● DIFFUSION: The natural rapid and random movement of the particles in all directions
means that particles readily ‘spread’ or diffuse.
o The net movement of particles will be in the direction from lower concentration to
a higher concentration, down the so–called diffusion gradient.
o Diffusion continues until the concentrations are uniform throughout the container,
but ALL the particles keep moving with their ever present kinetic energy!
A demonstration of diffusion
A coloured gas, heavier than air (greater density), is put into the bottom gas jar and
a second gas jar of lower density colourless air is placed over it separated with a glass
cover. Diffusion experiments should be enclosed at constant temperature to minimise
disturbance by convection.
● If the glass cover is removed then
(i) the colourless air gases diffuses down into the coloured brown gas and
(ii) bromine diffuses up into the air. The random particle movement leading to
mixing cannot be due to convection because the more dense gas starts
at the bottom!
● No 'shaking' or other means of mixing is required. The random movement of both lots
of particles is enough to ensure that both gasses eventually become completely
mixed by diffusion (spread into each other).
● This is clear evidence for diffusion due to the random continuous movement of all the
gas particles and, initially, the net movement of one type of particle from a higher to a
lower concentration ('down a diffusion gradient'). When fully mixed, no further colour
change distribution is observed BUT the random particle movement continues!
● A two gaseous molecule diffusion experiment is illustrated above and explained
below!
● A long glass tube (2–4 cm diameter) is filled at one end with a plug of cotton wool
soaked in conc. hydrochloric acid sealed in with a rubber bung (for health and safety!)
and the tube is kept perfectly still, clamped in a horizontal position. A similar plug
of conc. ammonia solution is placed at the other end. The soaked cotton wool plugs
will give off fumes of HCl and NH3 respectively, and if the tube is left undisturbed and
horizontal, despite the lack of tube movement, e.g. NO shaking to mix and the absence
of convection, a white cloud forms about 1/3rd along from the conc. hydrochloric
acid tube end.
o Explanation: What happens is the colourless gasses, ammonia and hydrogen
chloride, diffuse down the tube and react to form fine white crystals of the
salt ammonium chloride.
o ammonia + hydrogen chloride ==> ammonium chloride
NH3(g) + HCl(g) ==> NH4Cl(s)
o Note the rule: The smaller the molecular mass, the greater the average
speed of the molecules (but all gases have the same average kinetic energy at
the same temperature).
▪ Therefore the smaller the molecular mass, the faster the gas diffuses.
▪ e.g. Mr(NH3) = 14 + 1x3 = 17, moves faster than Mr(HCl) = 1 + 35.5
= 36.5
▪ AND that's why they meet nearer the HCl end of the tube!
▪ So the experiment is not only evidence for particle movement, it is
also evidence that molecules of different molecular masses
move/diffuse at different speeds.
Diffusion in liquids – evidence for random particle movement in liquids:
● If coloured crystals of e.g. the highly coloured salt crystals of potassium
manganate(VII) are dropped into a beaker of water and covered at room temperature.
o Despite the lack of mixing due to shaking or convection currents from a heat
source etc. the bright purple colour of the dissolving salt slowly spreads
throughout all of the liquid but it is much slower than the gas experiment
described above because of the much greater density of particles slowing the
spreading due to close proximity collisions.
o The same thing happens with dropping copper sulphate crystals (blue, so
observable) or coffee granules into water and just leaving the mixture to stand.
o Experiment to show the slower diffusion in liquids eg water.
1. You start with a beaker of still pure colourless water and drop a few crystals of ANY
highly coloured soluble crystals into it and put on a lid cover to prevent any air
disturbance.
2. The beaker is left to stand, preferably at a constant temperature to prevent mixing due
to convention. Immediately the crystals are added they will begin to dissolve and due to
natural random particle motion the coloured molecules will begin to spread from an area
of high concentration to one of low concentration and in all directions. You could take a
series of photographs to record the spreading. The spreading is self-evident and
direct experimental evidence for the natural constant random movement of
particles (molecules or ions).
3. After many hours all of the crystals will have dissolved AND due to the random
movement of ALL the particles, everything dissolved becomes evenly distributed giving
an evenly coloured solution. Note that although the colour doesn't seem to spread
anymore, ALL the particles are still moving with a random motion, nothing stops!
DIFFUSION: The natural rapid and random movement of the particles means that liquids
‘spread’ - diffuse. Diffusion is much slower in liquids compared to gases because there is less
space for the particles to move in and more ‘blocking’ collisions happen.
● Diffusion is almost impossible in solids because the particles are too closely packed
and strongly held together in a lattice. The immobile particles cannot move around
because there is no random movement into ‘empty space’ for them to move through.
● Diffusion is faster in gases than liquids where there is more space for them to move
Heating curve: What happens to the temperature of a substance if it is heated from the solid
state to the gaseous state?
Note the temperature stays constant during the state changes of melting at temperature Tm and
boiling at temperature Tb. This is because all the energy absorbed in heating at these
temperatures (the latent heats or enthalpies of state change), goes into weakening the
inter–particle forces (intermolecular bonding) without temperature rise The heat gain equals the
endothermic/heat absorbed energy required to reduce the intermolecular forces. In between the
'horizontal' state change sections of the graph, you can see the energy input increases the
kinetic energy of the particles and raising the temperature of the substance.
A heating curve summarises the changes: solid ==> liquid ==> gas
For each change of state, energy must be added …….. Endothermic change
Cooling curve: What happens to the temperature of a substance if it is cooled from the
gaseous state to the solid state?
Note the temperature stays constant during the state changes of condensing at temperature Tc,
and freezing/solidifying at temperature Tf. This is because all the heat energy removed on
cooling at these temperatures (the latent heats or enthalpies of state change), allows the
strengthening of the inter–particle forces (intermolecular bonding) without temperature fall. The
heat loss is compensated by the exothermic increased intermolecular force attraction. In
between the 'horizontal' state change sections of the graph, you can see the energy 'removal'
reduces the kinetic energy of the particles, lowering the temperature of the substance.
A cooling curve summarises the changes:
gas ==> liquid ==> solid
For each change of state, energy must be removed ……. Exothermic change.
Courtesy: https://docbrown.info/ks3science.htm
