This changes the reluctance of
the flux path, with an associated change of the flux linkage in the secondary coil. This is, for
example, the operating principle of the linear-variable differential transformer transducer
(LVDT), the rotatory-variable differential transformer=transducer (RVDT), and the mutual-
induction proximity probe. All of these are, in fact, variable-reluctance transducers as well. The
other common way to change the flux linkage is to move one coil with respect to the other.
This is the operating principle of the resolver, the synchro transformer, and some types of ac
tachometer. These are not variable-reluctance transducers, however, because a moving
ferromagnetic element is not involved.

Linear-Variable Differential Transformer Transducer (LVDT)

Differential transformer is a non-contact displacement sensor, which does not possess

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many of the shortcomings of the potentiometer. It falls into the general category of a variable-
inductance transducer, and is also a variable-reluctance transducer and a mutual-induction
transducer. Furthermore, unlike the potentiometer, the differential transformer is a passive
device.
The LVDT is considered a passive transducer because the measured displacement
provides energy for changing the induced voltage in the secondary coil, even though an external
power supply is used to energize the primary coil, which in turn induces a steady voltage at the
carrier frequency in the secondary coil. In its simplest form , the LVDT consists of an
insulating, nonmagnetic form (a cylindrical structure on which a coil is wound and is integral
with the housing), which has a primary coil in the midsegment and a secondary coil
symmetrically wound in the two end segments, as depicted schematically in Figure . The
housing is made of magnetized stainless steel to shield the sensor from outside fields. The
primary coil is energized by an ac supply of voltage Vref. This generates, by mutual induction,
an ac of the same frequency in the secondary coil. A core made of ferromagnetic material is
inserted coaxially through the cylindrical form without actually touching it, as shown. As the
core moves, the reluctance of the flux path between the primary and the secondary coils
changes.
• An AC voltage is applied to the primary coil (P), creating a magnetic field. This
magnetic field induces voltages in the two secondary coils (S1 and S2) due to mutual
inductance (a changing current in one coil induces a voltage in a nearby coil).
• When the core is at the center (null position), the magnetic flux linkage is equal in both
secondary coils, resulting in equal induced voltages that cancel each other out,
producing a zero output.
• When the core is displaced from the center, the magnetic flux linkage changes in the
secondary coils.
• If the core moves towards S1, the voltage induced in S1 will increase, while the voltage
in S2 will decrease. The opposite happens when the core moves towards S2.
• The output voltage is the difference between the voltages of the two secondary coils
(E_out = E1 - E2).
• The output of a Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) is an AC VOLTAGE
that is proportional to the displacement or position of its core.
• A zero-differential output voltage is produced when the core is in the center, or null
position, where the induced voltages in the two secondary coils are equal.
• The induced voltages in the secondary coils become unequal as the core moves away
from the null position, and the differential output voltage increases proportionately.

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Figure : LVDT

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The degree of flux linkage depends on the axial position of the core. Since the two
secondary coils are connected in series opposition (as shown in Figure ), so that the potentials
induced in the two secondary coil segments oppose each other, it is seen that the net induced
voltage is zero when the core is centered between the two secondary winding segments. This
is known as the null position. When the core is displaced from this position, a nonzero induced
voltage is generated.

At steady state, the amplitude vo, of this induced voltage is proportional to the core
displacement x in the linear (operating) region (see Figure 9). Consequently, vo may be used as
a measure of the displacement. Note that because of opposed secondary windings, the LVDT
provides the direction as well as the magnitude of displacement. If the output signal is not
demodulated, the direction is determined by the phase angle between the primary (reference)
voltage and the secondary (output) voltage, which includes the carrier signal.

Advantages of the LVDT include the following:

▪ It is essentially a non-contacting device with no frictional resistance. Near ideal
electromechanical energy conversion and lightweight core will result in very small
resistive forces. Hysteresis (both magnetic hysteresis and mechanical backlash) is
negligible.
▪ It has low output impedance, typically in the order of 100 V. (Signal amplification is
usually not needed beyond what is provided by the conditioning circuit.)
▪ Directional measurements (positive/negative) are provided by it.
▪ It is available in small sizes.
▪ It has a simple and robust construction (inexpensive and durable).
▪ Fine resolutions are possible (theoretically, infinitesimal resolution; practically, much
better than a coil potentiometer.
Applications
• It is mostly used in industries in the field of Automation, Aircraft, Turbines, Satellite,
Hydraulics etc.
• LVDT is used to measure physical quantity such as force, tension, pressure weight, etc.
here LVDT is used as a secondary transducer.
• LVDT plays important role in geotechnical Instrumentations, as it is used for
Monitoring Ground Movements, Landslides and Structural Stability
• LVDT plays an important role in the marine and offshore industry by monitoring the
Movements and Positions of ships and Underwater Structures.
• LVDT plays an important role in Power Generation as it monitors the Critical
Components in turbines and generators.

Accelerometer
It is known from Newton’s second law [F = ma], that a force (F) is necessary to accelerate a
mass (or inertia element), and its magnitude is given by the product of mass (m) and acceleration (a).
This product (m*a) is commonly termed inertia force. The rationale for this terminology is that if a
force of magnitude Ma were applied to the accelerating mass in the direction opposing the acceleration,

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then the system could be analyzed using static equilibrium considerations. This is known as
d’Alembert’s principle (Figure).

Figure : Illustration of d’Alembert’s principle.

The force that causes acceleration is itself a measure of the acceleration (mass is kept
constant). Accordingly, mass can serve as a front-end element to convert acceleration into
force. This is the principle of operation of common accelerometers.
• An accelerometer is a device that measures the vibration, or acceleration of motion, of
a structure.
• The force caused by vibration or a change in motion (acceleration) causes the mass to
“squeeze” the piezoelectric material which produces an electrical charge that is
proportional to the force exerted upon it.
• Since the charge is proportional to the force, and the mass is constant, then the charge
is also proportional to the acceleration
• Example: It help the phone know whether it undergoes acceleration in any direction,
and it’s the reason why your phone’s display switches on when you flip it.
• It help engineers understand a machine’s stability and enable them to monitor for any
unwanted forces/vibrations.
• An accelerometer works by utilizing an electromechanical sensor that is designed to
measure either static or dynamic acceleration.
• Static acceleration is the constant force acting on a body, like gravity or friction. These
forces are predictable and uniform to a large extent. For example, the acceleration due
to gravity is constant at 9.8 m/s – and the gravitation force is almost the same at every
point on the Earth.

• Dynamic acceleration forces are non-uniform, example is vibration or shock. A car

crash is an excellent example of dynamic acceleration. Here, the acceleration change is
sudden when compared to its previous state.
Types of accelerometers
• Piezoelectric Accelerometers
• Piezoresistance Accelerometers
• Capacitive Accelerometers
•

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Piezoelectric Accelerometer

The piezoelectric accelerometer (or crystal accelerometer) is an acceleration sensor,

which uses a piezoelectric element to measure the inertia force caused by acceleration. A
piezoelectric velocity transducer is simply a piezoelectric accelerometer with a built-in
integrating amplifier in the form of a miniature integrated circuit.
• It works by sending an electrical signal from the sensor when it experiences a sudden
acceleration.
• The construction of a piezoelectric accelerometer involves a sensing crystal to which a
seismic weight is attached.
• When the sensor experiences an acceleration, the weight exerts a force on the crystal.
• The piezoelectric crystal converts the force acting upon it to electrical signals, which
can be measured to find the acceleration.
• Piezoelectric accelerometers are highly effective at measuring shocks and vibrations.

The advantages of piezoelectric accelerometers over other types of accelerometers are their
light weight and high-frequency response (up to about 1 MHz). However, piezoelectric transducers are
inherently high output-impedance devices, which generate small voltages (in the order of 1 mV). For
this reason, special impedance-transforming amplifiers (e.g., charge amplifiers) have to be employed to
condition the output signal and to reduce loading error.

Piezoresistance Accelerometer
• It works by varying their resistance based on the acceleration they experience.
• The change in acceleration can be measured to understand the rate of acceleration
experienced by the sensor.
• Piezoresistive accelerometers are less sensitive than piezoelectric accelerometers, as
they are not best at measuring low-frequency impacts.
• Application in vehicle crash testing and weapons testing.
Capacitive Accelerometer
• Capacitive sensors work by changing their capacitance based on the acceleration they
experience.
• Their construction involves two capacitive plates and a diaphragm.
• As the sensor experiences acceleration, the diaphragm moves and changes the distance
between the capacitive plates.
• This results in the capacitance of the sensor to change, and this change in capacitance
can be measured and translated to the rate of acceleration on the sensor.
• Capacitive MEMS (microelectromechanical system) accelerometers are used in
smartphones.

Gyroscopic Sensors [1]

Gyroscopic sensors are used for measuring angular orientations and angular speeds of
aircraft, ships, vehicles, and various mechanical devices. These sensors are commonly used in
control systems for stabilizing various vehicle systems. Since a spinning body (a gyroscope)
requires an external torque to turn its axis of spin, it is clear that if this gyro is mounted (in a
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frictionless manner) on a rigid vehicle so that there are a sufficient number of degrees of
freedom (at most three) between the gyro and the vehicle, the spin axis remains unchanged in
space, regardless of the motion of the vehicle. Hence, the axis of spin of the gyro provides a
reference with respect to which the vehicle orientation (e.g., azimuth or yaw, pitch, and roll
angles) and angular speed can be measured. The orientation can be measured by using angular
sensors at the pivots of the structure, which mounts the gyro on the vehicle. The angular speed
about an orthogonal axis can be determined; for example, by measuring the precession torque
(which is proportional to the angular speed) using a strain-gage sensor; or by measuring using
a resolver, the deflection of a torsional spring that restrains the precession. The angular
deflection in the latter case is proportional to the precession torque and hence the angular speed.

Working Principle:

Consider a rigid disk spinning about an axis at angular speed v. If the moment of inertia
of the disk about that axis (polar moment of inertia) is J, the angular momentum H about the
same axis is given by

H=𝐽𝜔

Newton’s second law (torque = rate of change of angular momentum) tells us that to
rotate the spinning axis slightly, a torque has to be applied, because precession causes a change
in the spinning angular momentum vector (the magnitude remains constant but the direction
changes), as shown in Figure a. This explains the principle of operation of a gyroscope.
In the gyroscope shown in Figure 14b, the disk is spun about frictionless bearings using
a constant-speed motor. Since the gimbal (the framework on which the disc is supported) is
free to turn about frictionless bearings in the vertical axis, it remains fixed with respect to an
inertial frame, even if the bearing housing (the main structure in which the gyroscope is located)
rotates about the same vertical axis. Hence, the relative angle between the gimbal and the
bearing housing (angle θ in the figure) can be measured (using a resolver, RVDT, encoder, etc.)
and this gives the angle of rotation of the main structure. Bearing friction introduces an error
into this measurement, which has to be compensated for, perhaps by recalibration before a
reading is taken or by active feedback using a motor (torquer).

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Figure : (a) Illustration of the gyroscopic torque needed to change the direction of an
angular momentum vector. (b) A simple single-axis gyroscope for sensing angular
displacement.

Figure b. illustrates the case of a single-axis gyro sensor. The idea can be extended to
the three-axis (3 d.o.f.) case, by providing two further frames, which are mounted on gimbals
with their axes orthogonal to each other. The angular displacement sensors are mounted at all
three gimbal bearings. For small rotations, these three angles can be considered uncoupled and
will provide the orientation of the body on which the gyro unit is mounted. For large rotations,
proper coordinate transformation has to be applied in converting the sensor readings to the
orientation of the moving body (vehicle).

PIR Sensor
PIR sensors are less costly, very simple to utilize, and consistent, so applicable in door
openings, security alarms, vending machines, automatic lighting switches, lift lobbies, and
many more. PIR (Passive Infrared Sensor) sensor that is used to measure infrared light radiating
from objects like the human body or animals. The detector itself does not emit any energy but
passively receives it. PIR sensors can detect the movement of an animal or human within a
fixed range.
Generally, all objects at above zero temperatures produce heat energy in the IR radiation
form. If the object is hotter then it emits more radiation. This kind of radiation is not observable
to the human eye as it is emitted at IR wavelengths. PIR sensor is particularly designed for

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detecting such infrared radiation levels. These sensors are most frequently utilized in motion
detectors, security alarms & automatic lighting-based applications.

• Pin1 corresponds to the drain terminal of the device, which connected to the positive
supply 5V DC.
• Pin2 corresponds to the source terminal of the device, which connects to the ground
terminal via a 100K or 47K resistor. The Pin2 is the output pin of the sensor. The pin
2 of the sensor carries the detected IR signal to an amplifier from the
• Pin3 of the sensor connected to the ground.

PIR Sensor Detects (https://robu.in/pir-sensor-working-principle/)

PIR sensor can detect animal/human movement in a requirement range. PIR is made of a
pyroelectric sensor, which is able to detect different levels of infrared radiation. The detector
itself does not emit any energy but passively receives it.
•

It detects infrared radiation from the environment. Once there is infrared radiation from
the human body particle with temperature, focusing on the optical system causes the
pyroelectric device to generate a sudden electrical signal.
Simply, when a human body or any animal passes by, then it intercepts the first slot of
the PIR sensor. This causes a positive differential change between the two bisects. When a
human body leaves the sensing area, the sensor generates a negative differential change
between the two bisects.

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PIR Sensor Working Principle

The passive infrared sensor does not radiate energy to space. It receives the infrared
radiation from the human body to make an alarm. Any object with temperature is constantly
radiating infrared rays to the outside world. The surface temperature of the human body is
between 36° C - 27 ° C and most of its radiant energy concentrated in the wavelength range
of 8 um-12 um.

Passive infrared alarms classified into infrared detectors (infrared probes) and alarm
control sections. The most widely used infrared detector is a pyroelectric detector. It uses as a
sensor for converting human infrared radiation into electricity. If the human infrared radiation
is directly irradiated on the detector, it will, of course, cause a temperature change to output a
signal. But in doing all this, the detection distance will not be more. In order to lengthen the
detection distance of the detector, an optical system must be added to collect the infrared
radiation. Usually, plastic optical reflection system or plastic Fresnel lens used as a focusing
system for infrared radiation.

Range
• Indoor passive infrared: Detection distances range from 25 cm to 20 m.
• Indoor curtain type: The detection distance ranges from 25 cm to 20 m.
• Outdoor passive infrared: The detection distance ranges from 10 meters to 150 meters.
• Outdoor passive infrared curtain detector: distance from 10 meters to 150 meters.

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RANGE SENSORS

1.ULTRASONIC SENSORS

Ultrasonic sensors work by emitting high-frequency sound waves, often beyond the
range of human hearing, into the surrounding environment. These waves travel through the air
until they encounter an object, at which point they are partially reflected back to the sensor. By
precisely measuring the time it takes for the sound waves to travel to the object and return,
ultrasonic sensors calculate the distance to the object. This non-contact method of distance
measurement offers high precision, making ultrasonic sensors invaluable in a wide range of
applications, from automotive parking systems to industrial automation and home security.

Working
Generating Ultrasonic Waves: The heart of an ultrasonic sensor is a transducer, typically
made of piezoelectric material. When an electrical voltage is applied to this transducer, it
vibrates rapidly, generating high-frequency sound waves beyond the range of human hearing.
These waves, often referred to as ultrasonic pulses or sonar waves, are the key to the sensor’s
operation.

Emission and Reflection: Once the ultrasonic waves are produced, they travel through the air
until they encounter an object in their path. Upon hitting the object’s surface, the waves are
partially reflected towards the sensor.
Measuring Return Time: The sensor is equipped with a receiver that captures the reflected
waves. By precisely measuring the time it takes for the sound waves to travel to the object and
back, the sensor can calculate the distance to the object. This measurement is based on the
speed of sound in the medium, which is typically air, and the time it takes for the sound to make
a round trip.

D = 1/2 T * C
Where ‘T’ corresponds to time measured in seconds
‘C’ corresponds to sound speed = 343 measured in m/sec

Data Interpretation: The sensor’s electronics process the time delay and convert it into a
distance measurement. This distance can then be used for various purposes, such as triggering
an alarm, guiding a robot, or assisting in parking.

Advantages

1. Non-Contact Sensing: Ultrasonic sensors excel at non-contact measurements, making

them ideal for applications where physical contact with the object is undesirable or
impossible.
2. High Precision: When it comes to distance measurements, ultrasonic sensors offer
impressive precision, often with millimeter-level accuracy.

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3. Versatility: These sensors can be used in a wide range of industries and applications,
from automotive to industrial automation to healthcare.
4. Resistance to Environmental Factors: Ultrasonic sensors are less affected by
environmental conditions like dust, dirt, and humidity compared to some other sensor
types, such as optical sensors.
5. Cost-Effective: They are relatively affordable and provide excellent value for the
accuracy and versatility they offer.

Disadvantages

1. Limited Range: Ultrasonic sensors are most effective within a specific range, typically
up to 5 meters. Beyond this range, accuracy can diminish.
2. Reflective Surfaces: The accuracy of these sensors can be influenced by the type of
surface they are measuring. Highly reflective or soft surfaces may not provide reliable
readings.
3. Sound Absorption: Sound waves can be absorbed by certain materials, limiting the
sensor’s effectiveness in such cases.
4. Interference: In environments with multiple ultrasonic sensors operating
simultaneously, interference between sensors can occur, affecting accuracy.

5. Temperature Sensitivity: The speed of sound in air is temperature-dependent, so

changes in temperature can affect the sensor’s accuracy.

HC-SR-04 ultrasonic sensor

An HC-SR-04 ultrasonic sensor produces a sound wave with a frequency of 40 kHz

(corresponds to 8 pulses). This makes the ECHO pin to the HIGH state. The echo pin will stay
in a HIGH state until and unless it receives the ECHO sound. Therefore, the echo pin width is
calculated as the time for the sound to travel from an object and get back. From the time, the
distance is measured and this is termed sound speed.
The sensing range of HC-SR-04 is 2 cm – 400 cm.
The timing diagram of HC-SR-04 shown below.

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2. RADIO FREQUENCY BEACONS

RF beacons are generally omnidirectional, radiating a particular radio signal like a lighthouse.

RF Beacons
RF (Radio Frequency) beacons are small wireless devices that transmit radio signals at
specific intervals. These signals can be received by compatible devices (such as sensors,
smartphones, or IoT devices) to determine their presence, proximity, or location.
RF beacons operate in various frequency bands, including Bluetooth (2.4 GHz), Wi-Fi (2.4/5
GHz), LoRa (900 MHz), Ultra-Wideband (UWB) (3-10 GHz).

Why Are Radio Beacons Still Used When We Have GPS and Other Alternatives?
Radio beacons remain useful tools for amateur radio operators. They are being phased
out in aviation. They may continue to be used as a backup to GPS because they continue to
operate even when GPS is unavailable. Radio beacons used by the maritime industry are being
replaced with transmitters for differential GPS

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How RF Beacons Can Be Used as Range Sensors

RF beacons can be used as range sensors by estimating the distance between a
transmitter and receiver using different signal properties:

1. Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) Based Ranging

Measures signal strength (RSSI) and estimates distance based on signal attenuation.
Used in Bluetooth (BLE) and Wi-Fi positioning systems.
Limitations: Affected by interference, multipath effects, and environmental factors.

2. Time of Flight (ToF) Ranging

Measures the time it takes for an RF signal to travel from the beacon to the receiver.
Requires precise time synchronization.
Used in Ultra-Wideband (UWB) and some radar systems.

3. Time Difference of Arrival (TDoA) Ranging

Uses multiple receivers to measure the difference in arrival times of the signal.
Helps triangulate the position of the beacon.
Used in LoRa and UWB-based tracking systems.

4. Angle of Arrival (AoA) Ranging

Uses multiple antennas to determine the direction of the incoming RF signal.
Helps estimate both position and distance.
Used in Bluetooth 5.1 and some Wi-Fi-based localization systems.

Applications of RF Beacons in Range Sensing

Indoor Positioning Systems (IPS) (e.g., Bluetooth beacons in shopping malls)

Asset Tracking (e.g., UWB for real-time tracking in warehouses)
Autonomous Navigation (e.g., drones and robots using RF for localization)

Other Applications
• RF beacons can be used to calibrate and test antennas and RF equipment
• Radio beacons can be used to determine one’s general location. For example, radio
beacons are used by ships, aircraft, and vehicles to determine their location based on the
direction and distance of the beacon.
• Non-directional beacons are used to identify the locations of airstrips. This allows
pilots who are flying using instrumentation alone to find runways.

3. REFLECTIVE BEACONS

Reflective beacons are devices that passively or semi-passively reflect or modulate

incoming signals instead of actively transmitting their own. They are used in range sensing,

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navigation, and localization applications. External systems detect their presence and measure
distances based on the reflected signals.

Types of Reflective Beacons

1. Radar Reflective Beacons
Reflect radar waves emitted from a transmitting system. The system measures the time
delay and signal strength to determine distance and velocity.
Applications: Maritime Navigation: Buoy reflectors help ships detect obstacles in poor
visibility.
Aviation: Transponder-based reflectors enhance aircraft detection.
Autonomous Vehicles: Assist in obstacle detection and navigation.

2.RFID-Based Reflective Beacons

Operate using passive RFID tags that reflect incoming radio waves from an RFID
reader. The system estimates distance by analyzing the strength and phase of the reflected
signal.
Applications: Inventory Management: Used for efficient stock monitoring in warehouses.
Security & Access Control: Found in contactless identification cards.
Healthcare: Help track the location of medical equipment in real time.

3. Optical Retroreflective Beacons (LiDAR & Infrared)

Use specialized materials to reflect light or infrared signals directly toward the source.
LiDAR measures the time taken for light to return to determine distance.
Applications: Road Safety: Reflective lane markers assist autonomous vehicles in lane
discipline.
Robotics & Navigation: Used for precise object detection and mapping.
Augmented Reality: Enhance user interaction with digital overlays.

Measuring Distance Using Reflective Beacons

A. Time of Flight (ToF) : Time of Flight (ToF) is a measurement technique used in radar and
LiDAR systems to determine the distance between the sensor and the beacon. This method
calculates the time it takes for a signal to travel to the beacon and back, providing highly
accurate distance estimations.
Applications: Autonomous vehicles
Robotics
Industrial automation

B. Phase Shift Measurement: Phase shift measurement is a technique used in RFID-based

ranging systems, where the system compares the phase difference between an incoming and
outgoing RF signal. By analysing these phase variations, the system can estimate the distance
between the RFID reader and the reflective beacon
Applications: Indoor localization
Warehouse logistics
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Retail inventory management

C. Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) : Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI)
is a technique that estimates distance based on the attenuation of signal strength as it travels
from the source to the reflective beacon. It is less accurate due to environmental interference
but useful for proximity-based tracking.
• Applications: Wireless communication networks
• Asset tracking
• Bluetooth-based location tracking systems

Advantages

• Low Power Consumption: Passive beacons do not require an external power source,
making them ideal for long-term deployment.
• Cost-Effectiveness: They offer an inexpensive solution for improving detection and
tracking.
• Enhanced Detection: Reflective beacons improve visibility for radar, LiDAR, and RFID-
based sensing applications

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