Tuition Classes X (CBSE) SCIENCE

BRILLIANT TUITION CLASSES

2025-2026

SCIENCE
STUDY MATERIAL

Class X - CBSE

Brilliant
STUDY CENTRE, PALA
[Link], email: admissions@[Link]
Ph: 04822 - 206100, 206800

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 Tuition Classes X (CBSE) SCIENCE

CONTENTS
PHYSICS

1. Light-Reflection and Refraction ------------------------------------------------------------------- 05

2. The Human Eye and the Colourful World ---------------------------------------------------- 27

3. Electricity ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 38

4. Magnetic Effects of Electric Current ---------------------------------------------------------- 46

CHEMISTRY

5. Chemical Reactions and Equations-------------------------------------------------------------- 57

6. Acids, Bases and Salts---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 77

7. Metals and Non-Metals --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 84

8. Carbon & its Compounds ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 102

BIOLOGY

9. Life Processes --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 120

10. Control and Coordination ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 137

11. How do Organisms Reproduce ? ----------------------------------------------------------------- 153

12. Heredity-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 177

13. Our Environment ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 187

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 PHYSICS

CHAPTER - 01
LIGHT - REFLECTION AND REFRACTION

 Light – stimulates sight and make things visible

Electromagnetic wave
Can be detected by eye
 Ray – path of light
 Beam – bundle of rays
 Pencil – narrow beam of light
 Object – source of light
 Image – image is formed at the point of convergence or divergence after reflection or refraction.
Real image – obtained on a screen.
Produced due to convergence.
Virtual image – can be seen on mirror or through lens.
Produced due to divergence.
 Reflection – bouncing back of light into the same medium.

Incident ray – ray incident on a surface

Reflected ray – ray reflected from a surface.
Normal – line perpendicular to the surface
Angle of incidence (i) – angle between normal and incident ray.
Angle of reflection (r) – angle between normal and reflected ray.
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 Laws of reflection:-
1. Angle of incidence = angle of reflection
2. Incident ray, reflected ray and normal at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
 Plane mirror – Reflecting surface is plane.

Characteristics of image formed by a plane mirror

1) Same size of the object
2) Virtual
3) Erect
4) Laterally inverted
5) Mirror – image distance (v) = mirror – object distance (u)
 Spherical mirror – mirror is part of a spherical surface. Reflecting surface is curved inward (concave
mirror) or curved outward (convex mirror).

Pole (P) – centre point of a mirror

Centre of curvature (C) – centre of the sphere of which the mirror is a part.
Radius of curvature (R) – radius of the sphere of which the mirror is a part.
Principal axis – straight line joining P and C.
Principal focus (F) – converging point of parallel rays after reflection (for concave mirror)
Diverging point of parallel rays after reflection (for convex mirror)
Focal length (f) – distance between pole and focus.

R  2f

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Aperture: - Diameter of the reflecting surface of the spherical mirror.

 Rules for image formation by mirror

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I. Image formation by concave mirror

(i) Object at infinity

Image formed at the focus F.

Characteristics :-

 real

 inverted

 highly diminished/point sized

(ii) Object beyond C

Image formed between F and C.

Characteristics :-

 real

 inverted

 diminished

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(iii) Object at C

Image formed at C.
Characteristics :-
 real
 inverted
 same size
(iv) Object in between C and F

Image formed beyond C.

Characteristics :-
 real
 inverted
 Enlarged
(v) Object at F

Image formed at inifinity

Characteristics :-
 real
 inverted
 highly enlarged

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(vi) Object in between F and P

Image formed behind the mirror.

Characteristics :-

 virtual

 erect

 enlarged

For a concave mirror, the position and nature of image formed is summerised in the table.

So a concave mirror gives both real and virtual image of a real object.

Uses of concave mirror

(i) They are used as shaving mirrors

(ii) They are used as reflectors in car head lights, search lights, torches and table lamps

(iii) They are used by doctors to concentrate light on body parts like ears and eyes which are to be
examined.

(iv) Large concave mirrors are used in the field of solar energy to focus sun rays on the objects to
be heated

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II. Image formation by a convex mirror

(i) Object at infinity

Image formed at the focus, F, behind the mirror.

Characteristics :-

 virtual

 erect

 highly diminished/point sized

(ii) Object in between infinity and pole

Image formed between P and F, behind the mirror.

Characteristics :-

 virtual

 erect

 diminished

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For a convex mirror, the position and nature of image formed is summarised in the table.

A convex mirror gives only a virtual image for real object

Uses of convex mirrors

(i) used as real view mirror in automobiles

(ii) used in street lamps

Sign convention for measuring distance in concave and convex mirror

1) All distances are measured from the pole

2) The incident ray is taken from left to right

3) Distance measured in the same direction as that of the incident ray are taken to be positive

4) Distances measured in a direction opposite to the incident ray are taken to be -ve

5) Distances measured upwards and perpendicular to principal axis are taken +ve

6) Distances measured downward and perpendicular to principal axis are taken -ve

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Mirror formula
The mirror formula is a relation relating the object distance (u), the image distance (v) and the focal
length (f) of a mirror.

1 1 1
The mirror formula is  
u v f
Above equation is known as mirror formula and is valid for both concave and convex mirrors.
However, the quantities must be substituted with proper signs.
Focal length of concave mirror is -ve
Focal length of convex mirror is +ve
For real image v is -ve
For virtual image v is +ve
Magnification
It is the comparison between size of image and size of object.
The linear magnification of a spherical mirror is the ratio of height of the image (h2)| formed by the
mirror to the height of the object (h1) ie,

Height of image h 2
M 
Height of object h1
The linear magnification is a number that simply tells us how much taller the image is than the
object. For example,
If m = 1, it means that the image and the object are of the same height.
Another formula for magnification is

v
m
u
For virtual image m is +ve
For real image m is -ve
 Refraction: - bending of light at the interface of two media

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 Laws of refraction:-

sin i
1) Snell ‘s law, sin r  constant

This constant is known as refractive index (n).

2) Incident ray, reflected ray and normal at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.

 Cause of refraction: - Speed of light is different in different media. Refractive index high value means
medium is optically denser and speed of light is less. Refractive index low value means medium is
optically rarer and speed of light is more.

 Refractive index (n) :- Ratio of speed of light in vacuum to the speed of light in medium.

c
n
v

c = speed of light in vacuum

v = speed of light in medium
The refractive index of medium 1 with respect to medium 2,

v2
n12 
v1

The refractive index of medium 2 with respect to medium 1,

v1
n 21 
v2
Absolute refractive index of some material media

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 Refraction through a rectangular glass slab:-

1) Incident ray and emergent ray are parallel to each other.

2) Emergent ray is displaced from the line of incident ray.
 Spherical lens: - Transparent refracting material is bounded by two surfaces.
Converging lens:- Thick at middle and thin at edges.

Diverging lens:- Thin at middle and thick at edges.

Optical centre (O) – point inside the lens through which light passes undeflected.
Centre of curvature (C) – centre of the spheres of which the lens surfaces is a part.
Radius of curvature (R) – radius of the spheres of which the lens surface is a part.
Principal axis – straight line joining O and C.
Principal focus (F) – converging point of parallel rays after refraction (for convex lens)
Diverging point of parallel rays after refraction (for concave lens)

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(I) Image Formation by a convex lens

The position, size and nature of the image formed by convex lens depends up on the distance of the
object from the optical centre of the lens.

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(i) Object at infinity

Image formed at the focus F2.

Characteristics :-

 real

 inverted

 highly diminished/point sized

(ii) Object beyond 2F

Image formed between F2 and 2F2.

Characteristics :-

 real

 inverted

 diminished

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(iii) Object at 2F

Image formed at the focus 2 F2.

Characteristics :-

 real

 inverted

 same size
(iv) Object in between 2F and F

Image formed beyond 2 F2.

Characteristics :-

 real

 inverted

 enlarged

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(v) Object at Focus (F)

Image formed at inifinity.

Characteristics :-
 real
 inverted
 highly enlarged
(vi) Object in between focus and optic centre

Image formed on the same side of the lens as the object.

Characteristics :-
 virtual
 erect
 enlarged
The nature, position and relative size of the image formed by convex lens for various positions of the
object is summerised in table.

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(II) Image formed by a Concave lens

(i) Object at infinity

Image formed at focus F1.

Characteristics :-

 virutal

 erect

 highly diminished or point-sized

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(ii) Object in between optic centre and infinity

Image formed between F1 and O.

Characteristics :-

 virtual

 erect

 diminished

Sign convention for spherical lenses

(i) All distances are measured from optical centre
(ii) The distances measured in the direction of incident ray are taken as positive and distances measured
against the direction of incident ray are taken as negative.
(iii) All distances above principal axis are taken as positive and those below the principal axis are taken
as negative.
Lens formula
Relation between object distance(u), image distance (v) and focal length (f)

1 1 1
 
v u f

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Magnification
It is defined as the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object.

height of the image h /

m 
height of the object h

h/ v
m 
h u

If m is +ve, image is virtual and erect

If m is -ve, image is real and inverted

Power of a Lens

It is the measure of deviation produced by a [Link] degree of convergence or divergence of light

rays achieved by a lens is expressed in terms of its power. The power of a lens is defined as the
reciprocal of its focal length.

1
p
f

SI unit of power of lens is ‘dioptre’

If f is expressed in metre, then power is expressed in dioptre

Power of convex lens is +ve

Power of concave lens is -ve
If two thin lenses are placed in contact, the combination has a power equal to the algebraic sum of the
power of two lenses, P = P1 + P2 and

1 1 1
 
f f1 f 2

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QUESTIONS
1. For a concave mirror when the object is placed between the pole and the focus then the image formed
will be
A) Virtual B) Real C) Inverted D) Diminished

2. When an object is moved towards the plane mirror

A) Image moves away from the object B) Size of the image increases

C) Image moves closer to the object D) Size of the image decreases

3. David is observing his image in a plane mirror. The distance between the mirror and his image is 5m.
If he moves 1m towards the mirror, then the distance between David and his image will be

A) 3m B) 5m C) 6m D) 8m

4. The phenomenon of the change in the path of the light as it passes from one optical medium to
another is called

A) Reflection of light B) Refraction of light C) Dispersion of light D) Both A and B

5. An image formed by a lens is erect. Such an image could be formed by a

A) convex lens provided the image is smaller than object

B) concave lens provided the image is smaller than object

C) concave lens provided the image is larger than object

D) concave lens provided the image is of the same size

6. The ray of light moving from an optically rarer to denser medium

A) Bends away from the normal

B) Bends towards the normal

C) Remains un-deviated

D) none of these

7. Mirror used to form magnified image is

A) concave mirror B) convex mirror C) plane mirror D) none of these

8. Ray of light passing through optical centre of a thin lens

A) remains undeflected

B) is parallel to the principal axis

C) passes through the centre of curvature

D) is reflected back

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9. A ray of light parallel to the floor strikes a plane mirror. Which is inclined at an angle 40° as shown in
figure. What is the angle of reflection?

A) 40° B) 80° C) 50° D) 90°

10. What is the angle of incidence of a ray if the reflected ray is at an angle of 90° to the incident ray?

A) 60° B) 45° C) 90° D) 180°

11. An object is placed at 100 mm in front of a concave mirror which produces an upright image (erect
image). The radius of curvature of the mirror is

A) Less than 100mm B) Between 100mm and 200mm

C) Exactly 200mm D) More than 200mm

12. A concave mirror produces a magnification of +4. The object is placed

A) At the focus B) Between focus and centre of curvature

C) Between focus and pole d) Beyond the centre of curvature

13. When white light moves through vacuum

A) Violet has greater speed than red B) Red has greater speed than violet

C) All colours have the same speed D) Different colours have different random speeds

14. Unit of power is

A) Metre B) Dioptre C) Joule D) Newton

15. Find the angle of reflection

A) 50° B) 30° C) 40° D) 60°

16. The magnitude of radius of curvature of a concave mirror is 10cm. The focal length of concave mirror
is

A) –5 cm B) 5 cm C) 20cm D) both A & B

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17. When an object is placed in front of a concave mirror the image is formed at the same point where
object is kept. The position of image is
A) at C B) beyond C C) At F D) At infinity
18. Which of the following is used as shaving mirror
A) convex mirror B) plane mirror
C) concave mirror D) parabolic mirror
19. What is the nature of the image formed by a concave mirror when the object is placed between F & P
A) real and magnified B) real and diminished
C) virtual and magnified D) virtual and diminished
20. You are provided with a concave mirror, a convex mirror, a concave lens and a convex lens. To obtain
an enlarged image of an object you can use either
A) concave mirror or convex mirror B) concave mirror or convex lens
C) concave mirror or concave lens D) concave lens or convex lens
21. The linear magnification for a mirror is :

hi h0 v
A) B) C) D) None of these
h0 hi u

 4
22. A convex mirror of focal length f (in air) is immersed in a liquid     . The focal length of the mirror
 3
in liquid will be:

3 4 7

A)   f B)   f C) f D)   f
4 3 3
23. Two thin lenses of focal lengths 20 cm and 25 cm are placed in contact. The effective power of the
combination is :

1
A) diopters B) 45 diopters
9
C) 6 diopters D) 9 diopters
24. Match the following :
Column I Column II
a) Convex mirror, real object p. Real image
b) Concave mirror, real object q. Virtual image
c) Concave lens, real object r. Magnified image
d) Convex lens, real object s. Diminished image
A) (a) - q, s ; (b) - p, q, s ; (c) - q, r ; (d) - p, q, r, s
B) (a) - q ; (b) - p, q, s ; (c) - q, r ; (d) - p, q, r
C) (a) - s ; (b) - p, q, s ; (c) - q, s ; (d) - p, q, r, s
D) (a) - q, s ; (b) - p, q, r, s ; (c) - q, s ; (d) - p, q, r, s

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25. The relation among u, v and f for a spherical mirror is :

uv uv uv uv
A) f  B) f  C) f  D) f 
uv uv uv uv
26. After refraction of light through a glass slab, incident ray and emergent ray are :
A) perpendicular B) parallel C) in a straight line D) A and C
27. The ability of a lens to converge or diverge light rays depends on :
A) principal axis B) focal length C) object distance D) image distance
28. Find the wrong statement related to convex lens :
A) Two spherical surfaces bulging outward
B) Converging lens
C) Positive focal length
D) Image is always virtual and diminished
29. If speed of light travelling from air to a medium decreases by ½, find the refractive index of the medium
with respect to air :
A) 2 B) 1.67 C) 0.5 D) 1.25
30. The focal length of a concave lens is 50 cm, then the power is :
1) +2 D B) 2 D C) + 0.5 D D) 0.5 D

ANSWERS
1. A 6. B 11. D 16. A 21. A 26. B
2. C 7. A 12. C 17. A 22. C 27. B
3. D 8. A 13. C 18. C 23. D 28. D
4. B 9. C 14. B 19. C 24. D 29. A
5. B 10. B 15. C 20. B 25. A 30. B

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CHAPTER - 02
THE HUMAN EYE AND THE COLOURFUL WORLD

The Human eye

It is a natural optical instrument which is used to see the objects. It is like a camera which has a lens
and screen system

The various parts of eye

Cornea:- It is a thin membrane through which light enters the eye. It forms the transparent bulge on
the front surface of the eye ball. Most of the refraction for the light rays entering eye occurs at the outer
surface of the cornea

Iris:- Iris is a dark muscular diaphragm that controls the size of the pupil

Pupil- It is a hole in the middle of iris through which light enters the eye. The pupil regulates and
controls the amount of light entering the eye.

Eye lens- It is a convex lens made of transparent and flexible jelly like material. Its curvature can be
adjusted with the help of ciliary muscles .

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Retina- It is a light sensitive screen inside the eye on which image is formed. The eye lens forms an
inverted real image of the object on the retina. The retina is a delicate membrane having enormous
number of light sensitive cells.
Ciliary muscles- These are the muscles which are attached to eye lens and can modify the shape of
eye lens which leads to the variation in focal lengths
Optical nerve- These are the nerves which take the image to the brain in the form of electrical signals
Power of Accommodation
The ability of the eye lens to adjust its focal length accordingly as the distances is called power of
accommodation

1) Eye lens become thin 1) Eye lens become thick

2) Increase the focal length 2) Decrease the focal length

3) Enable us to see distant object clearly 3) Enable us to see nearly objects clearly

Near point of the eye

The minimum distance at which object can be seen most distinctly without strain. It is 25cm for normal
eye

Far point of the Eye

It is the farthest point up to which the eye can see object clearly

It is infinity for normal eye

Defects of vision and their correction

1. Myopia (short sightedness)

It is a kind of defect in the human eye due to which a person can see near objects clearly but he
cannot see the distant objects clearly. A person with this defect has the far point nearer than infinity. In
a myopic eye the image of a distant object is formed in front of the retina and not at the retina itself
myopia is due to

(i) Excessive curvature of the eye lens (Decrease the focal length)

(ii) Elongation of the eye ball

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Correction
A concave lens of suitable power will bring the image back on to the retina and thus the defect is
corrected
2. Hypermetropia (long sightedness)
A person can see distant objects properly but can not see the nearby objects clearly. The near point
for the person, is farther away from the normal near point. This is because the light rays from a close
by object are focussed at a point behind the retina if happens due to
(i) The focal length of the eye lens is too long
(ii) The eye ball has become too small

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Correction
This defect can be corrected by using a convex lens appropriate power
3) Presbyopia
It is a kind of defect in human eye which occurs due to ageing. It happens due to the following reasons
1) decrease in flexibility of eye lens
2) gradual weakening of ciliary muscles
In this a person may suffer from both myopia and hypermetropia
Correction
By using bifocal lens with appropriate power. Bifocal lens consists of both concave and convex lens,
upper position consists of the concave lens and lower portion consists of a convex lens
Refraction of light through a prism
Prism:- A prism has two triangular bases and three rectangular lateral surfaces. These surfaces are
inclined to each other
Angle of prism:- The angle between two lateral faces is called angle of prism
Angle of deviation:- The angle between the incident ray and the emergent ray

A ray of light is entering from air to glass at the first surface AB. The light ray on refraction has bent
towards the normal. At the second surface AC, the light ray has entered from glass to air. Hence it
has bent away from normal. The angle between an incident ray and an emergent ray is called angle of
deviation.

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Dispersion of white light by a glass prism

The phenomenon of splitting of white light into its seven constituent colours when it pass through a
glass prism is called dispersion. The band of seven colours is called the spectrum. Different colours
of light bend through different angles with respect to the incident angle. The violet light bends the most
and the red light bends the least

Recombination of white light

Issac Newton was the first, who obtained spectrum of sunlight by using glass prism. Newton found
that when a inverted prism is placed in the path of dispersed light then after passing through the prism,
they recombine to form white light

Rainbow
A rainbow is a natural spectrum appearing in the sky after a rain shower. It is caused by dispersion of
sunlight by tiny water droplets, present in the atmosphere. The water droplets acts like small prisms.
They refract and disperse the incident sunlight, then reflect it internally, and finally refract it again when
it comes out of the raindrop. Due to the dispersion of light and internal reflection, different colours
reach the observer’s eye. A rainbow is always formed in a direction opposite to that of the sun

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Atmospheric Refraction

The refraction of light caused by the earth’s atmosphere (having air layers of varying optical densities)
is called atmospheric refraction

(1) Twinkling of stars

It is also due to atmospheric refraction. Distant star act like a point source of light. As the beam of
starlight keeps deviating from its path, the apparent position of star keeps on changing because the
physical condition of earth’s atmosphere is not stationary. Hence the amount of light enters our eyes
fluctuate sometimes bright and sometimes dim. This is the twinkling effect of star

Why planet do not twinkle

Planets are closer to earth and are seen as extended source of light ie the collection of large number
of point sized sources of light. Therefore the total amount of light entering our eyes from all individual
point source will nullify the twinkling effect

2. Advance sunrise and delayed sunset

By actual sunrise we mean the actual crossing of the horizon by the sun. But the rays of light from the
sun below the horizon reach our eyes because of refraction of light. Similarly the sun can seen about
few minutes after the actual sun [Link] sun is visible about 2 minutes earlier than actual sunrise and
about 2 minutes after the actual sun set. Thus the duration of day time will increase by 4 minutes

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Scattering of light

Scattering of light is the phenomenon in which light rays get deviated from its straight path on striking
an obstacle like dust, gas molecules, water vapours etc

1) Tyndall effect
The phenomenon of scattering of light by the colloidal particle gives rise to tyndall effect. This
phenomenon is seen when a fine beam of sunlight enters a smoke filled room through a small hole.
The scattering of light makes the particle visible.

The colour of the scattered light depends on the size of the scattering particles. Very fine particles
scatter mainly blue light while particles of large size scatter light of longer wave lengths. If the size of
the scattering particles is large enough then the scattered light may even appear white.

2) Colour of the clear sky

When sunlight passes through the atmosphere, the fine particles in air scatter the blue colour more
strongly than red. The scattered blue light enters our eyes. Thus clear sky appears blue

3) The danger signals or sign are red in colour

Red colour scatters the least when strikes the small particle of fog and smoke because it has the
maximum wavelength in the visible spectrum. Hence from large distance, we can see the red colour
clearly.

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QUESTIONS
1. The muscular diaphragm that controls the size of the pupil is
A) Cornea B) Ciliary muscles C) Iris D) Retina
2. The human eye forms the image of an object at its
A) Retina B) Iris C) Cornea D) Pupil
3. Near and far points of a young person’s normal eye respectively are
A) 0 and infinity B) 0 and 25cm C) 25 cm and infinity D) 25 cm and 150 cm
4. The defect of vision in which the person is able to see distant object distinctly but cannot see nearby
objects clearly is called
A) Long-sightedness B) Far-sightedness C) Hypermetropia D) All of the above
5. The ability of eye lens to adjust its focal length to form a sharp image of the object at varying distances
on the retina is called
A) Power of observation of the eye B) Power of adjustment of the eye
C) Power of accommodation of the eye D) Power of enabling of the eye
6. Myopia and hypermetropia can be corrected by
A) Concave and plano-convex lens respectively
B) Concave and convex lens respectively
C) Convex and concave lens respectively
D) Plano-concave lens for both defects
7. The image formed on the retina of the human eye is
A) virtual and inverted B) real and inverted C) real and erect D) virtual and erect
8. When white light enters a prism, it gets split into its constituent colours. This is due to
A) different refractive index for different wavelength of each colour
B) each colours has same velocity in the prism
C) prism material have high density
D) Scattering of light
9. The deflection of light by minute particles and molecules of the atmosphere in all direction is called
.....of light
A) dispersion B) scattering
C) interference D) tyndall effect
10. At noon the sun appears white as
A) light is least scattered
B) all the colours of the white light are scattered away
C) blue colour is scattered the most
D) red colour is scattered the most

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11. Twinkling of stars is due to atmospheric

A) dispersion of light by water droplets
B) refraction of light by different layers of varying refractive indices
C) scattering of light by dust particles
D) internal reflection of light by clouds
12. The clear sky appears blue because
A) blue light gets absorbed in the atmosphere
B) ultraviolet radiations are absorbed in the atmosphere
C) violet and blue lights get scattered more than lights of all other colours by the atmosphere
D) light of all other colours is scattered more than the violet and blue colour lights by the atmosphere
13. The focal length of the eye lens increases when eye muscles
A) are relaxed and lens becomes thinner B) contract and lens becomes thicker
C) are relaxed and lens becomes thicker D) contract and lens becomes thinner
14. The least distance of distinct vision for a normal eye is
A) infinity B) 25 cm C) 2.5 cm D) 25m
15. When white light enters a glass prism from air, the angle of deviation is maximum for
A) blue light B) yellow light C) red light D) violet light
16. The defect of the eye in which the eyeball becomes too long is
A) myopia B) hypermetropia C) presbyopia D) cataract
17. Which of the following is a natural phenomenon which is caused by the dispersion of sunlight in the
sky?
A) Twinkling of stars
B) Stars seem higher than they actually are
C) Advanced sunrise and delayed sunset
D) Rainbow
18. Which of the following phenomena of light are involved in the formation of a rainbow?
A) Reflection, refraction and dispersion
B) Refraction, dispersion and total internal reflection
C) Refraction, dispersion and scattering
D) Dispersion, scattering and total internal reflection
19. The danger signals installed at the top of tall buildings are red in colour. These can be easily seen from
a distance because among all other colours the red light
A) is scattered the most by smoke or fog
B) is scattered the least by smoke or fog
C) is absorbed the most by smoke or fog
D) moves fastest in air

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20. Which of the following statement is correct?

A) A person with myopia can see distant objects clearly

B) A person with hypermetropia can see nearby objects clearly

C) A person with myopia can see nearby objects clearly

D) A person with hypermetropia cannot see distant objects clearly

21. A student traces the path of a ray through a glass prism for four different values of angle of incidence.
On analysing the diagrams he is likely to conclude that the emergent ray

A) is always parallel to the incident ray

B) is always perpendicular to the incident ray

C) is always parallel to the refracted ray

D) always bends at an angle to the direction of incident ray

22. A student is observing the diagram showing the path of a ray of light passing through a glass prism. He
would find that for all angles of incidence the ray of light bends

A) towards the normal while entering into the prism and away from the normal while emerging out of
the prism

B) away from the normal while entering into the prism and towards the normal while emerging out of
the prism

C) away from the normal while entering as well as while emerging out of the prism

D) towards the normal while entering as well as while emerging out of the prism

23.

In this diagram the angle of incidence, the angle of emergence and the angle of deviation respectively
are (select the correct option)

A) X, R and T B) Y, Q and T C) X, Q and P D) Y, Q and P

24. The splitting of white light into its component colours is called

A) refraction B) reflection C) dispersion D) tyndall effect

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 Tuition Classes X (CBSE) SCIENCE

25. In which of the following cases will there be no dispersion when sunlight passes

A) B)

C) D)

26. The middle colour in sunlight spectrum is

A) Yellow B) Green C) Blue D) Orange
27. In optical instruments, the lenses are used to form images by
A) reflection B) refraction C) dispersion D) scattering
28. Sun appears red druing sunset because
A) Reflection B) Diffraction C) Scattering D) Interference
29. Most of the refraction takes place at ..... when light enter the eye
A) Pupil B) Iris
C) Outer surface of cornea D) Crystalline lens
30. A person is suffering from both near sightedness and far sightedness. His spectacles would be made
of
A) two convex lenses with the upper lens having a larger focal length than the lower lens
B) two concave lenses with the upper lens having a smaller focal length than the lower lens
C) a concave lens as the upper lens and a convex lens as the lower lens
D) a convex lens as the upper lens and a concave lens as the lower lens

ANSWERS
1. C 6. B 11. B 16. A 21. D 26. B
2. A 7. B 12. C 17. D 22. A 27. B
3. C 8. A 13. A 18. B 23. D 28. C
4. D 9. B 14. B 19. B 24. C 29. C
5. C 10. A 15. D 20. C 25. B 30. C

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CHAPTER - 03
ELECTRICITY

 Two types charges

i) Positive eg: Protons
ii) Negative eg: electrons
Objects acquire electric charge when rubbed against each other due to the transfer of electrons. The
body which loses electrons gets positive charge. The body which gains electrons gets negative charge.
The unit of electric charge is coulomb (C).
 Electric current: - is the flow of electrons through a conductor. The device which causes the flow of
electrons through a conductor is called a cell. Electrons flow from the negative terminal to the positive
terminal. Electric current flows from the positive terminal to the negative terminal. This is called
conventional current.
Electric current is expressed as the rate of flow of charges through a conductor or the quantity of
charges flowing through a conductor in unit time.
I = Q/t
I – current, Q – quantity of charge, t – time
The SI unit of current is called ampere (A).
1C = Charge of 6.25 x 1018 electrons
Charge of an electron = 1.6 x 10-19 C
One ampere is the current flowing through a conductor if 1 coulomb of charge flows through it in
1 second.
Smaller units of current
i) milli ampere (mA) 1 mA = (1/1000) A = 10-3 A
ii) micro ampere (µA) 1 µA = (1/1000000) A = 10-6 A
Electric Current is measured by an ammeter. It is always connected in series in a circuit.
 Electric potential and potential difference: - Electric current will flow through a conductor only if there
is a difference in the electric potential between the two ends of the conductor. This difference in
electric potential between the two ends of a conductor is called potential difference.
The potential difference in a circuit is provided by a cell or battery. The chemical reaction in the cell
produces a potential difference between the two terminals and sets the electrons in motion and produces
electric current.

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 Tuition Classes X (CBSE) SCIENCE

Potential difference (V): - between two points A and B of a conductor is the amount of work done to
move a unit charge from A to B.
V = W/Q
W – work done, Q – charge
The SI unit of potential difference is volt (V).
One volt is the potential difference when 1 joule of work is done to move a charge of 1 coulomb from
one point to the other.
Potential difference is measured by a voltmeter. It is always connected in parallel across the two point
between which the potential difference is to be measured.

 Electric circuit: - is a continuous and closed path of an electric current.

A schematic diagram of an electric circuit comprising of a cell, electric bulb, ammeter and plug key.

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Ohm's Law:- At constant temperature, current (I) in a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage
(V) across the conductor.
V=I×R
The constant is called resistance (R) of the conductor.
R = V/I
unit of resistance = unit of potential difference/ unit of current

 = V/A

Unit of resistance is Ohm (  )

 Factors on which the resistance of a conductor depends :-

i) Length of the conductor
ii) Area of cross section
iii) Material of the conductor.
Resistance is directly proportional to the length of the conductor and inversely proportional to the area
of cross section of the conductor.

  resistivity
L
R L  length
A
A  cross sectional area

Where  (rho) is a constant of proportionality called Resistivity of the material of the conductor..

The SI unit of resistivity is ohm meter (  m).

Conductors like metals and alloys have low resistivity 10-8  m to 10-6  m.

Insulators like rubber, glass etc. have high resistivity 1012  m to 1017  m.

 Resistors in series :-

When three resistors R1, R2 and R3 are connected in series

i) The current in all the resistors is the same.
ii) The total voltage (PD) across the resistors is equal to the sum of the voltage across each resistor.
V = V1 + V2 + V3
iii) The equivalent resistance is the sum of the resistances of each resistor.
RS = R1 + R2 + R3

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 Tuition Classes X (CBSE) SCIENCE

 Resistors in parallel: -

When three resistors R1, R2 and R3 are connected in parallel

i) The voltage (PD) in all the resistors is the same.
ii) The total current in all the resistors is the sum of the current in each resistor.
I = I 1 + I2 + I3
iii) The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance is the sum of the reciprocals of each resistance.
1/RP = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
 Electric power: - is the rate at which electric current is used.
Power = Work done
P = VI = I2R = V2/R
The SI unit of power is watt (W).
One watt is the power when 1A of current flows across a potential difference of 1V.
1 kW = 1000 W
 Electrical energy: - is the work done to maintain the flow of current in a conductor. This energy gets
dissipated in the resistor as heat.
E = P x t = VIt = I2Rt
The unit of electrical energy is joule (J).
The commercial unit of electrical energy is kilowatt hour (kWh).
1 kWh = 1000 watt x 3600 seconds = 3.6 x 106 joules
1 kWh is the energy consumed when 1 kW of power is used for 1 hour.
 Joule’s law of heating: - The law implies that heat produced in a resistor is
i) directly proportional to the square of current for a given resistance
ii) directly proportional to resistance for a given current
iii) directly proportional to the time for which the current flows through the resistor.
H = I2Rt
 Practical Applications of Heating Effect of Electric Current: -
 The electric heating is used to produce light, as in an electric bulb. The filament gets very hot and
emits light. A strong metal with high melting point such as tungsten (melting point 3380°C) is used for
making bulb filaments. The bulbs are filled with chemically inactive nitrogen and argon gases to prolong
the life of filament. Most of the power consumed by the filament appears as heat, but a small part of it
is in the form of light radiated.
 The fuse used in electric circuits. It protects circuits and appliances by stopping the flow of any unduly
high electric current. The fuse is placed in series with the device. It consists of a piece of wire made
of a metal or an alloy of appropriate melting point. If a current larger than the specified value flows
through the circuit, the temperature of the fuse wire increases. This melts the fuse wire and breaks
the circuit.
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QUESTIONS
1. A current of 1A is drawn by a filament of an electric bulb for 10 minutes. Find the amount of electric
charge that flows through the circuit
A) 600C B) 300C C) 250C D) 400C
2. How much work is done in moving a charge of 3C across two points having a potential difference
15V?
A) 5J B) 18J C) 12J D) 45J
3. How much current will an electric bulb draw from a 220V source, if the resistance of the bulb filament
is 1100 ?
A) 0.18A B) 0.2A C) 5A D) 0.5A
4. Resistance of a metal wire of length 1m is 26 at 20°C. If the diameter of the wire is 0.3mm, what will
be the resistivity of the metal at that temperature?
A) 1.84  106 m B) 1.56  106 m C) 2.04  106 m D) none of these
5. A wire of given material having lengh  and area of cross-section A has a resistance of 16 . What
would be the resistance of another wire of the same material having length  / 4 and area of cross-
section 2A?
A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4

6. A copper wire has diameter 0.5mm and resistivity of 1.6  108 m . What will be the length of this wire
to make its resistance 10 ?
A) 122.71m B) 120.71m C)100m D) 245.31m
7. When a 12V battery is connected across an unknown resistor, there is a current of 3mA in the circuit.
Find the value of the resistance of the resistor
A) 4 B) 4k C) 40 D) 40k
8. Draw a schematic diagram of an electric circuit consisting of a battery of five 2V cells, a 20 resistor,,
a 30 resistor, a plug key, all connected in series. Calculate the value of current flowing through the
20 resistor
A) 0.5A B) 2A C) 0.2A D) 5A
9. Find the current flowing through the followng circuit

A) 2.4A B) 9A C) 0.5A D) 1A
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 Tuition Classes X (CBSE) SCIENCE

10. The figure below shows three cylindrical copper conductors along with their face areas and lengths.
Which one has the highest resistance?

A) i B) ii C) iii D) all have same resistance

11. Consider the following circuit diagram. If R 1  R 2  R 3  R 4  R 5  3 , the equivalent resistance of the
circuit is

A) 6 B) 2 C) 8 D) 10 

12. For the circuit shown in fig. The voltage across 7 resistor is nearly?

A) 4V B) 5V C) 3V D) 2V
13. Table below shows the resistivity of three materials X, Y and Z. Arrange the samples in increasing
order of conductivity

Samples X Y Z
-9 -6 -17
Resistivity 3×10 11.1×10 18×10

A) X > Y > Z B) Y<X<Z C) X<Y<Z D) X=Y=Z

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14. Match the column

Three resistors 5 , 10 and 30 are connected in parallel with the battery of voltage 6V

Column I Column II
1. The value of current across 30 resistor A. 2A
2. The value of potential difference across 10 B. 3
resistor

3. Total current in the circuit C. 0.2A

4. Effective resistance of the circuit D. 6V

A) 1  A,2  B,3  D,4  C B) 1  D,2  C,3  A,4  B

C) 1  C,2  D,3  A,4  B D) 1  A, 2  D,3  C,4  B

15. In the circuit shown, the two resistance wire A and B are of same length and same material, but A is
thicker than B. Which ammeter A1 or A2 will indicate higher reading for current?

A) A1 B)A2
C) both show same reading D) data insufficient
16. An electric bulb draws a current of 0.8A and works on 250V on the average 8 hours a day. If the
electric distribution company charges Rs. 5 for 6kWh, what is the bill for 60 days?
A) Rs. 100 B) Rs. 80 C) Rs. 40 D) Rs. 160
17. A torch bulb is rated 2.5V and 750mA. What is the energy consumed (in kWh), if this bulb is lighted for
four hours
A) 7.5×10–3 B) 3.3×10–3 C) 5×10–3 D) 4×10–3
18. A wire of resitance 20 is bent to form a closed square. What is the resistance across a diagonal of
the square?
A) 5 B) 6  C) 10 D) 4

19. We have four resistor A,B,C and D of resistances 4 ohm, 8 ohm, 12 ohm and 24 ohm respectively.
Lowest resistance which can be obtained by compaining these four resistors is
A) 48 B) 4 C) 2 D) 12

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 Tuition Classes X (CBSE) SCIENCE

20. An electric iron of resistance 25 takes a current of 5A. What is the heat developed in 30s?
A) 18750J B) 15000J C) 12000J D) 12100J
21. Charge of an electron is
A) Positive and 1.6 x1019 C B) negative and 1.6x1019 C
C) Positive and 1.6x10-19 C D) negative and 1.6x10-19 C
22. 1V is equivalent to
A) J.C B) J/C C) C/J D) J/A
23. The ratio of 1 milli Ampere to 1 micro Ampere is equal to
A) 1000 B) 1000 A C) 10-3 D) 10-3 A
24. If 200 C charge flows through a conductor in 5 s, the current will be
A) 4 A B) 0.25 A C) 40 A D) 0.025 A
25. Resistance of a conductor is due to
A) The collisions between atoms
B) The collisions between free electrons
C) the collisions between free electrons and atoms
D) All of these
26. Consider two copper wires a and b of same lengths and cross areas in the ratio 1:2, Then their
resistances (R)
A) Ra > Rb B) Ra < Rb C) Ra = Rb D) Cannot say
27. When resistors are connected in parallel, the effective resistance of the circuit will be
A) Lesser than the lowest value of components
B) Greater than the lowest value of components
C) Greater than the highest value of components
D) Equal to the average value of components
28. 9 , 18  resistors in series are connected to a 54 V battery, the current in the circuit will be
A) 2 A B) 9 A C) 6 A D) 3 A
29. If the length of a wire is doubled by stretching, its area will become
A) 2 times B) 1 times C) (1/2) times D) (1/4) times
30. If the length of a wire is doubled by stretching, its resistance will become
A) 2 times B) (1/2) times C) 4 times D) (1/4) times

ANSWERS
1. A 6. A 11. C 16. B 21. D 26. A
2. D 7. B 12. A 17. A 22. B 27. A
3. B 8. C 13. B 18. A 23. A 28. A
4. A 9. C 14. C 19. C 24. C 29. C
5. B 10. B 15. A 20. A 25. C 30. C

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CHAPTER - 04
MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

Magnet
It is a substance which can attract materials like iron, cobalt, Nickel etc
Magnetic materials
They are materials which are attracted by magnets. eg: Iron, Cobalt, Nickel etc
Properties of bar magnet

(i) Every magnet has two poles ie North and South

(ii) A freely suspended bar magnet align itself in nearly north south direction
 The end pointing towards north is called north seeking or north pole
 The end pointing towards south is called south seeking or south pole
(iii) Like poles repel each other
(iv) Unlike poles attract each other
 Electromagnets and electric motors involves the magnetic effects of electric current
 The word magnet is derived from the name of an island in Greece called magnesia where magnetic
ore (magnetite) deposits were found
SNOW OR SWIM RULE
The direction of magnetic field is given by SNOW rule
Rule 1
 If the current flowing through the conductors is from South to North and is held above the needle, then
north pole of needle deflected West

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 Tuition Classes X (CBSE) SCIENCE

Rule 2
 If the current flowing through the conductor is from south to north and is held below the needle, then the
north pole of the needle deflected East.
Rule 3
 If the current flowing through the conductor is from north to south and is held above the needle, then
north pole of needle deflected East.
Rule 4
If the current flowing through the conductor is from north to south and is held below the needle, then
north pole of needle deflected West.
Magnetic field
 The region or space around a magnet or current carrying conductor where its force experiences is
called its magnetic field.
 Magnetic field is a vector quantity that has both direction and magnitude.
 Conventionally, the field lines emerge from north pole and merge at the south pole.
 In the case of Bar magnet, field directed from north to south pole outside magnet and from south to
north pole inside magnet
Magnetic field lines
 In order to visualise magnetic field, michael faraday introduce the concept magnetic field lines
 They are imaginary straight or curved line such that a tangent at any point on it give direction of
magnetic field

Properties of field lines

 They emerges from north pole and merge at south pole outside the magnet and inside magnet, the
direction of field lines from its south pole to its north pole.
 The magnetic field lines are closed curves
 If field lines are closer, stronger the magnetic field
 Field lines never intersect each other. If they intersect, magnetic field has two directions at that point
(or compass needle would point towards two direction at an instant) it is not possible
 The relative strength of magnetic field is shown by degree of closeness of field lines

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Magnetic field due to a current through a straight conductor

 It can be represented by concentric circles at every point on conductor.

 Direction can be given by right hand thumb rule.

 Circles are closer near the conductor.

 Magnetic field  strength of current.

1
 Magnetic field  Distance from the conductor

Right hand thumb rule

 Imagine that we are holding a current carrying straight wire in our right hand such that the thumb
points towards the direction of current. Then our fingers will wrap around the conductor in the direction
of the field lines of the magnetic field.

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 Tuition Classes X (CBSE) SCIENCE

Magnetic field due to a current through a circular loop

 At every point of a current carrying circular loop, the concentric circles representing the magnetic field
around it would become larger and larger as we move away from wire.

 At the centre of the circular loop, the arcs of these big circles would appear as straight lines

 Magnetic field  current passing through the conductor..

1
 Magnetic field  Distance from the conductor

 Magnetic field  No. of turns in the coil.

 Magnetic field is additive in nature, ie, magnetic field of one loop adds up to magnetic field of another
loop. This is because the current in each circular turn has same direction.

Maxwell’s cork screw rule

 If we consider ourselves driving a cork screw in the direction of the current, then the direction of the
rotation of cork screw is the direction of the magnetic field.

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Magnetic field due to current in a solenoid

 A coil of many circular turns of insulated copper wire wrapped closely in the shape of a cylinder is
called a solenoid.
 The pattern of field lines of solenoid is similar to that of a bar magnet.

 Magnetic field is uniform inside the solenoid and represented by parallel field lines.
Direction of magnetic field
(i) Outside the solenoid : North to South.
(ii) Inside the solenoid : South to North.
 Solenoid can be used to magnetise a magnetic material like soft iron.
Electromagnet
 It is a temporary magnet, so can be easily demagnetised.
 Strength can be varied.
 Polarity can be reversed.
 Generally strong magnet.
Permanent magnet
 cannot be easily demagnetised.
 strength is fixed.

 polarity cannot be reversed.

 generally weak magnet.

Force on a current - carrying conductor in a magnetic field

 Andre Marie Ampere suggested that the magnet exerts an equal and opposite force on a current
carrying conductor.
 The displacement in the conductor is the maximum when the direction of current is at right angle to
the direction of magnetic field.
 Direction of force is reversed on reversing the direction of current.

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 Tuition Classes X (CBSE) SCIENCE

Fleming’s left hand rule

 Hold the first three fingers of left hand in mutually perpendicular direction, such that, fore finger in the
direction of magnetic field, middle finger in the direction of electric current, then thumb gives direction
of force.

 Heart and brain in the human body have significat magnetic field.

 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): Image of internal organs of body can be obtained using magnetic
field of the organ.
Domestic Electric circuits
 We receive supply of electric power through a main supply (mains), either supported through over
head electric poles or by under ground cables.
 There are three kinds of wires used.
(i) Live wire (positive) with red insulation cover.
(ii) Neutral wire (negative) with black insulation cover.
(iii) Earth wire with green insulation cover.
 The p.d between live and neutral wire in India is 220V.
 Pole  main supply  fuse  electricity meter  Distribution box  to separate circuits.
Earth wire

 Protect us from electric shock in case of leakage of current especially in metallic body appliances. It
provides a low resistance path for current in case of leakage of current.
Short circuit

 When live wire comes in direct contact with neutral wire accidentally. The resistance of circuit becomes
low which can result in over loading.
Causes
1. Accidental hike in voltage supply.
2. Use of more than one appliance in a single socket.
Safety devices
(i) Electric fuse
(ii) Earth wire
(iii) MCB (miniature circuit breaker)

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QUESTIONS

1. Magnetic effect of electric current was discovered by

A) Oersted B) Faraday C) Bohr D) Ampere

2. Inside the magnet the field lines moves

A) From north to south B) From south to north

C) away from south pole D) away from north pole

3. Relative strength of magnetic field at a point in the space surrounding the magnet is shown by the

A) length of magnet B) thickness of magnet

C) degree of closeness of the field D) Resistance offered by the surroundings

4. The pattern of the magnetic field produced by the straight current carrying conducting wire is

A) In the direction opposite to the current

B) in the direction parallel to the wire

C) circular around wire

D) In the same direction of current

5. A current through a horizontal power line flows from south to north direction. The direction of magnetic
field above a point is

A) North B) South C) West D) East

6. When current is parallel to magnetic field, then force experience by the current carrying conductor
placed in uniform magnetic field is

A) Twice to that when angle is 60° B) Thrice to that when angle is 60°

C) Zero D) Infinite

7. We can induce the current in a coil by

A) moving the coil in a magnetic field

B) by changing the magnetic field around it

C) by changing the orientation of the coil in the magnetic field

D) All the above

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8. A magnet is moved towards a coil (i) quickly (ii) slowly. The induced potential difference

A) more in (i) than in (ii) case B) more in (ii) than in (i) case

C) same in both D) can’t say

9. The force experienced by a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field is the largest when
the angle between the conductor and the magnetic field is :

A) 450 B) 600 C) 900 D) 1800

10. Which one of the following substances is the magnetic substances?

A) Mercury B) Iron C) Gold D) Silver

11. Earth wire carries

A) current B) voltage C) no current D) heat

12. Over loading is due to

A) Insulation of wire is damaged B) Fault in the appliances

C) accidental hike in supply voltage D) All the above

13. The wire with green insulation is the

A) Earth wire B) Neutral wire C) Live wire D) None of these

14. The most important safety method used for protecting home appliances from short circuiting or over
loading is

A) earthing B) use of fuse C) use of stabilizers D) use of electric meter

15. What should be the core of an electromagnet?

A) soft iron B) hard iron C) rusted iron D) none of these

16. What is the standard voltage of a domestic electrical supply in India?

A) 110 V B) 220 V C) 440 V D) 12 V

17. The magnetic field is strongest at

A) middle of the magnet B) north pole

C) south pole D) both poles

18. In a household electrical circuit, which wire carries the current from the appliance back to the power
source?

A) Live wire B) Neutral wire C) Earth wire D) Fuse wire

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19. Switches are connected to

A) live wire B) neutral wire

C) earth wire D) any one

20. By which instrument, the presence of magnetic field be determined?

A) Magnetic needle B) Ammeter

C) Galvanometer D) Voltmeter

21. When a straight conductor is carrying current

A) There are circular magnetic field lines around it

B) There are magnetic field lines parallel to the conductor

C) There are no magnetic field lines

D) None of the above

22. Two magnetic field lines

A) Intersect at neutral point

B) never intersect each other

C) Intersect near north-pole or south pole

D) Intersect at the mid point of the magnet

23. Which of the following correctly describes the magnetic field near a long straight wire?

A) The field consists of straight lines perpendicular to the wire

B) The field consists of straight lines parallel to the wire

C) The field consist of radial lines originating from the wire

D) The field consists of concentric circles centred on the wire

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24. Constant current flows in a horizontal wire in the plane of the paper from east to west as shown in the
figure. The direction of magnetic field at a point will be north to south

A) directly above the wire

B) directly below the wire

C) at a point located in the plane of the paper on the north side of the wire

D) at a point located in the plane of the paper on the south side of the wire

25. Select the incorrect statement

A) Magnetic field lines are closed curves

B) No two field lines can cross each other

C) Field lines can cross each other

D) The relative strength of the magnetic field is shown by degree of closeness of the field lines

26. The device used to prevent excessive current in a household circuit is called :

A) Transformer B) Circuit breaker

C) Generator D) Inverter

27. The strength of magnetic field around a current carrying conductor is

A) inversly proportional to the current but directly proportional to the distance from wire

B) directly proportional to the distance from wire

C) directly proportional to the distance and inversely proportional to the current

D) directly proportional to the current but inversly proportional to the distance from wire

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28. The nature of magnetic field line passing through the centre of current carrying circular loop is

A) Circular B) ellipse C) Parabolic D) Straight line

29. The direction of induced current is given by

A) Fleming’s right hand rule B) Fleming’s left hand rule

C) Right hand thumb rule D) Left hand thumb rule

30. Which of the following is a safety device in a domestic circuit ?

A) Resistor B) Inductor C) Fuse D) Capacitor

ANSWERS
1. A 6. C 11. C 16. B 21. A 26. B
2. B 7. D 12. D 17. D 22. B 27. D
3. C 8. A 13. A 18. B 23. D 28. D
4. C 9. C 14. B 19. A 24. B 29. A
5. D 10. B 15. A 20. A 25. C 30. C

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CHEMISTRY

CHAPTER - 05
CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS

Most of the substances around us undergoes various changes. Some of these changes are temporary
with no new substance is formed. They are called physical change. In certain other changes, the new
substance formed in which the starting substance loses its identity to form a new substance. These
changes are permanent changes because the new compound cannot be converted back to the starting
substance in most cases. Consider the following situations of daily life and think what happens when
 Milk is left at room temperature during summers
 An iron tawa / pan / nail is left exposed to humid atmosphere
 Grapes get fermented
 Food is cooked
 Food gets digested in our body
 We respire
When milk is left open at room temperature its taste changes and becomes sour. An iron tawa / pan
/ nail is left exposed to humid atmosphere it becomes rusted object due to the contact of moist air.
When grapes get fermented, during digestion, when the complex molecule in the food are broken
down into smaller by enzymes, they are called digested. Then the digested food is absorbed in the
body. In respiration , we inhale oxygen and exhale carbondioxide
In all the above situations, the nature and identity of the initial substance have somewhat changed. ie
All situations are belongs to chemical change. Whenever a chemical change occurs, there will be a
chemical reaction has taken place ie the chemical changes are the outcome of chemical reactions
Chemical reaction
The definition of chemical reaction is constructed through the following activities
Activity I
Clean a magnesium ribbon about 3-4 cm long by rubbing it with sandpaper. Hold it with a pair of tongs.
Burn if using a spirit lamp or Bunsen burner and collect the ash so formed in a watch glass. Burn the
magnesium ribbon keeping it away as for as possible from our eyes
Observation
Magnesium ribbon burns with a dazzling white flame and changes into a white powder magnesium
oxide. It is formed due to the reaction between magnesium and oxygen present in the air.

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Activity 2
Take lead nitrate solution in a test tube, add potassium iodide solution to this what do you observe?
Observation
Observation - lead nitrate solution react with potassium iodide solution to form an yellow precipitate of
lead iodide. Lead iodide is a new compound so that it involves a chemical change
Activity 3
Take a few zinc granules in a conical flask or a test tube. Add dilute hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid
to this. Do you observe anything happening around the zinc granules ?. Touch the conical flask or test
tube. Is there any change in it temperature ?
Observation
Gas bubbles are released. The released gas bubble is hydrogen. If any metal react with an acid, the
released gas is only hydogen gas. If we touch the conical flask, we feel hot ie heat is released during
the reaction between zinc granules and acid. Hence it is an exothermic reaction. In this example, new
substance H2 gas is released with evolution of heat. Therefore it is a chemical change involves chemical
reaction.
From the three activities, we can say that any of the following observations helps us to determine
whether a chemical reaction has taken place
 change in state
 change in colour
 evolution of gas
 change in temperature
Chemical equation
A chemical equation is a representation of a chemical reaction in the form of symbols and formulae.
The reactant are always written on the left hand side in an equation with a plus sign between them. The
product are always written on right hand side in an equation with a plus sign between them. A single
arrow between the reactants and products denotes an irreversible reaction, a double headed arrow
represents a reversible reaction

ABCD

Where A and B are reactants and C and D are products. Single arrow    represents irreversible
reaction

AB  CD

Double headed arrow    represents reversible reaction

Different forms of chemical equations

(i) Sentence form -chemical reaction can be described in sentence form, but the description would be
quite long. In this form, every reactant and product is represented by words
eg 1: Magnesium ribbon react with atmospheric oxygen to produce white powder magnesium oxide
(ii) Word equation -A word equation links together the names of the reactants and products. For
example,burning of magnesium ribbon in oxygen to form a white powder of magnesium oxide may be
written as
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 Tuition Classes X (CBSE) SCIENCE

Magnesium+ Oxygen Magnesium oxide

(reactants)
(Product)

The reaction between granulated zinc and sulphuric acid may be written as

Zinc  sulphuric acid  Zinc sulphate  Hydrogen

Limitation - It do not provide the true picture of chemical reactions

(iii) Symbol equation-A brief representation of a chemical reaction in terms of symbols and formulae of
the substances involved is known as symbol equation

eg: Burning of magnesium in oxygen to form magnesium oxide may be written as follows

Mg  O 2  MgO

Unbalanced & Balanced chemical equations

If the number of atoms of different elements on both reactant and product side are not equal, the
equation is said to be unbalanced chemical equation

eg : Mg  O2  MgO

Here the number of Mg atoms on both sides of the following equation is the same. But the number of
oxygen atoms are not equal. This unbalanced equation is also called skeletal equation

Balanced chemical equation - In a balanced equation, the number of atoms of different elements on
both sides of the equation are always equal. The balanced equation for the burning of magnesium
ribbon in oxygen may be written as

2Mg  O2  2MgO

[Link] atoms in No of atoms in

Element
reactants (LHS) products (RHS)

Mg 2 2

O 2 2

The balanced equation for the reaction of zinc metal with sulphuric acid may be written as

Zn  H 2SO 4  ZnSO4  H 2

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[Link] atoms in No of atoms in

Element
reactants (LHS) products (RHS)
Zn 1 1

H 2 2

S 1 1

O 4 4

The balancing of chemical equation is essential to fulfill the requirement of law of conservation of
mass
Balancing of chemical equations
The process of making the number of different types of element on both sides of the equation are equal
Steps involved in balancing chemical equation
1. Write down the chemical reaction in the form of symbol equation, first draw boxes around each formula.
Do not change anything inside the boxes while balancing the equation
2. List the number of atoms of different elements present in the unbalanced equation
3. Balance the equation by multiplying the symbols and formula by smallest possible figures
4. No fraction should exist in final equation

2
eg: xyz
3

An important point is that “During the balancing of chemical equations, the formulae of the compound
or element involved in the reaction should not be changed

Reactant Produces
Fe 1×3 3
H
O

3Fe  H 2 O  Fe3O4  H 2

Reactant Produced
Fe 3 3
H 2 2
O 1×4 4

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3Fe  4H 2 O  Fe3O 4  H 2

Reactant Produced

Fe 3 3

H 8 2×4

0 4 4

3Fe  4H 2 O  Fe3O 4  4H 2

2) HNO3  Ca  OH  2  Ca  NO3   H 2 O
Here two radicals are present -NO3 and OH. But only NO3 is considered because it is present in both
reactant and product side
Reactant Produced
NO3 1×2 2
Ca
H
O

2HNO3  Ca  OH 2  Ca  NO3 2  H 2O

Reactant Produced
NO3 2 2
Ca 1 1
H 4 2×2
O

2HNO3  Ca  OH 2  Ca  NO3 2  2H 2 O

Now, we have to balance the number of oxygen atoms. In order to balance the number of oxygen
atoms, oxygen atoms in NO3 group cannot be counted because we already balance the number of
NO3 groups on both sides which contain oxygen. But number of oxygen in OH group should be
considered because it is present in reactant side only
Reactant Produced
NO3 2 2
Ca 1 1
H 4 4
O 2 2

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3) NaOH  H 2SO 4  Na 2SO 4  H 2 O

Here two polyatomic radicals are present, but only SO4 is considered because it is present in both
reactant and product side
Reactant Product
SO 4 1 1
Na 1×2 2
H
O

2NaOH  H 2SO 4  Na 2SO4  H 2 O

Reactant Produced
SO 4 1 1
Na 2 2
H 4 2×2
O

2NaOH  H 2SO 4  Na 2SO4  2H 2 O

Reactant Produced
SO 4 1 1
Na 2 2
H 4 4
O 2 2

4) BaCl2  H 2SO 4  BaSO 4  HCl

Polyatomic radical SO4 is considered first
Reactant Produced
SO 4 1 1
Ba 1 1
Cl 2 1×2
H

BaCl2  H 2SO 4  BaSO 4  2HCl

Reactant Produced
SO 4 1 1
Ba 1 1
Cl 2 2
H 2 2

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5) H 2SO4  KOH  K 2SO 4  H 2 O

H 2SO4  KOH  K 2SO4  H  OH 

Polyatomic radicals SO4 and OH are considered
Reactant Produced
SO 4 1 1
OH 1 1
K 1×2 2
H

H 2SO4  2KOH  K 2SO4  H  OH 

Reactant Product
SO 4 1 1
OH 2 1×2

H 2SO4  2KOH  K 2SO4  2H  OH 

Reactant Product
SO 4 1 1
OH 2 2
K 2 2
H 2 2
6) Sodium + water  Sodium hydroxide + Hydrogen

Na  H 2 O  NaOH  H 2

Reactant Produced

OH 1 1

Na 1 1

H 1×2 2

Na  2H  OH   NaOH  H 2

Reactant Product

OH 2 1×2

Na

H
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Na  2H  OH   2NaOH  H 2
Reactant Product
OH 2 2
Na 1×2 2

2Na  2H  OH   2NaOH  H 2

ie 2Na  2H 2 O  2NaOH  H 2

Limitations of chemical equations

(i) We do not get information about the physical state of reactants and products

for example, solid, liquid or gas

(ii) Information regarding the favourable conditions of the reaction such as pressure, temperature, catalyst
etc. cannot be obtained during the reaction.

Rectification of limitations

1) The physical state of reactants and products are represented by writing them in bracket

State symbols  (s) for solids,    for liquids, (g) for gas, (aq) for aqueous solution (solution prepared
in water). Note that the symbol (g) is used with H2O to indicate that in this reaction water is used in the
form of steam.

2) The reaction conditions such as temperature pressure, catalyst etc for the reaction are indicated
above and / or below the arrow in the equation

eg: 1 CO + 2H2 340atm CH3OH

(g) (g)


6CO2 +12H2O sunlight

eg:2 C6H12O6+6O2+6H2O
chlorophyll
(aq)  (aq) (g) 
glucose

Write a balanced chemical equation with state symbols for the following reaction

(i) Sodium hydroxide solution (in water) reacts with hydrochloric acid solution (in water) to produce
sodium chloride solution and water

NaOH+HCl NaCl+H2O
(aq) (aq) (aq) 
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Types of chemical reactions

Chemical reaction involve the breaking and making of bonds between atoms to produce new substances

1) Combination reaction

It is a union of two or more than two substances to form a new substance. Here a single product is
formed from two or more reactants.

Activity

Take a small amount of calcium oxide or quick lime in a beaker. Slowly add water to this. Do you feel
any change in temperature

Calcium oxide react vigorously with water to produce slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) releasing a large
amount of heat

CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2 + heat

(s)
 (aq)

Quick lime slaked lime

Here calcium oxide and water combine to form a single product calcium hydroxide so that it belongs to
combination reaction.

Point to remember

 Aqueous solution of Ca(OH)2 used for whitewashing walls. Calcium hydroxide reacts slowly with the
carbondioxide in air to form a thin layer of calcium carbonate on the walls. Calcium carbonate is
formed after two to three days of whitewashing and gives a shiny finish to the walls

Ca(OH)2+CO2 CaCO3+H2O
(aq) (g) (s) 
Calcium
carbonate

The chemical formula of marble is also CaCO3

2) Decomposition reaction

It is the opposite of combination reaction. It involves the breakdown of a compound into simpler
substances. It is carried out by the application of heat, light, electricity etc

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Activity

Take about 2g ferrous sulphate crystals in a dry boiling tube. Heat the boiling tube over the flame of a
burner or spirit lamp. Observe the colour of the crystals after heating

heat Fe2O3+SO2+SO3
2FeSO4
(s) (s) (g) (g)

The ferrous sulphate crystals are light green in colour. The gas emitted has the characteristic colour
of burning sulphur. On heating the colour changes to light green to white. On further heating, the white
substance changes to dark brown solid

[Ferrous sulphate crystals contain water molecules  FeSO4 .7H 2 O  . On heating, ferrous sulphate
crystals lose water and an hydrous ferrous sulphate (FeSO4) is formed. So their colour changes from
light green to white on further heating, anhydrous ferrous sulphate decomposes to form ferric oxide
(Fe2O3) sulphurdioxide (SO2) and sulphur trioxide (SO3). So the gas emitted smells like burning sulphur]

In the above reaction, the single reactant solid FeSO4 decomposes to form solid ferric oxide, gaseous
SO2 and SO3. Similarly calcium carbonate on heating to from calcium oxide and carbon dioxide

CaCO3 Heat CaO + CO2

(s) (s) (g)

Both the decomposition of FeSO4 and CaCO3 are carried out by heating

“A decomposition reaction brought by heat is known as thermal decomposition

Activity

Take about 2g of lead nitrate powder in a boiling tube. Hold the boiling tube with a pair of tongs and heat
it over a flame. What do you observe?

Brown fumes are emitted. These fumes are of nitrogen dioxide. The chemical reaction takes place is

Heat
2Pb(NO3)2 2PbO +4NO2+ O2
(s) (s) (g) (g)
lead oxide Brown
fumes

Decomposition reaction brought by electricity is known as electrical decomposition

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Activity
Take a plastic mug. Drill two holes at its base and fit rubber stoppers in these holes. Insert carbon
electrodes in these rubber stoppers connect these electrodes to a 6V battery. Fill the mug with water
such that the electrodes are immersed. A few drops of dilH2SO4 is added to water to make it conducting.
Take two test tubes filled with water and invert them over the two carbon electrodes

Switch on the current and leave the apparatus undisturbed for sometime
When current flowing, the bubbles start forming of both the electrodes and displace water in the test
tubes. Once the test tubes are filled with gases, these gases are taken out and tested by bringing a
candle close to their mouth
The test tube placed at cathode, the collected gas burns with a pop sound while at the other test tube
placed at anode, the candle starts burning brightly
The gas which burns with pop sound is hydrogen and the other which supports combustion is oxygen
A decomposition reaction brought by light is known as photo decomposition
Activity
Take about 2g silver chloride in a china dish place the china dish in sunlight for some time. The colour
of silver chloride turns grey in sunlight. This is due to the decomposition of silver chloride into silver and
chlorine by light

2AgCl sunlight 2Ag+Cl2

(s) (s) (g)
Silver bromide also behaves in the same way

2AgBr sunlight 2Ag+Br2

(s) (s) (g)
These reactions are used in black and white photography
Decomposition reaction require energy either in the form of heat, light or electricity for breaking down
the reactants

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3) Displacement reactions
It involves displacement of one of the constitutents of a compound by another substance and may be
regarded as a displacement reaction

Activity

Take three iron nails and clean them by rubbing with sand paper. Take two test tubes marked as A and
B. In each test tube, take about 10 ml copper sulphate solution. Tie two iron nails with a thread and
immerse them carefully in the copper sulphate solution in test tube B for about 20 minutes. Keep one
iron nail aside for comparision. After 20 minutes, take out the iron nails from the copper sulphate
solution. Compare the intensity of blue colour of copper sulphate solution in test tubes A and B. Also
compare the colour of iron nails dipped in the copper sulphate solution with the one kept aside.

The iron nail become brownish in colour and the blue colour of copper sulphate solution fades. The
chemical reaction takes place in test tube B can be represented as

Fe + CuSO 4 FeSO 4 +Cu

(s) (aq) (aq) (s)
iron nail Blue Iron sulphate

In this reaction, iron displaced copper from CuSO4 solution. Here Fe is more reactive (active) Cu. ie A
more active metal will displace less active metal from its compound. This is called metal displacement
reaction. Other examples are

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 Tuition Classes X (CBSE) SCIENCE

Zn + CuSO 4 ZnSO 4+C u

(s)
(aq) (aq) (s)
Blue Colourless

Pb+CuCl2 PbCl2 +Cu

(s) (aq) (aq) (s)
Zn and Pb are more reactive elements than copper, hence they displace copper from its compounds
4) Double displacement reaction
It involves mutual exchange of ions of two compounds take part in a chemical reaction results in the
formation of two new compounds
Activity
Take about 3 ml of sodium sulphate solution in a test tube. In another test tube, take about 3 ml of
barium chloride solutuion. Mix the two solutions, what do you observe
A white substance, which in insoluble in water is formed. This insoluble substance formed is known
as precipitate. “Any reaction that produces a precipitate can be called a precipitation

Na2SO4 +BaCl2 BaSO4 + 2NaCl

(aq) (aq) (s) (aq)
(ppt)

The white precipitate of BaSO4 is formed by the reaction of SO24 and Ba2+. The other product formed
is sodium chloride which remains in the solution
In the earlier activity, lead nitrate solution is mixed with potassium iodide solution to form an yellow ppt

Pb(NO3)2+2KI PbI2+2KNO3
(aq) (s)
(aq)
Insoluble

The yellow precipitate is lead iodide (PbI2) which is insoluble. This reaction involves the exchange of
NO3 and I– ion hence it is an example of double displacement reaction
Oxidation & Reduciton
Activity
1g copper powder is taken in a china dish and heated. The surface of copper powder becomes coated
with black copper (II) oxide. This is because oxygen is added to copper and copper oxide is formed

2Cu  O2 
Heat
 2CuO....(1)
If hydrogen gas is passed over this heated material (CuO) the black coating on the surface turns
brownish ash and copper is again obtained

CuO  H 2 
Heat
 Cu  H 2 O....(2)

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If a substance gains oxygen during a reaction, it is said to be oxidised. If a substance loses oxygen
during a reaction, it is said to be reduced

In equation (2), copper oxide is losing oxygen and is being reduced. The hydrogen is gaining oxygen
and is being reduced . In other words, if a substance lose oxygen it is called reduction and the substance
is reduced. If a substance gain oxygen, it is called oxidation and the substance is oxidised. In equation
(2) CuO undergoes reduction and it is reduced. H2 undergo oxidation and it is oxidised

In certain reactions, one reactant is oxidised and the other one is reduced. Such reactions are called
oxidation -reduction reaction or redox reaction

oxidation

CuO+H2 Cu+H2O

reduction

Some other examples of redox reactions are

oxidation

ZnO+C Zn+CO

reduction

ZnO undergoes reduction card it is reduced. C undergoes oxidation and it is oxidised

oxidation

MnO2+4HCl MnCl2+2H2O+Cl2

reduction

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 Tuition Classes X (CBSE) SCIENCE

MnO 2 undergoes reduction and it is reduced. HCl undergoes oxidation and it is oxidised

In short, if a substance gains oxygen or loses hydrogen during a reaction it is oxidised.

If a substance loses oxygen or gain hydrogen during a reaction it is reduced

During the burning of magnesium ribbon, magnesium is converted into magnesium oxide

2Mg + O2 2MgO
(s) (g) (s)

Here Mg is oxidised and Mg undergoes oxidation

Effect of oxidation reaction in everyday life

One can live without food or even water for a number of days but not without oxygen. Oxygen have
wide range of effects on our daily life. Most of them are quite useful while a few may be harmful in
nature. The most important harmful phenomenon is corrosion

Corrosion

The process of slow destruction of the metals by the attack of atmospheric gases like oxygen, CO2,
H2S water vapour etc. on the surface of the metal. As a result, metal is converted to oxide, carbonate
or sulphate. This is known as corrosion

The most common example of corrosion is rusting. ie, corrosion of iron. When an iron object is exposed
to air for a long time, its surface is covered with brown substance called rust. Rust is chemically
hydrated ferric oxide (Fe2O3)

The black coating occurs on silver

The green coating occurs on copper

Rancidity

When the food materials prepared in fats and oil are kept for a long time, they start giving unpleasant
smell and taste, this is called rancidity

Reason - When the fats and oils present in food materials get oxidised by the oxygen from air, certain
oxidaiton products are formed. These products have unpleasant smell and taste

Rancidity can be prevented by adding anti-oxidants to foods containing fats and oils keeping food in air
tight containers helps to slow down oxidation. When packed food is surrounded by an unreactive gas
like nitrogen, there is no air/oxygen to cause its oxidation and make it rancid. Chips manufactures
usually flush bags of chips with nitrogen to prevent the chips from getting oxidised

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Additional information

 Exothermic reaction - Reactions in which heat is released along with the formaiton of product are
called exothermic reaction

eg: Burning of natural gas

CH 4 +2 O 2 CO 2 +2H 2 O+ heat
(g) (g) (g) (g)

 Respiration is considered as exothermic reaction because energy is released in this process. Glucose
combines with oxygen present in our cells to form carbondioxide and water along with energy

C6 H12 O 6  6O 2  6CO 2  6H 2 O  energy

 The decomposition of vegetable matter into compost is in exothermic reaction

 Reactions in which energy is absorbed are known as endothermic reaction. Energy in any form (light,
electricity, heat) can be absorbed in endothermic reaction

CaCO3 heat
eg1: CaO + CO2
(s) (s) (g)

eg 2: 2H2O
Electricity
2H2 + O 2

eg 3: 2AgBr 
sunlight
2Ag  Br2

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QUESTIONS
1. The decomposition reactions require energy in the form of
A) Heat B) light
C) Electricity D) All of the above

2. Fe 2 O3  2Al  Al 2O3  2Fe . The above reaction is an example of a

A) Combination reaction B) Double displacement reaction
C) Decomposition reaction D) Displacement reaction
3. Rancidity of the fat/ oil containing food materials are due to
A) Antioxidants B) Reduction
C) Oxidation D) None of the above
4. Which of the following is or are example of the corrosion
A) Black coating on silver B) Green coating on copper
C) Rusting of iron D) All of the above
5. Which among the following is (are) double displacement reaction?

A) Pb  CuCl2  PbCl2  Cu B) Na 2SO 4  BaCl2  BaSO4  2NaCl

C) C  O 2  CO 2 D) CH 4  2O 2  CO 2  2H 2 O

6. When magnesium ribbon is burnt in oxygen, you must have observed that
A) Magnesium oxide B) Dazzling white flame
C) White powder product D) All of the above
7. Which of the following does not involve a combination reaction?

A) H 2  Cl 2  2HCl B) 2H O  2H  O
2 2 2
(g) (g) (g) ( ) (g) (g)

C) 2H 2  O 2  2H 2 O D) 2Mg  O  2MgO
2
(g) (g) ( ) (s) (g) (s)
8. The chemical equations are balanced to satisfy one of the following laws in chemical reactions. This
law is known as
A) law of conservation of momentum B) law of conservation of motion
C) law of conservation of mass D) law of conservation of gravitation
9. What is a combination reaction
A) A compound break up into two or more simpler substances
B) Two or more substances combine to form a single substance
C) One element takes the place of another element in a compound
D) All of the above

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10. What condition is required for the following reaction take place

2AgBr  2Ag  Br2

(s) (s) (g)
A) Electricity B) Heat
C) Both a and b D) light
11. The rusting of iron can be prevented by
A) Galvanising B) Chrome plating
C) Coating oil or paint D) All of these
12. When hydrogen sulphide gas is passed through a blue solution of copper sulphate, a black pre-
cipitate of copper sulphide is obtained and the sulphuric acid so formed remain in the solution. The
reaction is an example of
A) Double displacement reaction B) Combination reaction
C) Decomposition reaction D) Displacement reaction
13. Write a balanced equation for the following reaction
Methane burns in oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water
A) CH 4  2O 2  CO 2  2H 2 O  heat

B) CH 4  O 2  CO 2  H 2 O  heat

C) CH 4  O 2  CO 2  H 2 O

D) CH 4  2O 2  CO 2  H 2 O
14. What does mean by exothermic reactions
A) Reactions in which heat is absorbed along with the formation of products
B) Chlorine gas and iron hydroxide are produced in these reactions
C) Reactions in which heat is released and with the formation of products
D) None of the above
15. Which of the following is not a combination reaction?

A) CaO  H 2 O  Ca  OH  2
(s) ( ) (aq)

B) C  O2  CO 2
(s) ( ) (g)

C) 2H 2  O2  2H 2 O
(g) (g) ()

D) Zn  CuSO 4  ZnSO 4  Cu

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16. Write the balanced equation for the following chemical reaction

Hydrogen  Chlorine  Hydrogen Chloride

A) H 2  Cl 2  HCl B) H 2  Cl 2  2HCl
(g) (g) (g) (g) (g) (g)

C) 2H 2  Cl2  2HCl D) H 2  2Cl2  2HCl

(g) (g) (g) (g) (g) (g)

17. The respiration process during which glucose undergoes slow combustion by combining with
oxygen in the cells of our body to produce energy, is a kind of
A) Exothermic process B) Endothermic process
C) Reversible process D) Physical process
18. Which of the following gas is used in the storage of fat and oil containing foods for a long time ?
A) Carbondioxide gas B) Oxygen gas
C) Nitrogen gas D) Neon gas
19. One of the following processes does not involve a chemical reaction. That is
A) Burning of candle wax when heated
B) Digestion of food in our stomach
C) Ripening of banana
D) Melting of candle wax when heated
20. The neutralisation reaction between an acid and a base is a type of
A) Double displacement reaction B) Displacement reaction
C) Addition reaction D) Decomposition reaction
21. Chemically rust is
A) Hydrated ferric oxide B) Only ferric oxide
C) Both A and B D) None of these
22. What is the other name for quick lime?
A) Calcium hydroxide B) Calcium oxide
C) Calcium carbonate D) Carbon monoxide
23. Which of the following reactions involve the combination of two elements

1
A) CaO + CO2  CaCO3 B) SO2 + O  SO3
2 2

C) NH3 + HCl  NH4Cl D) 4Na + O2  2Na2O

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24. Which information is not conveyed by a balanced chemical equation?

A) Physical states of reactants and products
B) Symbols and formulae of all the substances involved in a particular reaction
C) Number of atoms/molecules of the reactants and products formed
D) Whether a particular reaction is actually feasible or not
25. The chemical formula of sodium sulphate
A) Na2SO4 B) NaSO4 C) Na(SO4)2 D) NaS
26. The electrolytic decomposition of water gives H2 and O2 in ratio ?
A) 1: 2 by volume B) 2 : 1 by volume C) 8 : 1 by volume D) 1 : 2 by mass
27. Take out 1g CuCO3 in a test tube. Heat it over a flame, when a colourless gas comes out. The
reaction is called a
A) Decomposition reaction B) Displacement reaction
C) Double decomposition reaction D) Double displacement reaction
28. A redox reaction is one in which
A) Both the substance are reduced
B) Both the substance are oxidised
C) An acid is neutralised with another acid
D) One substance is oxidised while the other is reduced

29. Zn  H 2SO 4 
 ZnSO 4  H 2
Above reaction is
A) Decomposition reaction B) Single displacement reaction
C) Combination reaction D) Synthesis reaction

30. Zn 2   2e 
 Zn, this is
A) Oxidation B) Reduction C) Redox reaction D) None of these

ANSWERS
1. D 6. D 11. D 16. B 21. A 26. B
2. D 7. B 12. A 17. A 22. B 27. A
3. C 8. C 13. A 18. C 23. D 28. D
4. D 9. B 14. C 19. D 24. D 29. B
5. B 10. D 15. D 20. A 25. A 30. B

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CHAPTER - 06
ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

ACID
 These are sour in taste
 They turn blue litmus to red
 Phenolphthalein is colourless with acid
 Methyl orange shows red colour acids
BASE
 These are bitter in taste
 They turn red litmus to blue
 Soapy in touch
 They give yellow colour with methyl orange
 They give pink colour with phenolphthalein
INDICATORS
These are the substances used to indentity the given substance is acidic or basic. Indicators are
classified into visual indicators and olfactory indicators.
 Visual indicators give colour change
 Olfactory indicators givs odour difference with acid and base.
VISUAL INDICATORS
1. LITMUS
 Blue litmus turn red with acid
 Red litmus turn blue with base
2. PHENOLPHTHALEIN
 Phenolphthalein give no colour change with acid
 Phenolphthalein give pink colour with base
3. METHYL ORANGE
 Methyl orange give red colour with acid
 Methyl orange give yellow colour with base

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4. OLFACTORY INDICATORS

The most common olfactory indicators are onion, vanilla, clove oil. There typical smell vanishes in
basic solution

ACIDS AND BASES REACT WITH METALS

Acids and bases react with metals to give salt and Hydrogen gas.

Eg: Zn  s   H 2SO 4aq  

 ZnSO 4aq   H 2( g )

Zn  s   NaOH 4aq  
 Na 2 Zn O 2aq   H 2( g )

ACID REACT WITH METAL CARBONATE AND METAL HYDROGEN CARBONATE

Acids diberate CO2 from carbonate and metal hydrogen carbonate.

Eg: Na 2 CO3  2HCL 

 2NaCl  H 2 O  CO 2

NaHCO3  HCL 
 NaCl  H 2 O  CO 2
The gas evolved is indentified to be by using lime water

Lime water is calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2. On passing CO2 through lime water, it is turns milky. The
milkiness is due to formation of CaCO3 in solution

CaCO 3  H 2 O  CO 2 
 Ca(HCO 3 ) 2
ACID AND BASE REACT WITH EACH OTHER

Acids and base react with each other to give salt and water

acid  base 
 H 2 O  Salt

Eg: HCl  NaOH 

 H 2 O  NaCl

Those reactions are called neutralisation reaction

REACTION OF METALLIC OXIDE WITH ACID

Metallic oxide + acid 

 Salt + H2O

Eg: MgO  H 2SO 4 

 MgSO 4  H 2 O

Mettallic oxides have some basic character

REACTION OF A NON METALLIC OXIDE WITH BASE

Non Metallic oxide + base 

 Salt + H2O
Eg: CO 2  2NaOH 
 Na 2 CO 3  H 2 O
Non metallic oxides have some acidic character.

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ACID OR BASE IN WATER SOLUTION

 If HCL is added to water it separated into H+ ion and Cl- ion in water.

 The H+ ion cannot exist alone, but they exist after combining with water molecule. Thus hydrogen ions
must always be shown as hydronium ion (H3O+).

 H 3O   Cl
HCl  H 2 O 

 Acid give H 3O  or H  aq  ion in water

 Bases generate hydroxide (OH-) ions in water .

KOH 
H 2O
 K   OH 
 Water soluble bases are called alkalis.
 
 All acids generate H  aq  and all bases generate (OH ) aq  in water

 The process of dissolving and acid or a base in water is a exothermic reaction.

 Mixing an acid or base with water results in decreases the concentration of ions (H 3O  / OH  ) per
unit volume. Such process is called dilution and the acid or the base is said to be diluted.

HOW STRONG ARE ACID OR BASE SOLUTION

 A scale for measuring hydrogen ion concentration in a solution called PH scale.

 Higher the hydronium ion concentration, lower is the pH value .

 pH of a neutral solution is 7.

 pH value less than 7 indicate acidic solution.

 pH value grater than 7 indicate basic solution.

IMPORTANCE OF pH IN EVERYDAY LIFE

 Our body works within the pH range 7.0 to 7.8.

 pH of rain water is less than 5.6 is called acid rain

 Our stomach produce HCl, it helps to digestion. The over production of HCl in stomach cause pain
and irritation. To get rid of this pain people use base called antacids.

 Tooth decay starts when the pH of the mouth is lower than 5.5

 The sting of Bees and ants leaves an acid which cause pain and irritation.

SALT

A salt is a compound formed by the neutralisation of an acid with base. H+ ion from acid and OH- ion
from base combine to form water. The anion from acid and the cation from base combine to form
salt.

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SOME IMPORTANT SALTS

1. COMMON SALT OR SODIUM CHORIDE (NACL)
 Sea water is the major source of NaCl
 NaCl is essential for the biological functions such as muscle contraction, conduction of nervous
impulses etc.
 Uses of NaCl
1. It is the raw material for the preparation of NaOH, HCl, washing soda, baking soda etc.
2. In winter , salt is spread on icy roads to melt ice
3. It is a fertilizer for sugar beet.
2. SODIUM HYDROXIDE (NaOH)
It is prepared by electrolysing a concentrated solution of sodium choride in castner-Kellner cell.
USES
1. It is used in soaps, detergents
2. It is used in refining of petroleum
3. It is used as a laboratory reagent
4. It is used in dye industry
3. WASHING SODA (Na2 CO3 10H2O)
 It is prepared by solvay ammonia- soda process.
USES
1. It is used as a domestic cleaving agent
2. It is used in softening of hard water
3. It is used in the manufacture of glass
4. It is used in Photography
4. BAKING SODA (NaHCO3)
It is an intermediate product in the preparation of sodium carbonate by solvay process.
USES
1. It is used in the manufacture of baking powder
2. It is used in the textile & paper industries
3. It is used in a particular type of fire extinguisher
5. BLEACHING POWDER
It is prepared by passing chlorine over slaked lime at 313K.
USES
1. It is used as a bleaching agent in paper and textile industries
2. It is used for disinfecting water
3. It is used to prepare chloroform.

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QUESTIONS
1. Which one oif the following does not contain water of crystallisation ?
A) Blue vitriol B) Baking soda C) Washing soda D) Gypsum
2. In terms of acidic strength, which one oif the following is in the correct increasing order?
A) Water < Acetic acid < Hydrochloric acid B) Water < Hydrochloric acid < Acetic acid
C) Acetic acid < Water < Hydrochloric acid D), Hydrochloric acid < Water < Acetic acid
3. What is formed when zinc reacts with sodium hydroxide?
A) Zinc hydroxide and sodium
B) Sodium zinc oxide and hydrogen gas
C) Sodium zincate and hydrogen gas
D) Sodium zincate and water
4. Tomato is a natural source of which acid?
A) Acetic acid B) Citric acid C) Tartaric acid D) Oxalic acid
5. Brine is an
A) Aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide B) Aqueous solution of sodium carbonate
C) Aqueous solution of sodium chloride D) Aqueous solution of sodium bicarbonate
6. Na2CO3.10 H2O is ______
A) Washing soda B) Baking soda C) Bleaching powder D) Tartaric acid
7. How many water molecules does hydrated calcium sulphate contain?
A) 5 B) 10 C) 7 D) 2
8. Sodium carbonate is a basic salt because it is a salt of a ______
A) Strong acid and strong base B) Weak acid and weak base
C) Strong acid and weak base D) Weak acid and strong base
9. Alkalies are
A) Acids, which are soluble in water B) Bases, which are soluble in water
C) Acids, which are insoluble in water D) Bases which are insoluble in water
10. Nettle sting is a natural source of which acid?
A) Methanoic acid B) Lactic acid C) Citric acid D) Tartaric acid
11. Tooth enamel is made up of :
A) Calcium phosphate B) Calcium carbonate
C) Calcium oxide D) Potassium
12. Which one of the following will turn red litmus blue?
A) Vinegar B) Baking soda solution
C) Lemon juice D) Soft drinks

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13. Which of the followng is acidic?

A) Lemon juice B) Tomatoes C) Milk D) All
14. Metallic oxides dissolve in water to form :
A) Acidic solution B) Neutral solution C) Basic solution D) None of these
15. Identify the acid-base reaction from the following?

A) NaCl + H2O 
 NaOH + HCl B) CaCO3 + H2O 
 Ca(OH)2 + CO2
C) NaOH + HCl 
 NaCl + H2O D) CuSO4 + Zn 
 ZnSO4 + Cu’
16. Which among the following groups is acidic in nature?
A) Grapes and distiled water B) Soap solution and vinegar
C) Milk of magnesia and milk D) Ant sting and vinegar
17. What is the pH value of a neutral substance?
A) 0 B) 7 C) 14 D) 10
18. Ammonia is basic in nature. Hence it turns :
A) Red litmus to blue B) Blue litmus to red
C) White litmus toi red D) White litmus to blue
19. Olfactory indicator among the following is :
A) Clove B) Turmeric C) Soap D) Rose
20. When pH of rain water is less than 5.6, it is called :
A) Monsoon rain B) Acid rain C) Basic rain D) Heavy rain
21. What happesn when electricity is passed through brine?
Ans : It decomposes to form sodium hydroxide along with the evolution of chlorine gas at anode and
hydrogen gas at cathode.
22. Explain why aqueous soluton of an acid conduct electricity?
Ans : When an acid dissolves in water, it dissociates into ions, which are mobile and carry electric
charge allowing the current to flow.
23. A student dropped few pieces of marble in [Link] contained in a test tube. The evolved gas was
passed through lime water,m what change would be observed in lime water.
Ans : On adding pieces of marble in the test tube containing [Link], evolution of CO2 takes place.
CO2 when passed through lime water turns it milky because of the formation of insoluble calcium
carbonate.
24. Identify the compound of calcium which is yellowish white powder and is used for disinfecting drinking
water.
Ans : Bleaching powder also known as calcium hypochloride, CaOCl2.
25. What is the reason for dilution of acid, acid is added into water and not water into acid.
Ans : The process is highly exothermic, meaning it releases significant amount of heat.
26. Why cake or bread swells on adding baking powder.
Ans : The CO2 gas produced causes the batter to rise, resulting in a light and fluffy structure.
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27. How ill you test for the gas which is liberated when HCl reacts with an active metal ?
Ans : Bring a burning candle near the mouth of the test tube in which the reaction is taking place. If the
gas burns with a popping sound, then it can be concluded that it is hydrogen.
28. What are the constituents present in baking powder?
Ans : Sodium hydrogen carbonate
Tartaric acid
29. Why HCl is a strong acid and acetic acid is weak acid ?
Ans : HCl is strong acid because it completely ionizes in water, releasing all of its hydrogen ions (H+),
while acetic acid (CH3COOH) is weak acid because it only partially ionizes.
30. What is the chemical name and formula of the white coloured powder used by doctors for supporting
fractured bones.
Ans : Plaster of Paris
Chemically known as, calcium sulphate hemihydrate.

Formula  CaSO 4 .½ H 2 O

ANSWERS
1. B 5. C 9. B 13. D 17. B

2. A 6. A 10. A 14. C 18. A

3. C 7. D 11. A 15. C 19. A

4. D 8. D 12. B 16. D 20. B

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CHAPTER - 07
METALS AND NON METALS

Elements can be classified as metals or non-metals on the basis of their properties. Both metals and
non-metals have so many uses in our daily life.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS AND NON-METALS

Property Metals Non-Metals

Exist in many colours Phosphorous:
Metals are generally grey in
White, Scarlet yellow, red, violet, black, etc
Appearance colour Exceptions: Gold,
Sulphur: Pale yellow Bromine: Reddish
Copper, etc
brown
Most metals are solids Mercury
is an exception, which is Exist as solid (Carbon),Liquid (Bromine)
State
existing as a liquid at room and gas (Oxygen)
temperature
Sonority Can make noise on hitting Do not make noise on hitting
Ductility Can be made in to thin wires Cannot be made in to him wires
Malleability Can be made in to thin sheets Cannot be made in to thin sheets
Freshly cut metal pieces show Most non-metals do not show shiny
Lustrous property
shiny appearance appearance except diamond, iodine, etc
Good conductors of heat and Generally poor conductors, Graphite, an
Conductivity
electricity allotrope of carbon show conductivity

Metals are generally hard.

Generally soft diamond, an allotropic form
Hardness Hardness varies from metal to
of carbon is an exception
metal
Generally, metals have high
Melting and boiling melting points. But some
Have low melting and boiling points
points metals like mercury exist as
liquid at room temperature
Most of the metals are having
Density Have lower densities
higher densities

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Chemical Properties of Metals

1. Reaction with oxygen
Metal + Oxygen  Metal Oxide
Example:

2Cu  O 2  2CuO

4Al  3O 2  2Al 2 O3
Different metals react with oxygen at different rates. Metals like sodium, potassium, etc react vigorously
with oxygen.
Nature of metal oxides:
Almost all metal oxides are basic in nature. But some other metal oxides like Aluminium oxide, zinc
oxide, etc show acidic as well as basic nature. Such metal oxides are termed as amphoteric oxides.

Al2 O3  6HCl  2AlCl3  3H 2 O

Al 2 O 3  2NaOH  2NaAlO 2  H 2 O
Solubility of metal oxides:
Most of the metal oxides are insoluble. Some others give basic solutions with water.

Na 2 O s   H 2 O     2NaOH  aq 

K 2 Os  H 2O    2KOH aq 

Anodising:
It is an electrolytic process for producing thick oxide coatings. It is usually done on aluminium and its
alloys. The oxide layer is typically 5 to 30µm in thickness. This process can be used to give improved
surface resistance to wear and corrosion, or as a decorative layer. During this process, a clean
aluminium article is made the anode and is electrolysed with dilute H2SO4
2. Reaction with water
Some metals react with water and produce metal oxide and hydrogen gas. The metal oxides that are
soluble in water dissolve in it to further form metal hydroxide.
Metal + water ' Metal oxide
Metal Oxide + water ' Metal Hydroxide
Some metals react violently even with cold water. For example, sodium and potassium react vigorously
with water and large amount of heat energy is evolved.

2Na s   2H 2 O     2NaOH  aq   H 2 g   Heat energy

2K  s   2H 2 O    2KOH  aq   H 2  g   Heat energy

The heat evolved may cause burning of hydrogen gas.

At the same time reaction of Calcium metal with water is less violent. The heat evolved is not sufficient
for burning of Hydrogen gas produced.

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Ca s   2H 2 O    Ca  OH 2 aq   H 2 g 

Magnesium metal does not react with cold water. Instead react with hot water to produce Mg (OH)2
and Hydrogen gas.
Even though both metals Calcium and Magnesium are heavier than water, they may float on the surface
of water. Because the hydrogen bubbles formed will get attached on the surface of these metal pieces.
Metals like aluminium, iron and zinc do not react either with cold or hot water. But they react with steam
to form the metal oxide and hydrogen.

( 2AIs   3H 2 O g   AI 2 O3 g   3H 2 g 

3Fe s   4H 2 O g   Fe3 O 4 s   4H 2 g 

Zn s   H 2 O  g   ZnOs   H 2 g 

Metals such as lead, copper, silver and gold do not react with water at all.
Thus, the order of reactivity of different metals towards water may be written as:
K > Na > Ca > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > Pb > Cu > Ag > Au
3. Reaction with dilute acids
Metals react with dilute acids to give a salt and hydrogen gas.
Metal  Dilute acid  Salt  Hydrogen

Examples: 2Na  2HCl  2NaCl  H 2

Mg  2HCl  MgCl 2  H 2

Zn  H 2SO 4  ZnSO 4  H 2
Hydrogen gas is not evolved when a metal reacts with nitric acid. This is because of the strong oxidising
nature of HNO3. It oxidises the H2 produced in towater and itself gets reduced to any of the nitrogen
oxides (N2O, NO,NO2). But magnesium (Mg) and manganese (Mn) react with very diluteHNO3 to
evolve H2 gas.
Some metals like copper, gold, silver, etc are known as noble metals. Because these do not react with
water or dilute acids.
The reactivity of metals towards dilute hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid is in the order;
K > Na > Ca > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > Cu > Hg > Ag
In the case of copper, when it is reacted with dilute HCl, no bubbles were seen and the temperature
also remained unchanged. This shows that copper does not react with dilute HCl.
Aqua regia:

In Latin language, it means 'Royal water'. It is a freshly prepared mixture of concentrated hydrochloric
acid and concentrated nitric acid in the ratio of 3:1.

It can dissolve gold in it, even though neither of these acids can do so alone. It is a highly corrosive,
fuming liquid. It is one of the few reagents that is able to dissolve gold and platinum.

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4. Reaction with solutions of other metal salts

We know that all metals are not equally reactive. All metals do not react with oxygen, water or acids.

It is observed that some reactive metals can displace less reactive metals from their compounds in
solution or molten form.

Displacement reactions give better evidence about the reactivity of metals.

If metal A displaces metal B from its solution, it is more reactive than B.

Metal A + Salt solution of B  Salt solution of A + Metal B

The Reactivity Series of Metals

It is a list of metals arranged in the order of their decreasing reactivities. Reactivity of elements decreases
on moving from top to bottom in the given reactivity series.

It is clear from the reactivity series, copper, gold, and silver are at the bottom and hence, these are
least reactive. These metals are known as Noble metals. Potassium is at the top of the series and
hence, most reactive. Reactivity of some metals are given in descending order:

K > Na > Ca > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > Pb > Cu

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5. Reaction with nonmetals

Many metals form ionic bonds when they react with non-metals. Compounds so formed are known as
Ionic Compounds.
Ionic compounds
These are formed by the combination of ions.
Ions:
Charged atoms are called ions. Ions are formed because of loss or gain of electrons. Atoms form ions
to obtain the electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas.
Cations:
These are positive ions. Cations are formed by the loss of electrons. Usually, metals form positive ions
by losing their valence electrons. For example:

Na  Na   1e 

Mg  Mg 2   2e 

Anions:
These are negative ions. Anions are formed by gaining of electrons. Usually, non-metals form negative
ions.

Cl  1e   Cl 

O  2e   O 2
Formation of an ionic bond
Ionic bonds are formed due to the transfer of electrons from metal to non-metal. During this, metals
get positive charge because of release of electrons and non-metal gets negative charge because of
acceptance of electrons. In other words, bond formed between positive and negative ion is called Ionic
Bond.
Formation of Sodium Chloride
If sodium and chlorine were to react, the electron lost by sodium could be taken up by [Link]
gaining an electron, the chlorine atom gets a unit negative charge (Cl-),because its nucleus has 17
protons and there are 18 electrons in its K, Land M shells. So, both these elementscan have a give-
and-take relation between them.

Na  Na   1e
2,8,1 2,8
(Sodium Cation)

Cl + le Cl
2,8,7 2,8,8
Chloride ion

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Sodium and chloride ions attract each other and are held by strong electrostatic forces of attraction to
exist as sodium chloride (NaCl). Sodium chloride does not exist as molecules but aggregates of
oppositely charged ions.
Formation of Magnesium Chloride

Properties of ionic compounds

 Ionic compounds are generally solids
 These are brittle
 They have high melting and boiling points
 These compounds generally dissolve in water
 Ionic compounds are generally insoluble in organic solvents; like kerosene, petrol, etc.
 These are insulators in solid state
 Aqueous solutions / molten forms are conducting
Occurrence of metals:
Mainly, metals occur in earth's crust and in seawater; in the form of ores. Earth's crust is the major
source of metal. Seawater contains many salts such as sodium chloride, magnesium chloride, etc.
Minerals and Ores
The elements or compounds, which occur naturally in the earth's crust, are known as minerals. These
can be used for extracting metals. The minerals from which a metal can be profitably extracted are
called Ores.
Extraction of metals
Using the knowledge of reactivity series of metals, one can easily understand how a metal is extracted
from its ore.

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Metals found at the bottom of reactivity series:

These are least reactive and they are often found in nature in free-state. For example, metals such as
gold, silver, copper, etc. Copper and silver are also found in the form of sulphide and oxide ores.
Metals found in the middle of reactivity series:
Metals such as Zn, Fe, Pb, etc. are usually found in the form of oxides, sulphides or carbonates.
Metals found at the top of the reactivity series:
These metals are never found in free-state as they are very reactive, example; K, Na, Ca, Mg and Al,
etc.
The reason for existence of several metals as oxides is that oxygen is abundant in nature and is very
reactive.
Based on their reactivities, metals can be categorised into three parts. They may be most reactive,
medium reactive and least reactive.
There are three major steps involved in the extraction of a metal from its ore. They are
1. Concentration or enrichment of ores
2. Conversion of concentrated ore into crude metal
3. Refining of crude metal

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1. Enrichment of ore
Involves the removal of impurities, such as soil, sand, stone, silicates, etc. from mined ore. Such
impurities are called gangue. Process of concentration depends upon physical and chemical properties
of ores. Gravity separation, electromagnetic separation, froth flotation process, etc. are the processes
used for concentration of ores.
2. Conversion of Concentrated Ore in to Crude Metal
First, convert metal ores into corresponding metal oxides. Because it is easy to obtain metals from
their oxides. Ores found in the form of sulphide and carbonates are first converted to their oxides by
the process of calcination and roasting. Oxides of metals so obtained are converted into metals by the
process of reduction.
i) Calcination
It involves heating of carbonate ores in the limited supply of air to convert them into oxides.

Eg: ZnCO 3 s   Heat  ZnO s   CO 2 g 

ii. Roasting

Sulphide ores are heated in the presence of excess air to convert them into oxides.

ZnSs   3O 2 g   Heat  2ZnO s  2SO 2 g 

The obtained metal oxides are reduced to get corresponding metal.

Extracting Metals Low in the Activity Series

Metals ate the bottom of the reactivity series are very less reactive. Such metal oxides can be reduced
in to metals by heating alone.

Examples:

1. Mercury

The ore of mercury is cinnabar (HgS). When it is heated in air, Mercuric oxide (HgO) is formed. On
further heating, HgO is reduced in to Hg.

2HgSs   3O 2 g   2HgO s   SO 2 g 

2HgO s   Heat  2Hg 1  O 2 g 

2. Copper

Copper is found as Cu2S in nature. It can be obtained from its ore by just heating in air.

2CuSs   3O 2 g   Heat  2CU 2 O s   2SO 2 g 

2CU 2 O s   Cu 2S s   Heat  6Cu  s   SO 2 g 

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Extracting Metals in the Middle of the Activity Series

Such metals (Eg: Iron, zinc, lead, etc) are found in the form of carbonate or sulphide ores. Such ores
are first converted into respective oxides and then oxides are reduced to corresponding metals.
Extraction of Zinc
Ores:
Zinc blende (ZnS, zinc sulphide) - roasted to get ZnO
Smithsonite or zinc spar or calamine (ZnCO3,zinc carbonate) - Calcinated to get ZnO

ZnS  3O  2ZnO  2SO 2

ZnCO 3  ZnO  CO 2
ZnO  C  Zn  CO (ZnO is reduced using Carbon to get Zn metal)
Extraction of Iron
Ores:
Haematite (Fe2O3)
Haematite ore is heated with carbon to get reduced to iron metal.
Fe 2 O3  3C  4Fe  3CO 2
Extraction of lead
Ore :
Lead Oxide (PbO)
Lead oxide ore is heated with carbon to get reduced to lead.
2PbO  C  2Pb  CO 2
Besides using carbon (coke) to reduce metal oxides to metals,sometimes displacement reactions
can also be used. Some metals can displace metals of lower reactivity from theircompounds ( for
example Na, Ca, Al, etc)
Reduction of Metal oxide by Heating with Aluminium:
Manganese dioxide and copper oxide are reduced to respective metals when heated with aluminium.
3MnO 2  4Al  3Mn  2Al2 O 3

3CuO  2AI  3Cu  Al2 O 3  Heat

Thermite Reaction:
The metal displacement reactions are highly exothermic. So, the metals are produced in the molten
state. The reaction of iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3) with aluminium is used to join railway tracks or cracked
machine parts. This reaction is known as the thermit reaction.

Fe 2 O 3 s   2Al s   Al 2 O 3 s   Heat

Extracting Metals towards the Top of the Activity Series

Metals of high reactivity; such as sodium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, etc. are extracted from
their ores by electrolytic reduction. These metals cannot be reduced using carbon or other metals
becauseare less reactive than them. So electrolytic reduction is preferred.

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Electrolytic Reduction
In this method, electric current is passed through the molten state of metal ores. Metal being positively
charged is deposited over the cathode.
Example:
When an electric current is passed through molten state or solution of sodium chloride, sodium metal
gets deposited over the cathode.
At cathode: Na   e  Na
At Anode: 2Cl   2Cl  2e 
Aluminium is also obtained by the electrolytic reduction ofaluminium oxide.
3. Refining or purification of metals
Metals extracted from various methods contains some impurities. So, they are required to be refined.
Electrolytic refining is most commonly used.

In this process, a lump of impure metal and a thin strip of pure metal are dipped in the salt solution of
metal to be refined. An electric current is passed through the solution. Then pure metal is deposited
over a thin strip of pure metal from a lump of impure metal. Here, impure metal is used as anode and
pure metal is used as a [Link] soluble impurities go into the solution, whereas, the insoluble
impurities settle down at the bottom of the anode and are known as anode mud.
Example:
Electrolytic Refining of Copper
A lump of impure copper metal and a thin strip of pure copper are dipped in the solution of copper
sulphate. Impure lump of metal is connected with the positive pole and thin strip of pure metal is
connected with negative pole. When electric current is passed through the solution, pure metal from
anode moves towards cathode and is deposited over it. Impurities present in metal are settled near the
bottom of anode in the solution.

Cu  2e  Cu 2 

Cu 2   2e   Cu

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Corrosion
The reaction of metals with atmospheric air leads to the formation of a layer over the metal. As time
passes, the underlying layer of metal keeps on getting lost due to conversion into oxides or sulphides
or carbonate, etc. As a result, the metal gets eaten up. This process is called Corrosion.
Rusting of Iron:
Oxygen and water play a major role in rusting of iron. It can be prevented by preventing the interaction
between atmospheric moisture and the iron article. This can be done by painting, greasing, galvanization,
electroplating, alloying, etc
Alloys:
An alloy is ahomogeneous mixture of two or more metals, or a metal and a [Link] is prepared by
first melting the primary metal, and then,dissolving the other elements in it in definite proportions. It is
then cooledto room temperature. Several types of alloys are present.
Ferrous alloys: These alloys contain iron (Fe) as a major component.
For example: manganese steel (Fe = 86%; Mn = 13%; C = 1%) and Nickle steel (Fe = 98%; Ni = 2%)
Non-ferrous alloys: Here, iron may not be present.
For example: Brass (Cu = 80%; Zn = 20%), and Bronze (Cu = 90%; Sn = 10%)
Amalgams: These are alloys in which mercury (Hg) is present. For example, Sodium amalgams [Na (Hg)]
and Zinc amalgams [Zn (Hg)]
Advantages of Alloying:
1. Alloys are stronger and harder than the metal from which they are obtained.
2. The melting point of alloys is lower than the constituent metals.
Example: Solder [Sn (80%) + Pb (50%)] has lower m. p. than ordinary Pb and Sn.
3. Alloys van show more resistance to corrosion
4. Alloys show poor electrical conductivity than constituent metals
Examples of Alloys:
1. Alloys of Gold: Pure gold is said to be of 24 carats. Gold is alloyed with a small amount of silver or
copper to make it hard. Generally, in India, 22 carat gold is used for making ornaments. It means that
22 parts of pure gold is alloyed with 2 parts of either copper or silver.
2. Brass: [80% Cu + 20% Zn]
3. Bronze: [90% Cu + 20% Sn]
4. Solder: [50% Pb + 50% Sn]
5. Duralumin: [95% Al + 4% Cu + 0.5% Mg + 0.5 Mn]
6. German Silver: [60% Cu + 20% Zn + 20% Ni]
7. Steel: [99.95% Fe + 0.05% C]
8. Stainless steel: [74% Fe + 18% Cr + 8% Ni]
9. Magnalium: [95% Al + 5% Mg]

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QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following metals will melt at body temperature: gallium, magnesium, caesium,
aluminium?
Ans: Gallium (29.770C and Caesium (28.50C) will be melt at human body temperature (370C). But
Magnesium (6490C) and Aluminium(6600C) will not melt at body temperature.
2. Name any two metals which react violently with cold water. Write any three observations you would
make when such a metal is dropped into water. How would you identify the gas evolved, if any?
Ans: Na and K react violently with cold water.
Observations when these metals dipped in to cold water:
(i) Emission of bubbles
(ii) Combustion of emitted gas
(iii) Increase in temperature of the reaction mixture
Evolved gas is hydrogen. We can identify this by showing a burning candle near the mouth of the test
tube. Then it will burn with a "pop" sound. This is an identification test for Hydrogen gas.
3. Give reasons for the following
(a) Sodium metal is kept immersed in kerosene
(b) Blue colour of copper sulphate solution disappears when some aluminium powder is added in it.
(c) Reverse of the reaction is not possible. Justify
Ans :
(a) Sodium metal is so reactive that it reacts vigorously with the oxygen (of air). It catches fire and
starts burning when kept open in the air. Sodium metal is stored under kerosene oil to prevent its
reaction with oxygen, moisture and carbon dioxide of air.
(b) When aluminium powder is put in copper sulphate solution, then the blue colour of copper sulphate
solution

Since Al is more reactive than Cu, it displaces Cu from CuSO4 solution and forms colourless Al2(SO4)3.
C) Cu is less reactive than Al in the activity series. Therefore, less reactive metal (Cu) does not
displace more reactive metal (Al) from its salt solution. Thus, reverse of this reaction is not possible.
4. What are amphoteric oxides? Choose the amphoteric oxides from- Na2O, ZnO, Al2O3, CO2, NO2
Ans: Amphoteric oxides are those which can react with acid and base and produce salt and water.
Here, ZnO and Al2O3 are amphoteric oxides. Because both can react with acids and bases.

ZnOs   2HNO3 aq   Zn  NO3  2 aq   H 2 O I 

ZnOs   2NaOH  aq   Na 2 ZnO2 aq   H 2 O  I 

Al2 O3 s   6HCl aq   2AlCl3 aq   3H 2 O  I 

Al2O3s   2NaOH aq   2NaAlO 2 aq   H 2 O  I 

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5. Why is it that non-metals do not displace hydrogen from dilute acids?

Ans: As nonmetals are electro negative elements, they cannot displace hydrogen from dilute acids.
6. Show on a diagram of the transfer of electron between the atoms in the formation of MgO

Ans :

7. Name the solvent in which ionic compounds are generally soluble

Ans : Water is a solvent in which most of the ionic compounds are soluble. This is due to the polar
nature of water.
8. Why are aqueous solutions of ionic compounds able to conduct electricity?
Ans : Aqueous solutions of ionic compounds may contain large number of free ions. These ions are
responsible for conductivity.
9. Give reasons for the following:
(i) Gold and silver are used for jewellery making.
(ii) carbonate and sulphide ores are usually converted into oxides prior to reduction during the process
of extraction
Ans : (i) Gold and silver are used for jewellery making, because these metals are generally inert.
They are not affected by water or atmospheric air. In addition to this, they are having shiny surface to
make the ornaments more attractive.
(ii) It is easy to reduce metal oxides using suitable oxidising [Link] is why carbonates and
sulphides are converted in to corresponding metal oxides prior to reduction during the process of
extraction.
10. Hydrogen is not evolved when a metal reacts with nitric acid. Give reason
Ans : Hydrogen gas is not evolved when a metal reacts with nitric acid. This is because of the strong
oxidising nature of HNO3. It oxidises the H2 produced to water and itself gets reduced to any of the
nitrogen oxides (N2O, NO, NO2). But magnesium (Mg) and manganese (Mn) react with very dilute
HNO3 to evolve H2 gas.

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11. From amongst the metal sodium, calcium, aluminium, copper and magnesium name the metal
(i)Which reacts with water only on boiling
(ii) Which does not react even with steam
Ans : (i) Magnesium is the metal which reacts with water only on boiling.

Mg  s   H 2 O  hot   MgO s   H 2 g 

(ii) Copper cannot react even with steam

12. Varun treated a lustrous, divalent element M with sodium hydroxide solution. He observed the formation
of bubbles in reaction mixture. He made the same observations when this element was treated with
hydrochloric acid. Suggest how can he identify the produced gas. Write chemical equations for both
the reactions.
Ans : Here the metal is likely to be Zinc

Zn  2NaOH  Na 2 ZnO 2  H 2

Zn  2HCl  ZnCl2  H 2

The produced gas is hydrogen. It can be identified by showing a burning candle near the mouth of the
test tube. If hydrogen gas is emitting, it will burn with a "pop" sound
13. During the extraction of metals, electrolytic refining is used to get pure metals.
(a) Which materials are used as anode and cathode for refining of Copper metal by this process?
(b) Suggest a suitable electrolyte also
(c) In this electrolytic cell, where do we get pure copper after passing electric current?
Ans : (a) Impure copper metal is used as anode and pure copper metal is used as a cathode
(b) Copper sulphate solution
(c) Pure copper metal is deposited over the thin strip of pure copper from a lump of impure copper.
14. Why is it important, converting metal sulphides and carbonates into oxides during the process of
extraction of metal from them?
Ans : It is easier to obtain metals from their oxides (by reduction) than from carbonate or sulphide
ores. So, before reduction the ore must be converted into metal oxide.
Calcination: method by which a carbonate ore is converted into oxide
Roasting: method by which a sulphide ore is converted into oxide
Calcination or roasting is done depending on the nature of ore
Example for calcination:

Example for roasting:

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15. A compound A and a metal B are used to join railway tracks.

(a) Identify A and B
(b) Name the reaction
(c) Write down its equation
Ans : (a) A is iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3) and B is aluminium
(b) Thermite reaction

(c) Fe 2 O 3 s   2Al s   2Fe I   Al2 O3 s   Heat

16. A metal 'M' is found in nature as its carbonate. It is used in the galvanization of iron. (a) Identify 'M' and
name its ore.
(b) How will you convert this ore into free metal?
Ans :
(a) 'M' = Zinc metal
Zinc occurs as Zinc Carbonate in calamine ore, ZnCO3.
(b) Zinc can be extracted from the ore by:
(i) Zinc Carbonate is first converted into Zinc Oxide by calcination. When calamine ore (zinc carbonate)
is heated strongly in the absence of air, it decomposes to form zinc oxide and carbon dioxide.

(ii) Zinc metal is then extracted from zinc oxide by reduction with carbon (coke).

17. Heera took reddish-brown coloured metal, used in electrical wires. She powdered this metal and
heated strongly in an open china dish. She observed that its colour turns black. When hydrogen gas
is passed over this black substance, it regains its original colour. Based on the above information
answer the following questions:
(i) Name the metal and the black coloured substance formed.
(ii) Write balanced chemical equations for both the reactions.
Ans :
(i) The reddish-brown coloured metal used in electric wires is Copper.

When copper is heated strongly in air, it combines with oxygen to form Copper (II) oxide, a black
oxide.

(ii) 2Cu  O 2  Heat  2CuO

CuO  H 2  H 2 O  Cu

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18. Even though, Ca is denser than water, it starts floating when dropped in water. Give reason for this
Ans :
Calcium reacts with water less violently than other reactive metals. When it reacts with water, hydrogen
gas is evolved. Even though it is an exothermic reaction, the heat evolved is not sufficient for hydrogen
to catch fire. The reaction occurring is:

Ca  s   2H 2 O  I   Ca  OH  2  aq   H 2  g 

The bubbles of hydrogen gas formed stick to the surface of the metal. As hydrogen is very lighter
than water, it will try to move upward along with the metal piece.
19. Define the term "Metallurgy". What are the major processes involved in metallurgy?
Ans:
The term "Metallurgy" corresponds to the various processes involved in the extraction of metals from
their ores and their refining.
The major processes involved in the process of metallurgy are:
(i) Concentration of ore
(ii) Conversion of ore into its metal oxide
(iii) Reduction of oxides of ores into metal.
(iv) Refining of impure metal
20. Differentiate between the following with suitable examples
(i) Malleability and ductility
(ii) Mineral and ore
(iii) Corrosion and rancidity
Ans :
(i) The property which allows the metals to be made into thin sheets is called malleability. But the
property which allows the metals to be drawn into thin wires is called ductility.
Gold and silver are the best malleable metals. Also, gold is the most ductile metal.
(ii) The naturally occurring substances in which the metals or their compounds are called minerals.
But those minerals from which the metals can be extracted conveniently and profitably are called
ores.
(iii) The tarnishing of the metals by the attack of moisture, oxygen and other acidic oxides in the air is
called corrosion. But rancidity is the oxidation of fats and oils present in the food on exposure to
atmosphere. As a result of rancidity, the smell and taste of the food changes.
21. Some metals can be used for making cooking utensils. For example, Aluminium. Which among the
following properties make Aluminium to make it useful for making cooking utensils?
(i) Ductility (ii) High melting point
(iii) Good electrical conductivity (iv) Good thermal conductivity
A) i and ii B) ii, iii and iv C) ii and iv D) Only iv
Ans : C
Hint: The metal which we use for making cooking utensils should have high melting point and good
thermal conductivity.

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22. Some properties of metals are given.

(i) Liquid at room temperature
(ii) Can easily be cut with a knife
(iii) Best conductor of heat
(iv) Poor conductor of heat
Now, identify the correct order of metals given, which satisfy the above mentioned properties
A) Pb, Hg, Na, Ag B) Ag, Na, Hg, Pb C) Hg, Na, Pb, Ag D) Hg, Na, Ag, Pb
Ans : D
23. Some metals cannot be kept exposed to atmospheric air. Instead, they are kept under kerosene.
Identify the pair of metals which are kept immersed in kerosene.
A) Fe and Zn B) K and Na C) Al and Cu D) Au and Ag
Ans: Option B
Hint: K and Na belong to group 1 in the periodic table. First group elements are vigorously reacting
with moisture, on exposure to atmospheric air and form their corresponding oxides and hydroxides.
24. Some reactions are given

(i) Fe  CuSO 4  FeSO 4  Cu

(ii) Mg  2KCl  MgCl 2  2K

(iii) 2Al  H 2SO 4  Al 2SO 4  H 2

(iv) Cu  Zn SO 4  CuSO 4  Zn
The possible reactions are
A) i, ii and iv B) i and iii C) ii and iv D) i, ii, iii and iv
Ans : B
Hint: Only a reactive metal can displace less reactive metal from its compounds
25. Iron frying pans may undergo rusting. Which of the following can prevent iron frying pans from rusting?
A) Applying Grease B) Applying Paint
C) Applying coating of Zinc D) Kept immersed in water
Ans : C
Hint: Application of Grease and paint on iron articles may prevent rusting. But here, in the case of
frying pan, we cannot use those methods. Water is a promoter of rusting.
26. An element X reacted with oxygen to form a compound. When this compound is dissolved in water,
the resultant solution changed red litmus to blue. The element is likely to be
A) Sodium B) Carbon C) Hydrogen D) Nitrogen
Ans : A
Hint: When sodium is reacted with oxygen, sodium oxide is formed. When this metal oxide is dissolved
in water, corresponding alkaline solution, sodium hydroxide solution is obtained. This made the red
litmus blue.
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27. In India, gold used for making ornaments is 22 carat. Now, 22 carat gold means
A. 22 parts of pure gold is alloyed with 2 parts of either copper or silver
B. 20 parts of pure gold is alloyed with 2 parts of either copper or silver
C. 18 parts of pure gold is alloyed with 4 parts of either copper or silver
D. 21 parts of pure gold is alloyed with 1 parts of either copper or silver
Ans: A
28. An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals, or a metal and a nonmetal. Which of the
following is not an alloy?
A) Steel B) Duralumin C) Magnalium D) Milk of Magnesia
Ans : D
Hint: Aqueous solution of Mg(OH)2 is termed as milk of magnesia
29. Platinum, Gold and Silver are used to make Jewelry. This is because
A) These metals are less reactive B) They are not affected by most of the chemicals
C) These have lot of lusture D) These have all the above properties
Ans : D
Hint: The metals which are used for making jewelry should be least reactive, having shining surfaces,
and easily moldable.
30. Aqua regia is also called Royal water. Its composition is
A) Hydrochloric acid and nitric acid in 3:1 ratio
B) Nitric acid and Hydro chloric acid in 3:1 ratio
C) Nitric acid and Sulphuric acid in 3:1 ratio
D) Nitric acid and sulphuric acid in 3:1 ratio
Ans : A
Hint:Aqua regia, (Latin for 'royal water') is a freshly prepared mixture of concentrated hydrochloric
acid and concentrated nitric acid in the ratio of 3:[Link] regia is a highly corrosive, fuming liquid.

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CHAPTER - 08
CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

Food ,Clothes, Medicines and many of the things related to our daily life are based on the versatile
element carbon. In addition, all living structures are carbon based. There are millions of carbon
compounds are known to exist. Therefore carbon is called the king of elements.
 Earth crust has 0.02% carbon (carbonates, hydrogencarbonates, coal and petroleum)
 Atmosphere has 0.03% of CO2
Bonding in carbon
The reactivity of elements (ie the ability of the elements in take part in bonding) explained as their
tendency to attain a completely filled outer shell, i e attain noble gas configuration
 Elements forming ionic compounds achieve this by either gaining or losing electrons from the outermost
shell
 If we consider some of the properties of ionic compounds, we can see that they have high melting and
boiling points and conduct electricity in solution and molten state
If we consider carbon compounds, most of them are poor conductors of electricity and have low
melting and boiling points.
Therefore we can conclude that the bonding in carbon compounds does not give rise to any ions and
the forces of attraction between the molecules are not very strong
That is the bonding in carbon compounds are different from ionic compounds
The atomic number of carbon = 6
 electronic configuration = 2,4
 carbon needs to gain or lose 4 electrons to attain noble gas configuration
But the formation of C4– anion is not possible as it is difficult for the six protons to hold on to 10
electrons
The formation of C4+ cation is not possible as it require a large amount of energy to remove 4 electrons.
Carbon overcomes this problem by sharing its valence electrons with other atoms of carbon or with
atoms of other elements. The shared electron belong to the outer most shells of both the atoms and
lead to both atoms attaining the noble gas configuration
The bonds formed between two atoms by the mutual sharing of electrons between two atoms are
called covalent bonds
eg: H2 molecule

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Atomic number of H = 1. Hence H has 1 electron in its K shell. So two H atoms share their electrons to
form a molecule of H2 and each H atom attains the electronic configuration of nearest noble gas He

H× ×H ×
HH × HH

Hydrogen atoms shared electrons

H2 molecule

Note : Valence electrons are represented by dots or crosses

The shared pair of electrons constitutes a single covalent bond between the two hydrogen atoms
A single covalent bond is also represented by a line between the two atoms
eg : H–H
O2 molecule
Atomic number of oxygen = 8
electronic configuration = 2,6
 O requires two more electrons to attain the noble gas configuration

×× ××
× ×× ××
× H ×× ×× H
× × O=O
×× ×× ×× ××

Here two electrons contributed by each oxygen atom give rise to two shared pairs of electrons. This is
said to constitute a double bond between the two atoms
N2 molecule
Atomic number of N = 7
electronic configuration = 2,5

:N N N H
N
,N N

Here the three shared pairs of electrons constitutes a triple bond between the atoms
CH 4
Atomic number of carbon = 6
electronic configuration = 2,4
Carbon has 4 electrons in its valence shell (outer shell). It needs 4 more electrons to attain the noble
gas configuration. So carbon is tetravalent or the valency of carbon atom is 4 i.e. carbon can form 4
bonds around it
Atomic number of H = 1
electronic configuration = 1

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That is the valency of hydrogen atom is 1

H H

H
H C H C
H H H C H
,
H
H
H

 Covalent compounds have low melting and boiling points because the intermolecular force of attraction
between the covalently bonded molecules are weak
 Covalent compounds are generally poor conductors of electricity because electrons are shared between
atoms (i e strong bond within the molecule) and therefore no charged particles are formed
Allotropes of carbon
Allotropy: The existence of a chemical element in two or more forms, which may differ in the arrangement
of atoms or occurance of molecules that contain different numbers of atoms. They have varying
physical properties
The allotropes of carbon are diamond, graphite and buckminsterfullerene
Diamond  Each carbon atom is bonded to 4 other carbon atoms forming a rigid 3D structure
 Diamond is the hardest substance known on earth
 Will not conduct electricity
 Melting point is about 4027°C
 It is used for cutting glass as it is the hardest substance
Graphite
 Here each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms in the same plane forming a hexagonal
array
 One of these bonds is double bond (thus the valency is satisfied)
 Graphite structure is formed by the hexagonal arrays (graphene) being placed in layers one above the
other
 It is soft, smooth and slippery,  it can be used as a dry lubricant
 It is a very good conducture of electricity
Buckminsterfullerene (C60)
It contains pentagonal and hexagonal rings. Here 60 carbon atoms are joined together. Here the
carbon atoms are arranged in the shape of football
 It is looked like the geodesic dome designed by the US architect Buckminster fuller, the molecule was
named fullerene
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Versatile nature of carbon

Carbon forms millions of compounds. This outmembers by a large margin the compounds formed by
all the other elements put together. It is due to
1) Catenation: It is defined as the self linking of atoms of an element to form chains and rings. (i e direct
bonding between atoms of same element to form chains)
 Carbon has this unique ability of catenation
 Carbon forms long chains, branched chains & rings
 In addition, carbon atoms may be linked by single, double or triple bonds
 No other element have catenation to the extent seen in carbon compounds
 Silicon forms chains upto 7 or 8 atoms but these compounds are very reactive
 Carbon -carbon bonds are very strong and hence stable. Therefore forms large number of compounds
2) Tetravalency of carbon
 Since carbon has a valency of 4, it is capable of bonding with 4 other carbon atoms or 4 other atoms
of some monovalent elements
 The bonds between carbon and other elements are very strong making this compounds very stable
 One reason for the formation of strong bonds by carbon is its small size
Organic compounds  Initially carbon compounds were extracted from living organisms. Therefore
it was postulated that a vital force was necessary for their synthesis  these compounds are called
organic compounds
Saturated and unsaturated compounds
Compounds of carbon, which are linked by only single bond between carbon atoms are called saturated
compounds
Compounds of carbon having double or triple bonds between their carbon atoms are called unsaturated
compounds. They are more reactive than saturated carbon compounds
Examples
1) Ethane (C2H6)
To get the structure first link the carbon atoms with single bond and then use H atoms to satisfy the
remaining valencies of carbon
Step I: C–C

H H

C H
H C
H H
Step II: H C C H
H H
H H

electron dot structure of ethane

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2) Ethene (C2H4)
Step 1: Carbon atoms linked together with a single bond
C–C

Step II: Satisfy the remaining valencies by H atoms

H H
C C
H H

Step III : Satisfy the remaining valency with a double bond

H H
C C
H H

3) Ethyne (C2H2)

Step I: C–C

Step II: H C C H

Step III : H C C H
Chains, Branches and Rings

Formulae and structures of saturated compounds of carbon and hydrogen

No of C Name Formula Structure

H C H
1 Methane CH4
H

H H

H C C H
2 Ethane C 2H 6
H H

H H H
3 Propane C 3H 8
H C C C H

H H H

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H H H
H
4 Butane C4H 10 H C C C C H

H H H H

H H H H
H

H C C C C C H
5 Pentane C5H 12

H H H H H

H H H H
H H

6 Hexane C6H 14 H C C C C C C H
H H H H H H

If we construct the carbon skeleton with 4 carbon atoms, there are two different possibilities

C
C–C–C–C and
C C C
Filling the remaining valencies by H,

H C H
H
H H H
H H
H C C C C H and
H C C C H
H H H
H H H H

We can see that both these structures have same molecular formula C4H10. Such compounds having
identical molecular formula but different structures are called structural isomers
Carbon atoms may arranged in the forms of a ring
eg: C6H12

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H
H H
C H
C C C
H H
C C H C C
H
C C
C C H H
H H

C6H6(Benzene)

H H
C C

H C C H

C C
H
H

All the carbon compounds which contain only carbon and hydrogen  Hydrocarbons. Saturated
hydrocarbons  Alkanes. Unsaturated hydrocarbons which contain one or more double bonds 
Alkenes. Those containing one or more triple bonds  Alkynes.
Carbon also forms bonds with other elements such as halogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphure
Hydrogen atoms on a hydrocarbon chain can be replaced by these elements. Each elements that
replacing the H atoms of a hydrocarbon are called heteroatoms
These hetero atoms or groups containing hetero atoms are responsible for the specific properties of
the compound regardless of the length and nature of the carbon chain. Hence these atoms or groups
are called functional groups.
Examples of functional groups

Heteroatom Class of compounds Formula of functional group

Cl/Br Halo (chloro/bromo) alkane –Cl,–Br

Oxygen 1. alcohol –OH

O
2. Aldehyde C H

O
3. Ketone C

O
4. Carboxylic acid C OH

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Homologous series
The chemical properties of CH3OH, C2H5OH C3H7OH and C4H9OH are all very similar. Such series
of compounds in which the same functional group substitutes for H atom in a carbon chain are called
a homologous series.

 Here the successive members are differ by a –CH2 unit or by a mass of 14u

 The chemical properties, which are determined by the functional group remain similar in a homologous
series.

 As the molecular mass increases in any homologous series, a gradation in physical properties is seen
Homologous series of alkane
CH4, C2H6, C3H8, C4H10, C5H12
Homologous series of alkene
C2H4, C3H6, C4H8, C5H10
The general formula for alkane, alkene and alkyne can be represented by CnH2n+2, CnH2n & CnH2n-2
For alkane, n = 1,2,3....
For alkene & alkyne, n = 2,3,4....
Nomenclature of carbon compounds
Step I: Identify the number of carbon atoms in the compound
II: If functional group is present, it is indicated by suffix or prefix
III: If the suffix is started with a vowel, delete the final letter ‘e’ of hydrocarbon and then add the suffix
IV: If the carbon chain is unsaturated, the ‘ane’ of alkane is replaced by ‘ene’ & ‘yne’ respectively for
alkene and alkyne
Examples
Class of compounds Prefix / suffix Example

H H H

H C C C Cl
Halo alkane Chloro / bromo etc H H
H
Chloropropane

H H H

Alcohol Suffix -ol H C C C OH

H H H

Propanol

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H H H
Aldehyde Suffix -al
H C C C O

H H

Propanal

H H

Ketone Suffix -one H C C C H

H O H

Propanone

O
H H

H C C C OH
Carboxylic acid Suffix -oic acid
H H
Propanoic acid

H H
H
H C C =C
H
Alkene Suffix -ene
H
Propene

H C C C–H
Alkyne Suffix -yne
H
Propyne

Chemical properties of carbon compounds

1) Combustion
 Burning process of carbon compounds are called combustion
 Here carbon converts to CO2 with the release of heat and light

 Chemically it is an oxidation reaction C  O 2  CO 2  heat and light

CH 4  2O 2  CO 2  2H 2 O  heat and light

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CH 3 CH 2 OH  3O 2  2CO 2  3H 2 O  heat and light

Saturated hydrocarbons  clean flame
Unsaturated carbon compounds  Yellow flame with black smoke
Limiting the supply of air  sooty flame due to incomplete combustion
Oxidation

eg: Alkaline KMnO4 , (Heat)

CH3 CH2 OH CH3COOH
or Acidified K2Cr2O7,

Substances those are capable of adding oxygen to others are known as oxidising agents. eg:
KMnO4,K2Cr2O7 etc
If a substance gains oxygen during a reaction, it is said to be oxidised. If a substance loses oxygen
during a reaction, it is said to be reduced
Addition reaction
Addition of some elements into unsaturated hydrocarbons is called addition reaction
eg: Alkenes and alkynes add hydrogen in the presence of catalysts such as palladium or nickel to give
saturated hydrocarbons

H H
R R H2/Ni
C=C R C C R
R R
R R

Catalysts are substances that cause a reaction to occur at a different rate without the reaction itself
being affected.
Substitution reaction
If one type of atom or group of atoms replaces another, it is called substitution reaction.
eg: chlorine can replace the hydrogen atoms of a hydrocarbon one by one.

CH 4  Cl2 
light
 CH3Cl  HCl
Some important compounds of carbon
1) Ethanol
Properties
 liquid at room temperature
 melting point  156 K
 Boiling point  351K
 Active ingredient in all alcoholic drinks
 Used as solvent
 Used in medicines such as tincture iodine, cough syrups & many tonics

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 Soluble in H2O

 Consumption of small quantities of ethanol causes drunkenness

Reactions

a) with sodium

2Na+2CH3CH2OH 2CH3 CH2O–Na++H2

sodium ethoxide

Reaction to give unsaturated hydrocarbon

CH3  CH 2  OH 
hot con.H 2SO4
 CH 2  CH 2  H 2 O

Concentrated H 2SO 4 is a dehydrating agent which removes H2O from alcohol

1) Ethanoic acid

 Commonly called acetic acid

 it is a carboxylic acid

 5.8% solution of acetic acid in water is called vinegar

 widely used as a preservative in pickles

 melting point is 290K & hence often freezes during winter in cold climates. This gave rise to its name
glacial acetic acid

 Carboxylic acids are acidic in nature, but they are weak acids than mineral acids like HCl

Reactions

a) Esterification reaction

Carboxylic acids on reaction with alcohol in presence of acid catalyst to give esters is called esterification
reaction

O
CH3 COOH+[Link] CH3 C O
eg: CH2 CH3+H2O
Ethanoic acid Ethanol Ester

Esters are,
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 sweet smelling substances

 used in making perfumes and as flavouring agents

Saponification

Easters on reaction with NaOH (alkali) gives the original alcohol and sodium salt of the carboxylic acid. It is
called saponification. Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long chain carboxylic acid

O
CH3 C O C2H5 NaOH C2H5OH+CH3COONa

b) Reaction with a base

With a base ethanoic acid gives a salt and water

CH 3 COOH+NaOH CH 3 COONa+H2 O
sodium ethanoate / sodium acetate

Reaction with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates

This reaction gives a salt, CO2 and H2O

2 CH 3COOH  Na 2 CO3  2CH 3COONa  H 2 O  CO 2

CH 3 COOH  NaHCO3  CH 3 COONa  H 2 O  CO 2

Soap and detergents

Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long chain carboxylic acids

Detergents are generally sodium salt of sulphonic acids or ammonium salts with chloride or bromide
ions.

 Most dirt is oily in nature and does not dissolve in water

 The ionic end of soap interacts with water while the carbon chain interacts with oil. The soap molecules
thus forms structures called micelles. This forms an emulsion in water and helps in pulling out the dirt
and we can wash our clothes clean.

 While bathing with hard water and soap, foam is formed with difficulty and an insoluble substance
(scum) remains after washing with water. It is due to the reaction of soap with calcium and magnesium
salt which cause the hardness of water. This problem can be overcome by using detergents as they
do not form insoluble precipitates with the calcium and magnesium ions in hard water.

 Detergents are usually used to make shampoos and products for cleaning clothes

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QUESTIONS

1. Which of the following statements are usually correct for carbon compounds?

i) a good conductor of electricity

ii) a poor conductor of electricity

iii) have strong forces of attraction between their molecules

iv) do not have strong forces of attraction between their molecules

A) i and ii B) ii and iii

C) i and iv D) ii and iv

2. A molecule of ammonia has

A) only single bonds B) only double bonds

C) only triple bonds D) two double bonds and one single bond

3. Buckminsterfullerene is an allotropic form of

A) phosphorus B) sulphur C) carbon D) tin

CH3CH2 Alkaline.KMnO4+heat
4. OH CH3COOH . In the above reaction alkaline KMnO4 act
as

A) reducing agent B) oxidising agent

C) catalyst D) dehydrating agent

5. Oils on treating with hydrogen in presence of palladium or nickel catalyst form fats. This is an
example of

A) addition reaction B) substitution reaction

C) Displacement reaction D) Oxidation reaction

6. In which of the following compounds, –OH is the funcitonal group?

A) Butanone B) Butanol C) Butanoic acid D) Butanal

7. Pentane has the molecular formula C5H12. It has

A) 5 covalent bonds B) 12 covalent bonds

C) 16 covalent bonds D) 17 covalent bonds

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8. The structural formula of benzene is

H H
C H
H C H
H H C C H
C C
A) H B) C C H
C
H C C H H C H
H
HH
H

H H
H C C
H H H
C) C C D) C C H

C C
H C C H H C C H
H
H H

9. Vinegar is a solution of

A) 50% - 60% acetic acid in alcohol

B) 5%-8% acetic acid in alcohol

C) 5% - 8% acetic acid in water

D) 50%-60% acetic acid in water

10. Which among the following does not belong to the same homologous series?

A) CH4 B) C2H6

C) C3H8 D) C4H8

11. The hetero atoms present in CH3 CH2 O CH2 CH2 Cl are

i) Oxygen ii) Carbon iii) Hydrogen iv) Chlorine

A) i and ii B) ii and iii

C) iii and iv D) i and iv

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12. Which of the following is not a straight chain hydrocarbon?

A) H3C CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2

CH3

B) H3C CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3

C) H 3 C CH 2 CH 2 CH 2

CH 3

H3C
D) CH CH2 CH2 CH3
H3C

13. The name of the compound CH 3  CH 2  CHO is

A) Propanal B) Propanone

C) Ethanol D) Ethanal

14. The first member of alkyne homologous series is

A) Ethyne B) Ethene

C) Propyne D) Methane

15. Carbon forms four covalent bonds by sharing its four valence electrons with four univalent atoms.
After the formation of four bonds, carbon attains the electronic configuration of

A) helium B) neon

C) argon D) Krypton

16. Draw the electron dot structure of ethyne and carbon tetrachloride?

Ans: Ethyne Carbon tetrachloride

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17. Write the structural formulae of all the isomers of pentane

Ans : n-pentane
CH 3  CH 2  CH 2  CH 2  CH 3
Isopentane

CH 3  CH  CH 2  CH 3

CH3
Neopentane

CH3

CH 3  C  CH 3
CH3
18. Write the names of the following compounds

H H H H O H H H H
A) H C C C C C OH B) H C C C C =O
H H H H H H H

Ans : A  Pentanoic acid

B  Butanal
19. Name the functional groups present in the following compounds?
A) CH 3 COCH 2 CH 3 B) CH 3 CH 2 COOH C) CH 3OH D) CH 3CHO

O
Ans : A   C 
B   COOH
C  OH
D   CHO

20. What are hydrocarbons. Give examples of saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons
Ans: Hydrocarbons are organic compounds composed of hydrogen and carbon atoms.

Saturated  Methane (CH 4 )

Unsaturated  Ethene (C 2 H 4 )
21. How ethene is prepared from ethanol. Give the reaction involved in it?
Ans : C 2 H 5 OH 
H 2SO 4

 C2 H 4  H 2O
Ethene can be prepared from ethanol through a dehydration reaction by heating with concentrated
H2SO4 resulting in the elimination of a water molecule.

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22. Both carbon and silicon exhibit catenation. Compare the ability of catenation of two elements with
reasons ?
Ans : Carbon exhibits a much higher ability for catenation than silicon primarily due to its smaller size
and stronger carbon-carbon bonds compared to the weaker silicon-silicon bonds.
23. Explain the following reactions with examples?
A) hydrogenation B) oxidation
C) substitution D) saponification
Ans : A. Hydrogenation
This is the addition of hydrogen to an unsaturated compound A catalyst, such as nickel, palladium or
platinum is usually required.
CH 2  CH 2  H 2 
 CH 3  CH 3
B. Oxidation
This involves the addition of oxygen to a compound or the removal of hydrogen
CH 3CH 2 OH  2[O] 
 CH 3COOH  H 2 O
C. Substitution
In this reaction, an atom or group of atoms in a molecule is replaced by another atom or group.
CH 4  Cl2 
 CH 3Cl  HCl
D. Saponification
This is the alkaline hydrolysis of a fat or oil to produce a soap and glycerol.
CH 3COOC 2 H 5  NaOH 
 CH 3 COONa  C 2 H 5OH
24. Why detergents are better cleansing agents than soaps. Explain?
Ans : Detergents are considered better cleansing agents than soaps due to their effectiveness in
hard water and superior cleansing performance.
25. An organic compound A on heating with concentrated H2SO4 forms a compound B which on addition
of one mole of hydrogen in presence of Ni forms a compound C. One mole of compound C on
combustion forms two molecules of CO2 and 3 moles of H2O. Identify the compounds A,B,C and
write the chemical equations of the reactions involved.
Ans :
1. Dehydration of ethanol to ethene
C 2 H 5 OH 
H 2SO 4
 C2 H 4  H 2O
2. Hydrogenation of ethene to ethane :
C 2 H 4  H 2 
Ni/ Pd / Pt
 C2H6
3. Combustion of ethane :
1
C2 H 6  O 2 
 2CO 2  3H 2 O
2

A 
 C 2 H5 OH
B 
 C2 H 4
C 
 C2 H 6
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26. What is homologous series? Explain with an example

Ans : A homologous series is a group of organic compounds with similar structures and chemical
properties, where successive members differ by a repeating unit (-CH2-), and can be represented by
the same general formula. For example, the alkane series.

27. Explain the mechanism of the cleaning action of soaps?

Ans : Most dirt is oily in nature and does not dissolve in water. The ionic end of soap interacts with
water while the carbon chain interacts with oil. The soap molecules thus forms structures called
micelles. This forms an emulsion in water and helps in pulling out the dirt and we can wash our
clothes clean.

28. Why are carbon and its compounds used as fuel for most applications

Ans :

High energy density

Efficient combustion

Ease of handling and storage

29. How can ethanol and ethanoic acid be differentiated on the basis of their physical and chemical
properties?

Ans : Ethanol is a volatile, sweet-smelling liquid that doesn’t react with sodium bicarbonate, while
ethanoic acid is a pungent-smelling liuqid that reacts with sodium bicarbonate to produce a carbon
dioxide.

30. Give a test that can be used to differentiate between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons

Ans : Bromine water test : unsaturated hydrocarbons will decolourize bromine water while saturated
hydrocarbons will not.

ANSWERS
1. D 4. B 7. C 10. D 13. A

2. A 5. A 8. C 11. D 14. A

3. C 6. B 9. C 12. D 15. B

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BIOLOGY

CHAPTER - 09
LIFE PROCESSES

 All living things perform certain life processes like growth, excretion, respiration, circulation, etc.

 The basic functions performed by living organisms for their survival and body maintenance are called
life process.

Basic life processes are : Nutrition, Respiration, Transportation, Excretion etc.

LIFE PROCESSES IN MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS

I. NUTRITION

 Life Processes require energy which is provided by nutrition.

 Nutrition: The process, by which an organism takes food and utilizes it, is called nutrition.

 Need for Nutrition: Organisms need the energy to perform various activities. The energy is supplied by
the nutrients. Organisms need various raw materials for growth and repair. These raw materials are
provided by nutrients.

 Nutrients: Materials which provide nutrition to organisms are called nutrients. Carbohydrates, proteins
and fats are the main nutrients and are called macronutrients. Minerals and vitamins are required in
small amounts and hence are called micronutrients.

Modes of Nutrition

1. Autotrophic:-Kind of nutrition in which organisms can synthesize their own food. Eg. Green Plants

2. Heterotrophic: - Kind of nutrition where organisms do not possess the ability to synthesize their own
food. They depend on autotrophs for their food supply directly or indirectly. Eg. Animals, Fungi

Autotrophic Nutrition

 Autotrophs: The organisms which can make their own food are called autotrophs (green plants).

 Photosynthesis: The process by which green plants make their own food with the help of CO2 and
H2O in the presence of chlorophyll and sunlight is also called photosynthesis.

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Raw Materials for Photosynthesis:

 Sunlight

 Chlorophyll- Sunlight absorbed by chlorophyll

 CO2 - Enters through stomata and oxygen (O2) is released as by-product through stomata on leaf.

 Water - Water + dissolved minerals like nitrogen, phosphorus, etc. are taken up by the roots of the
soil.

Site of Photosynthesis:

Chloroplast in the leaf, chloroplast contains chlorophyll (green pigment).

Main Events of Photosynthesis:

 Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll

 Conversion of light energy into chemical energy and splitting of water into hydrogen and oxygen

 Reduction of CO2 to carbohydrates

Stomata : Tiny pores present on the surface of the leaves.
Functions :

 Exchange of gases O2/CO2

 Loss of water (water vapour) during transpiration.

Opening and closing of stomatal pores:

 The opening and closing of stomatal pores are controlled by the turgidity of guard cells.

 When guard cells uptake water from surrounding cells, they swell to become a turgid body, which
enlarges the pore in between (Stomatal Opening).

 Later, when water is released, they become flaccid, shrinking to close the pore (Stomatal Closing).

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Significance of Photosynthesis:
 Photosynthesis is the main way by which solar energy is made available to different living beings.
 Green plants are the main producers of food in the ecosystem. All other organisms directly or indirectly
depend on green plants for food.
 The process of photosynthesis also helps in maintaining the balance of carbon dioxide and oxygen in
the air.
Heterotrophic Nutrition
The mode of nutrition in which an organism takes food from another organism is called heterotrophic
nutrition.

Nutrition in Amoeba
 Amoeba is a unicellular animal which follows the holozoic mode of nutrition.
 In holozoic nutrition, the digestion of food follows after the ingestion of food. Thus, digestion takes
place inside the body of the organism.
 Holozoic nutrition happens in five steps, viz. ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion.

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 Ingestion: The process of taking in the food

 Digestion: The process of breaking complex food substances into simple molecules. Simple molecules,
thus obtained, can be absorbed by the body easily.
 Absorption: The process of absorption of digested food
 Assimilation: The process of utilization of digested food, for energy and for growth and repair
 Egestion: The process of removing undigested food from the body
Amoeba has a holozoic nutrition. Thus, solid food particles are ingested which react with enzymes and are
digested. It is an omnivore.
(i) Amoeba moves with the help of pseudopodia (extension of cell membrane), which also helps to
capture its food
(ii) Food vacuole is formed. Food inside the vacuole is digested
(iii) Undigested food is thrown out.
Nutrition in Human Beings
Human beings are complex animals, which have a complex digestive system. The human digestive system
is composed of an alimentary canal and some accessory digestive glands.
 The alimentary canal is divided into several parts, like oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large
intestine, rectum and anus.
 Salivary glands, gastric glands, liver and pancreas are the accessory glands which lie outside the
alimentary canal.

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1. Mouth & Buccal Cavity:

 The mouth has teeth and tongue. Salivary glands are also present in the mouth.

 The tongue has gustatory receptors which perceive the sense of taste.

 The tongue helps in turning over the food so that saliva can be properly mixed in it.

 Teeth help in breaking down the food into smaller particles so that, swallowing of food becomes easier.

 There are four types of teeth in human beings - incisors, canines, premolars and molars

 Salivary glands secrete saliva: Saliva makes the food slippery which makes it easy to swallow the
food. Saliva also contains the enzyme salivary amylase or ptyalin.

 Salivary amylase digests starch and converts it into maltose

 Oesophagus: Allows food to pass from buccal cavity to stomach by peristaltic movement.

 Peristaltic movement: Rhythmic contraction of muscles of the lining of the alimentary canal to push
the food forward.

2. Stomach

 Stomach is a bag-like organ. Highly muscular walls of the stomach help in churning the food.

 The walls of the stomach secrete hydrochloric acid.

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 Hydrochloric acid kills the germs which may be present in food.

 It makes the medium inside the stomach as acidic. The acidic medium is necessary for gastric enzymes
to work.

 The enzyme pepsin, secreted in the stomach, does partial digestion of protein.

 The mucus, secreted by the walls of the stomach saves the inner lining of the stomach from getting
damaged by the hydrochloric acid.

3. Liver: Liver is the largest gland in the human body. The liver produces bile, which gets stored in the
gall bladder. From the gall bladder, bile is released as and when required.

4. Pancreas: Pancreas is situated below the stomach. It secretes pancreatic juice which contains many
digestive enzymes.

 Bile and pancreatic juice flow into the small intestine through a duct.

 Bile breaks down fat into smaller particles. This process is called emulsification of fat. It does not
contain any enzymes for digestion

5. Small Intestine: It is a highly coiled tube-like structure.

Site for complete digestion and absorption of nutrients

 Numerous finger-like structures, called villi are present in the lining of small intestine (ileum).

 Villi increase the surface area inside the ileum so that optimum absorption can take place.

 Digested food is absorbed by villi.

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6. Large Intestine:

 Large intestine is smaller in length than the small intestine.

 Undigested food goes into the large intestine.

 Some water and salt are absorbed by the walls of the large intestine.

 The undigested food goes to the rectum, from where it is expelled out through the anus (Egestion).
II. RESPIRATION

 Respiration: The process by which a living being utilizes the food to derive energy

 Here carbohydrate is oxidized to produce energy.

 Mitochondria are the site of respiration and the energy released is stored in the form of ATP (adenosine
triphosphate).
Steps of respiration:

 Breaking down of glucose into pyruvate: This step happens in the cytoplasm. Glucose molecule is
broken down into pyruvate. Glucose molecule is composed of 6 carbon atoms, while pyruvate is
composed of 3 carbon atoms.

 Fate of Pyruvate: Further break down of pyruvate takes place in mitochondria and the molecules
formed depend on the type of respiration in a particular organism.
Types of Respiration

 Aerobic respiration: This type of respiration happens by utilising oxygen. Pyruvate is converted into
CO2. Energy is released and water molecule is also formed at the end of this process.

 Anaerobic respiration: This type of respiration happens without utilizing oxygen. Pyruvate is either
converted into ethyl alcohol or lactic acid. Ethyl alcohol is usually formed in case of anaerobic respiration
in microbes, like yeast. Lactic acid is formed in some microbes as well as in the muscle cells.

Human Respiratory System: Passage of air through the respiratory system.

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Mechanism of Breathing

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Exchange of Gases between alveolus, blood and tissues.

 Terrestrial Organism - use atmospheric oxygen for respiration

 Aquatic Organisms - use oxygen dissolved in water.
 Respiration in Plants: Respiration in plants is simpler than the respiration in animals. Gaseous
exchange occur through
1. Stomata in leaves 2. Lenticels on stems 3. General surface of the roots.
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III. TRANSPORTATION
1. Human beings like other multicellular organisms need regular supply of food, oxygen, etc., This function
is performed by circulatory system or transport system.

2. The circulatory system in human beings consists of :

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Double Circulation : Blood travels twice through the heart in one complete cycle of the body.
 Pulmonary circulation: blood moves from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart.
 Systemic circulation: blood moves from the heart to rest of the body and back to the heart.

Lymph - a straw coloured fluid that escapes from the blood capillaries into the intercellular spaces.
Lymph flows from the tissues to the heart assisting in transportation and destroying germs.

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Transportation in Plants:
There are two main conducting tissues in a plant. (a) Xylem (b) Phloem.

 Transpiration is the process by which plants lose water in the form of water vapour from the aerial
parts (leaves, stem) of the plant

 Role of Transpiration
1. Absorption and upward movement of water and minerals by creating a pull.
2. Helps in temperature regulation in plants.

 Translocation : Transport of food from leaves (food factory) to the different parts of the plant

 Lymph: There is another type of fluid also involved in transportation. This is called lymph or tissue fluid.
Through the pores present in the walls of capillaries some amount of plasma, proteins and blood cells
escape into intercellular spaces in the tissues to form the tissue fluid or lymph. It issimilar to the
plasma of blood but colourless and contains less protein. Lymph drains into lymphatic capillaries from
the intercellular spaces, which join to form large lymph vessels that finally open into larger veins.
Lymph carries digested and absorbed fat from intestine and drains excess fluid from extra cellular
space back into the blood.

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IV. EXCRETION

Excretion in human beings: The process of the removal of harmful metabolic wastes from the body is
called excretion.

 Excretory system of human beings includes :

-A pair of kidneys

-A urinary bladder

-A pair of ureters

-A urethra

 Kidney is a bean-shaped organ which lies near the vertebral column in the abdominal cavity.

 Each kidney is composed of many filtering units, called nephrons.

 Nephron is the functional unit of kidney.

 Process of Excretion

Renal artery brings in blood containing waste substances to the kidneys.

Kidney filters blood.

Urine produced in the kidneys passes through the ureters and into the urinary bladder where it is
stored until it is released through the urethra.
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 Function of Kidneys: They remove waste products from the blood i.e., urea which is produced in the
liver.
 Mechanism of Urine Formation : The Urine formation involves three steps:
1. Blood is filtered from the glomerulus into Bowman's capsule of the nephron. This
filtrate passes through the tubules of the nephron.
2. Now, useful substances from the filtrate like Na+, K+, glucose, amino acids, etc. are selectively
reabsorbed by the capillaries surrounding the nephron into the blood. The amount of water
re-absorbed depends on how much excess water there is in the body, and on how much of
dissolved waste there is to be excreted.
3. Urea, extra water and salts are secreted into the tubule & then into the ureters.

 Urine is stored in the urinary bladder until the pressure of the expanded bladder leads to the urge to
pass it out through the urethra.

 Haemodialysis: The process of purifying blood by an artificial kidney. It is meant for kidney failure
patients

 Excretion in Plants
1. Oxygen released during photosynthesis.
2. H2O by transpiration
3. Wastes may be stored in leaves, bark etc., which fall off from the plant.
4. Waste products stored as gums, resin, in old xylem
5. Plants excrete some waste into the soil around them.

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QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following is incorrect?
A) Organisms grow with time
B) Organisms must repair and maintain their structure
C) Movement of molecules does not take place among cells
D) Energy is essential for life processes
2. Select the correct statement
A) Heterotrophs can synthesise their own food
B) Autotrophs utilise solar energy for photosynthesis
C) Parasites absorb decaying food materials from the soil
D) Heterotrophs are capable of converting carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates
3. In which mode of nutrition does an organism derive its food from the body of another living
organism without killing it?
A) Saprotrophic nutrition B) Parasitic nutrition
C) Holozoic nutrition D) Autotrophic nutrition
4. The mode of nutrition found in fungi is
A) Parasitic nutrition B) Holozoic nutrition
C) Autotrophic nutrition D) Saprotrophic nutrition
5. The site of photosynthesis in the cells of a leaf is
A) chloroplast B) mitochondria C) cytoplasm D) protoplasm
6. Which process converts light energy to chemical energy?
A) Respiration B) Photosynthesis C) Transpiration D) Translocation
7. In amoeba, food is digested in the:
A) food vacuole B) mitochondria C) pseudopodia D) chloroplast
8. Which of the following events will be affected in the stomach if HCl is lacking in the gastric juice?
A) Starch breaking down into sugars B) Breaking down of fats
C) Conversion of pepsinogen into pepsin D) All of the above
9. Which region of the alimentary canal is the main site of absorption of the digested food?
A) Stomach B) Small intestine C) Large intestine D) Liver
10. When a few drops of iodine solution are added to rice water, the solution turns blue- black in
colour. This indicates that rice water contains
A) fats B) complex proteins C) starch D) simple proteins

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11. What are the final products obtained by anaerobic respiration in plants?
A) Lactic acid + Energy B) Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy
C) Ethanol + Carbon dioxide + Energy D) Pyruvate
12. Glucose is a ......carbon molecule
A) four B) five C) six D) seven
13. The breakdown of pyruvate to give carbon dioxide, water and energy takes place in
A) cytoplasm B) mitochondria C) chloroplast D) nucleus
14. Name the substance/s whose build up in the muscles during vigorous physical exercise may
cause cramps
A) Ethanol + Carbon dioxide B) Lactic acid
C) Carbon dioxide + Water D) Pyruvate
15. Name the pores on a leaf through which exchange of respiratory gases takes place
A) Lenticels B) Vacuoles C) Xylem D) Stomata
16. The respiratory pigment in human beings is
A) carotene B) blood C) haemoglobin D) mitochondria
17. Site of gas exchange in the human respiratory system is
A) alveoli B) trachea C) bronchi D) larynx
18. The energy released during the process of respiration is used to make a chemical called
A) ATP B) ADP C) Pyruvate D) Lactic acid
19. When air is blown through lime water it turns milky because of.....
A) Water B) Carbon dioxide C) Limestone D) Oxygen
20. Which plant tissue transports water and minerals from the roots to the leaf?
A) Xylem B) Phloem C) Parenchyma D) Collenchyma
21. The movement of food through phloem is called
A) transpiration B) translocation C) respiration D) evaporation
22. Most of the plants absorb nitrogen from the soil in the form of
A) proteins B) nitrates and nitrites
C) atmospheric nitrogen D) amino acids
23. Backflow of blood from the ventricles into the atria is prevented by
A) septal walls B) nodal tissues C) valves D) both B and C
24. Single circulation is exhibited by
A) amphibians B) lizards C) fish D) all vertebrates

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25. Name the tubes which connect the kidneys to the urinary bladder.
A) Urethra B) Nephrons C) Tubules D) Ureters
26. Blood containing nitrogenous wastes is filtered in the
A) heart B) lungs C) ureter D) kidneys
27. The procedure used for removing nitrogenous wastes from the blood of a person with kidney
failure is called
A) excretion B) filtration C) dialysis D) double circulation
28. Identify the correct path of urine in the human body.
A) Kidney  urinary bladder  urethra  ureter
B) Urinary bladder  ureter  kidney  urethra
C) Kidney  ureter  urethra  urinary bladder
D) Kidney  ureter  urinary bladder  urethra
29. Plants can remove their waste products by
A)photosynthesis B) transpiration C) shedding of leaves D) all of the above
30. Match the following
Column I Column II

a. Pulmonary vein p. Short small intestine

b. Pulmonary artery q. Long small intestine

c. Gums and resins [Link] waste products

d. Herbivores s. Deoxygenated blood

t. Oxygenated blood

A) a - s, b – q, c – p, d - t B) a -t , b – s, c – r, d – q
C) a -t , b – r, c– q, d - s D) a - s, b – t, c – r, d - q

ANSWERS
1. C 6. B 11. C 16. C 21. B 26. D
2. B 7. A 12. C 17. A 22. B 27. C
3. B 8. C 13. B 18. A 23. C 28. D
4. D 9. B 14. B 19. B 24. C 29. D
5. A 10. C 15. D 20. A 25. D 30. B

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CHAPTER - 10
CONTROL AND COORDINATION

INTRODUCTION
 All living organisms respond and react to changes in the environment around them.
 Change in the external or internal environment which causes a change in an organism or any of it’s
body parts  Stimuli
 Change in organism resulting from a stimulus  Response
 Living organisms use systems providing Control and Co-ordination
 Both plants and animal respond to stimuli but in different manner.
 In multicellular organisms specialised tissues are used to provide these control and co-
ordination activities.
Systems for Control and Co-ordination in Animals
 Brought about by two main systems,
1. Nervous system
2. Endocrine system
Animals- Nervous System
Control and co-ordination activities are provided by nervous and muscular tissues.
 Nervous tissue is made up of an organised network of nerve cells or neurons which is specialised
for conducting information via electrical impulses from one part of the body to another.
Receptors
 Specialised tips of some nerve cells that detect the information from the environment
 Located in sense organs.

Receptors

1. Ear 2. Eye 3. Skin 4. Nose 5. Tongue

Phonoreceptor Photoreceptor Thermoreceptor Olfactory receptor Gustatory receptor
Help in hearing Receive light Help to feel heat, Detection of smell Detection of taste
and maintain cold, touch etc.
balance in body Help in seeing

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 Difference in food taste occurs when nose is blocked because the receptors of smell and taste
are chemoreceptors respond to, chemical stimuli. These two receptors complement each other.
Once nose is blocked the chemical that contribute to smell and taste cannot stimulate the receptors.
Without smell food tend to taste bland and have little flavour.
Neuron

 Neuron - Structural and functional unit of nervous system.

 Microscopic structure; Composed of three parts,
1. Cyton (Cell body)
2. Dendrites
3. Axon
 Cyton  cell body contains cytoplasm and cell organelles

 Dendrites  short fibres which branch repeatedly and project out cell body
These fibres transmit impulses towards the cell body
 Axon  Long fibre, the distal end of which is branched. Each branch terminates as a bulb like
structure  synaptic knob. Which contain synaptic vesicle containing chemicals  neurotransmitters.
Axons transmit nerve impulses away from cell body to a synapse or to a neuromuscular junction.
Myelin sheath  Insulator cover around the axon
There are two types of axon, (1) Myelinated axon (2) Non myelinated axon
Types of neuron

These neuron receive

1. Sensory neuron -
signals from a sense organ

These neuron send signals

2. Motor neuron -
to a muscle or a gland
These neurons relay the
Association/Relay
3. - signal between sensory
neuron
neuron and motor neuron

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Synapse - The point contact between the term inal branches of axon of
one neuron with dendrite of another neuron.

Neuromuscular junction

It is point where a muscle fibre comes in contact with another neuron carrying nerve impulse from
central nervous system.

Functioning of neuron

 The information from receptors is acquired at the end of dendrite tip of a nerve cell as chemical
reaction that create an electrical impulse.

 This impulse travels from the dendrite to the cell body and then at the end of the axon.

 Chemicals are released at the end of the axon by the effect of electrical impulse

 The chemicals cross the gap and start a similar electrical impulse in a dendrite of the next neuron.

 The similar synapse finally allows delivery of such impulses from neuron to other cells such as muscles,
cells or gland.

Pathway

Dendrites Cell body axon Synapse

dendrite of
next neuron / muscle

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Reflex action

 Sudden and involuntary response to a stimuli

 It helps organisms to quickly adapt to adverse circumstances.
Eg: withdrawal of hand from hot object knee jerk reflex
 The path followed by the impulse during a reflex action is called reflex arc
 Reflex arc can be represented as;

Stimulus Receptor Sensory neuron

Central nervous System

(Spinal cord)

Response Muscle / gland Motor

[Effector] neuron

 Receptor comes in contact with stimulus

 Sensory neuron pick signals from receptor and send to relay neuron (present in spinal cord)
 Spinal cord send signal to effector via motor neuron
 Effector generate response

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Need of reflex action

Human Nervous System

Consist of two parts
1) Central nervous system (CNS) - Consists of brain and spinal cord
2) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - Consists of
1) Cranial nerves (12 pairs) - arise from brain
2) Spinal nerves (31 pairs) - arise from spinal cord
Central Nervous System
Human Brain

 Complex organ

 Composed of nervous tissue

 Enclosed in brain box (cranium)

 covered by three layered membrane called meninges

 Cerebrospinal fluid between these layers

 It act as shock absorber

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Parts of Human brain

1) Forebrain includes Cerebrum, Thalamus, Hypothalamus

2) Midbrain
3) Hindbrain  Cerebellum, pons, medulla oblongata

Functions
Cerebrum

 Largest part in human brain

 divided into two hemispheres
 Control voluntary motor action
 site of sensory perceptions
 site of learning, thinking, memory

Thalamus  Act as relay center

Hypothalamus

 Base of cerebrum
 has thermoregulatory role
 also control urge for eating and drinking

Cerebellum

 Lies below cerebrum

 maintain posture and balance of body
 It controls the precision of voluntary action

Medulla

 Lies at the base of brain and continues as spinal cord.

 Controls various involuntary functions like heart beat, respiration etc.
 Blood pressure, salivation, vomiting centers located in medulla.

Pons

 Relays impulses between the lower cerebellum and spinal cord and
higher parts of the brain like cerebrum and midbrain
 Regulates respiration.

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Spinal cord

 Control reflex action

 conduct messages between different parts of the body and brain.
 Protected in vertebral column

 Midbrain and hindbrain control many involuntary functions

 Brain stem = midbrain + pons + medulla
 Midbrain - Relay impulses back and forth between forebrain and hindbrain
Protection of Brain and Spinal Cord
• Brain is protected by a fluid filled balloon which act as shock absorber and is enclosed in cranium
(skull or brain box)
• Spinal cord is enclosed in vertebral column.
Co-ordination between Nervous and Muscular tissue
 for taking place the voluntary actions the brain has to send messages to muscles.
 The communication between CNS and the other parts of the body is facilitated by PNS.
 Brain allows us to think and take action based on that thinking

Sensory nerve
Sense organ CNS
Information received &
Processed
stimulus
Decisionmade
Motor nerve

Muscle Shortens Muscles

Rearrangement of
muscle proteins
Response generated

Limitations of electric communication/ Nervous system

 Electrical impulse will reach only to those cells that are connected by nervous tissue.
 After generation and transmission of an electrical impulse the cell take some time to reset it’s
mechanism before transmitting other impulse. So cells cannot continually create and transmit impulse.
 Chemical communication (Hormones) overcome the limitation of electric communication.
Co-ordination in plants
Types of movements in plants,

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II Independent of growth
 Movement which are not growth related  Nastic Movements
 This movements occur in response to a stimulus but the direction of response is not dependent
on the direction of the stimulus.
 Shows immediate response to stimulus
 Plants use electrochemical means to convey information cell to cell.
 For movements to happen cells change their shape.
by changing the amount of water in them resulting in swelling in or shrinking of cells.
Example: Drooping of leaves of touch me not plant on touching it
II Dependent on growth
 Movements which are growth related  Tropic movements
s
 Movements occur in response to environmental stimuli and the direction of response is dependent
on the direction of the stimulus.
 Tendrils sensitive to touch. The pair of the tendril away from the object grows more rapidly as
compared to the part near the object.
 Tropic movements are slow, the stimulus needs to be continued for a longer time for the effects.
Different types of tropic movements are :-

1. Phototropism * The movemnent of plant parts towards or away from light

* Shoots of most plants grows towards light Positive phototropism.
* Roots grows away from light Negative phototropism

2. Geotropism * movement of plant part in response to gravity

* Roots positively geotropic
* Shoots negativley geotropic

3. Thigmotropism * The movement of plant parts in response to touch

* Weak stemmed plants use twining stems and tendrils to climb on other
plants
* Twining stems and tendrils Positively thigmotropic

4. Hydrotropism * The movement of plant parts in response to water

* Roots are positively hydrotropic

5. Chemotropism * Movement of plant part in response to chemical stimulus

* Pollen tube grows towards the ovule - positive chemotropism

Plant Hormones
Plant Hormones are chemical compounds which helps to coordinate growth development and
responses to the environment.

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Hormones Functions
* Promote growth of plants
1. Auxins * Secreted by the cells present in the tip of stem and roots
* Synthetic auxins are also used in horticulture

2. Gibberellins * Promote cell differentiation

* Break seed dormancy
* Stimulate elongation of shoots

3. Cytokinins * Promotes cell division in plants

* Delay aging in leaves
* Promotes opening of stomata
* High concentration present in young fruits and seeds

4. Abscisic Acid * Act as growth inhibitor

* Promotes dormancy in seeds and buds
* Promotes closing of stomata
* Promotes wilting and falling of leaves
* Falling of flowers and fruits from plants occurs due to
abscisic Acid

Hormones in animals
Hormones are the chemical substances which co-ordinate the activities of living organism and
also their growth.
Endocrine gland  Ductless gland
 Secretions are hormones
 Product released in to the blood

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Endocrine glands are;

1. Growth hormones Pituitary gland * Essential for growth

* Regulates metabolism
2. Thyroxine Thyroid gland
* Increases basal metabolic rate
3. Insulin Pancreas * Regulates blood glucose level
* Prepares the body for the fight
4. Adrenaline Adrenal gland
and flight mechanism
* Stimulate sperm production
* Control the development of
5. Testosterone Testes secondary sexual characters
* Control the development of sex
organs in male
* Egg production
* Control the development of
6. Oestrogen Ovaries secondary sexual characters
* Contol the development of sex
organs in female
* Stimulate pituitary gland to
7. Releasing hormones Hypothalamus
release hormones

Importance of Iodine
Iodised salt is necessary because iodine is essential part of thyroxine hormone. Thyroxine regulates
carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism. So iodine essential for the proper working of thyroid
gland. It’s deficiency causes Goiter.
Diabetes
Disease in which blood sugar level increases.
Cause- due to deficiency of Insulin hormone
Treatment - Injection of insulin hormone
Feed back mechanism
The excess or deficiency of hormones has a harmful effect on our body. Feed back mechanism make
sure that hormones should be secreted in precise quantity and at right time.
Example - Feed back mechanism to control the sugar level in blood

Sugar level in blood of rises

Detected by cells of pancreas

feedback sent
Switch off

Synthesis of Insulin

Blood sugar level falls

Stop secreting more insulin

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QUESTIONS
1. Impulse is generated when
A) Response is over B) Response is going to over
C) Stimulus is gained D) Stimulus is over
2. Which among them is not a voluntary action of body
A) Walking B) Talking C) Writing D) Breathing
3. Hypothalamus is a part of
A) Fore brain B) Mid brain
C) Hind brain D) Medulla
4. Which of the following is a plant hormone
A) Insulin B) Thyroxine C) Oestrogen D) Cytokinin
5. The gap between two neurons
A) Dendrite B) Synapse C) Axon D) Impulse
6. Roots of plants are
A) Positively geotropic B) Negatively geotropic
C) Positively phototropic D) None of these
7. Any change in the environment to which an organism responds is called
A) Stimulus B) Co-ordination C) Response D) Hormone
8. Which nerves transmit impulses from the central nervous system towards muscle cells
A) Sensory nerve B)Motor nerve
C) Relay nerves D) Cranial nerves

9.

Give the missing term

A) Spinal cord B) Fore brain C) Cranial nerve D) Relay nerves
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10. Which gland secretes the growth hormone

A) Pituitary gland B) Thyroid gland C) Hypothalamus D) Adrenal gland

11. What is the difference between a reflex action and walking?

Ans : A reflex action is a rapid, automatic response to a stimulus. It does not involve any thinking. For
example, we close our eyes immediately when the bright light is focused. Walking, on the other
hand, is a voluntary action. It is under our conscious control.

12. What happens at the synapse between two neurons?

Ans : A very small gap that occurs between the last portion of axon of one neuron and the dendron of
the other neuron is known as a synapse. It acts as a one way valve to transmit impulses in one
direction only. This uni-direction transfer of Impulses occurs as the chemicals are produced in only
one side of the neuron i.e., the axon’s side. From axon, the impulses travel across the synapse to the
dendron of the other neuron.

13. How do we detect smell of an incense stick?

Ans : The thinking part of our brain is the forebrain. It has separate areas that are specialized for
hearing, smell, sight, taste, touch, etc. The forebrain also has regions that collect information or
impulses from the various receptors. When the smell of an incense stick reaches us, our forebrain
detects it. Then, the forebrain interprets it by putting it together with the information received from
other receptors and also with the information already stored in the brain.

14. How is the movement of leaves of the sensitive plant different from the movement of a shoot towards
light?

Ans : The movement of leaves of the sensitive plant, Mimosa pudica or ‘touch me not”, occurs in
response to touch or contact stimuli. This movement is independent of growth. The movement of
shoot towards light is known as phototropism. This type of movement is directional and is growth
dependent.

15. What are plant hormones ?

Ans : Plant hormones, also known as phytohormones, are chemical substances produced in plants
that control and regulate their growth, development, and responses to the environment. They are
usually produced in one part of the plant and transported to another part where they perform specific
functions, even in very small amounts. The important plant hormones are: auxin, gibberellin, cytokinin,
abscisic acid and ethylene.

16. Why is the use of iodised salt is important ?

Ans : Iodine stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroxin hormone. It regulates carbohydrate, fat,
and protein. metabolism in our body. Deficiency of this hormone results in the enlargement of the
thyroid gland. This can lead to goitre, a disease characterized by swollen neck. Therefore, iodised
salt is advised for normal functioning of the thyroid gland.

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17. How does our body respond when adrenaline is secreted into the blood?

Ans : Adrenalin is a hormone secreted by the adrenal glands in case of any danger or emergency or
any kinds of stress. It is secreted directly into the blood and is transported to different parts of the
body. When secreted in large amounts, speeds up the heartbeat and hence supplies more oxygen to
the muscles. The breathing rate also increases due to contractions of diaphragm and rib muscles. It
also increases the blood pressure. All these responses enable the body to deal with any stress or
emergency.

18. What is the function of receptors in our body? What problems are likely to arise if receptors do not
work properly?

Ans : Receptors are special parts in our body that help us feel things like touch, heat, cold, pain, and
sound. If receptors do not work properly, we may not feel anything, and our body may not react to
danger, like not knowing if something is too hot or sharp.

19. Draw the structure of neuron and explain it’s function?

Ans : Neurons are the functional units of the nervous system. The three main parts of a neuron are
axon, dendrite, and cell body.

Functions of the three parts of a neuron:

Axon: It conducts messages away from the cell body.

Dendrite: It receives information from axon of another cell and conducts the messages towards the
cell body.

Cell body: It contains nucleus, mitochondria, and other organelles. It is mainly concerned with the
maintenance and growth.

20. Which signal will get disrupted in the case of spinal cord injury?

Ans : The reflex arc connections between the input and output nerves meet in a bundle in the spinal
cord. In fact, nerves from all over the body meet in a bundle in the spinal cord on their way to the brain.
In case of any injury to the spinal cord, the signals coming from the nerves as well as the signals
coming to the receptors will be disrupted.

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21. How does chemical co-ordination on occur in plants ?

Ans : In animals, control and coordination occur with the help of nervous system. However, plants do
not have a nervous system. Plants respond to stimuli by showing movements. The growth, development,
and responses to the environment in plants is controlled and coordinated by a special class of chemical
substances known as hormones. These hormones are produced in one part of the plant body and
are translocated to other needy parts. For example, a hormone produced in roots is translocated to
other parts when required. The five major types of phytohormone are auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins,
abscisic acid, and ethylene. These phytohormones are either growth promoters (such as auxins,
gibberellins, cytokinins, and ethylene) or growth inhibitors such as abscisic acid.

22. What is the difference between the manner in which movement takes place in a sensitive plant and
movement in our legs ?
Ans : Movement in sensitive plants
The movement that takes place in a sensitive plant such as Mimosa pudica occurs in response to
touch (stimulus). For this movement, the information is transmitted from cell to cell by electro-chemical
signals as plants do not have any specialised tissue for conduction of [Link] this movement to
occur, the plant cells change shape by changing the amount of water in them.
Movement in our legs
Movement in our legs is an example of voluntary actions. The signal or messages for these actions
are passed to the brain and hence are consciously controlled. In animal muscle cells, some proteins
are found which allow the movement to occur.
23. Name the plant hormones responsible for the following
A) Elongation of cells B) Growth of stem
C) Promotion of cell division D) Falling of senescent leaves
Ans : A) Elongation of cells - Auxin
B) Growth of stem - Gibberellin
C) Promotion of cell division - Cytokinin
D) Falling of senescent leave - Abscisic acid
24. What are the major parts of Brain? Mention the functions of different parts
Ans : Parts of Human brain
1) Forebrain includes Cerebrum, Thalamus, Hypothalamus
2) Midbrain
3) Hindbrain Cerebellum, pons, medulla oblongata

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Functions
Cerebrum :Largest part in human brain, divided into two hemispheres Control voluntary motor action
site of sensory perceptions site of learning, thinking, memory

Thalamus : Act as relay center

Hypothalamus :Base of cerebrum has thermoregulatory role also control urge for eating and drinking

Cerebellum : Lies below cerebrum maintain posture and balance of body It controls the precision of
voluntary action.

Medulla : Lies at the base of brain and continues as spinal cord. Controls various involuntary functions
like heart beat, respiration etc. Blood pressure, salivation, vomiting centers located in medulla.

Pons :Relays impulses between the lower cerebellum and spinal cord and higher parts of the brain
like cerebrum and midbrain Regulates respiration.

Spinal cord : Control reflex action conduct messages between different parts of the body and brain.
Protected in vertebral column

Midbrain and hindbrain control many involuntary functions.

Brain stem = midbrain + pons + medulla
Midbrain - Relay impulses back and forth between forebrain and hindbrain.
25. What will happen if intake of iodine in our diet is low?

Ans : If the intake of iodine in our diet is low, it can cause a disease called [Link] this condition, the
thyroid gland in the neck swells up because it cannot make enough thyroid hormone. It may also
lead to problems like slow growth, tiredness, and poor mental development, especially in children.

26. What is tropic movement? Explain with an example

Ans : Tropic movement is a type of movement in plants that happens in response to a stimulus like
light, water, gravity, or touch. This movement is in a specific direction—either towards or away
from the stimulus.

Example:

Phototropism – When a plant bends towards light, it is called positive phototropism. This
helps the plant get more sunlight for photosynthesis.

For example, the stem of a plant grows towards sunlight.

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27. What type of plant movement is seen in the coiling of tendril? How do auxins promote the growth of
tendril around a support?

Ans : The coiling of a tendril around a support is an example of thigmotropism, which is a tropic
movement in response to touch. When a tendril touches a support, auxins move to the opposite
side of the tendril (the side that is not touching). This causes the cells on that side to grow faster,
making the tendril bend and coil around the support.
28. Represent the path way of electrical impulse in a neuron?
Ans :

29. How does pancreas control glucose level of blood?

Ans : The pancreas controls the glucose level in the blood by producing two important hormones:
insulin and glucagon. When the blood sugar level is high, the pancreas releases insulin, which
helps the body cells absorb glucose from the blood, thus lowering the sugar level. On the other hand,
when the blood sugar level is low, the pancreas releases glucagon, which signals the liver to release
stored glucose back into the blood. In this way, the pancreas helps maintain a normal and balanced
level of glucose in the blood.
30. What is dormin?
Ans : Dormin is another name for the plant hormone abscisic acid (ABA).
It is called dormin because it helps to cause dormancy in seeds and buds, meaning it slows down
or stops growth during unfavourable conditions like winter or drought.

ANSWERS
1. C 3. A 5. B 7. A 9. A

2. D 4. D 6. A 8. B 10. A

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CHAPTER - 11
HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE ?

 Nutrition, Respiration, Reproduction, Excretion etc. are the life process of an organism

 But Reproduction is not necessary to maintain the life of an individual

Importance of Reproduction:-

 Reproduction is a process by which a living organism produces a new individuals of their own kind and
maintain their existence generation to generation.

 It is the characteristic of all living organism.

 It is an essential life process which helps in survival/existence of species.

 In the absence of reproduction a species would become extinct.

 The beneficial characteristic from parent to their offsprings are transferred by the process of reproduction
and helps in the course of evolution.

 It helps in maintaining continuity of the race and group immortality.

Do Organism create exact copies of themselves?([Link] is the importance of DNA copying in
reproduction?

 The genetic material DNA (Genes are made of DNA) found in the chromosomes, present in the nucleus,
responsible for all characters of an individual including physiological process.

 A child (offspring) looks similar to their parents at least in some characters because
the child inherits two copies of DNA (One from mother & the other from father).

 DNA is the source of information for making proteins. Any change in the information leads to production
of different proteins, which ultimately lead to altered body designs.

 Basic event in reproduction is DNA replication (production of DNA copies in a reproducing cell).

 When the cell divides into two, each cell gets a copy of each DNA of the chromosome along with the
whole cellular apparatus

 Complete accuracy in DNA copying leads to exactly identical cells but any error (mutation) can lead to
dissimilar cells or variations. Variations may be beneficial/harmful, such as some diseases.

 DNA copying in sexually reproducing organisms produces variations, which give better survival
advantages to the species. It is the basis of evolution.

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Variations:-

 Variation is the change in the characters of an individuals which has not existed in their parents

 Accumulation of variations occur in generation to generation will leads to new species.

Importance of variations:-

 Organisms occupy well defined places, or niches, in the ecosystem, using their ability to reproduce.

 The consistency of DNA copying during reproduction is important for the maintenance of body design
features. It allows the organism to use that particular niche.

 Variations helps in the adaptation to particular environment and give them a chance of survival.

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 Variations provides stability to population

2. Why is variation beneficial to the species but not necessarily for the individual?

 Species occupy well-defined spaces in the ecosystem, called niches (immediate environment) by
increasing their population through reproduction.

 Sometimes the environmental conditions change drastically, such as an increase in temperature, may
cause a threat to the survival of the species in that niche (environment)

 If the species have variations within the population, some of the variants might be able to adapt with the
change, and these variants will survive, and the other individuals with no desirable variations will die.

 Thus, these variants help in the survival of species. But, not all variations are beneficial for individual
organisms

Example (Thermophilic bacteria):-If the temperature of water increases suddenly, most of the bacteria
living in that water would die. Only few variants that are resistant to heat would be able to survive. Such
bacteria are called thermophilic bacteria. If these variants were not there, then the entire population of
bacteria would have been destroyed. Thus variants help in the survival of the species. However, all
variations are not necessarily beneficial for the individual organisms.

3. Why is DNA copying an essential part of the process of reproduction?

 Because DNA (Gene) passes genetic information from parents to their offspings, and determines the
body design of an individual.

 The reproducing cell produce a copy of DNA by DNA replication and forms two copies of DNA.

 The copying of DNA takes place along with the creation of additional cellular structures. It is followed
by division of a cell to form two cells.

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Types of Asexual Reproduction

1. Fission:-

 It is the simplest form of reproduction, in which unicellular organisms either divides into two or many
organisms
A. Binary fission:-

 It is a type of fission in which nucleus divides first (Karyokinesis) followed by cytoplasmic division
(Cytokinesis), to form two daughter cells (Individuals)
(i) Irregular binary fission:-Eg:-Amoeba

 splitting takes place in any plane

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(ii) Longitudinal binary fission:-Eg:- Euglena / Leishmania

 Euglena & Leishmania possess a whip like locomotory structure called Flagellum

 Leishmania cause a disease called Kala-azar

(iii) Transverse binary fission:-Eg:- Paramecium

 Macro nucleus:-Controls non-reproductive function

 Micro nucleus:-Contains genetic material, involves in reproduction

B. Multiple fission:-Eg:- Plasmodium (Malarial parasite)

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 Nucleus divides several times to form many nuclei, and little cytoplasm around each daughter nuclei.

 Then the multinucleated body divides into many daughter cell (Merozoites).

 When the condition become favorable the daughter cells come out by breaking the protective cyst.
2. Budding:- Eg:-Yeast (Unicellular) & Hydra (Multicellular)
 Daughter individual is formed from a small projection of parent body (Bud), is called budding.
 In yeast chain of buds are formed, then separates from the parental body.

 In Hydra, a bud develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell division at one specific site. These
buds develop into tiny individuals and obtain nourishment from the parental body. When it fully mature,
tiny individual detach from the parent body and become new independent individuals

3. Regeneration:-Eg:-Planarian, Hydra
 The process of getting back a full organism from the body parts of the present individual is called
regeneration. Regeneration is carried out by specialised cell
Planaria (Flat worm)

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Hydra

 Regeneration is not same as reproduction, because in certain organism only the part of the organism
is regenerated.
Eg:-Tail of lizard is regenerated (But the cut off tail is not regenerated to form new individual)
Starfish have the ability to regenerate an arm when they lose one.
4. Fragmentation:-Sponges, spirogyra

 If the individual is cut or broken up into many pieces, many of these pieces grow into separate individuals,
is called fragmentation.
5. Sporulation (Spore formation):- Eg:- Fungi - Rhizopus (Bread mould)

 During this process a tiny bulb - on - a - stick structures formed are called Sporangium. Nucleus
divides several times and each nucleus with a little cytoplasm forms [Link] spores are covered
by thick walls (Cyst) and liberated out and develop into new hyphae. When contact with another moist
surface and can begin to grow.

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Vegetative propagation:-

 This is an asexual method of reproduction in plants, where vegetative parts namely root, stem and
leaves give rise to new plant
(A) Natural vegetative propagation:-
 Plants reproduce without the help of human beings
 By leaves:-Adventitious buds produced in the notches along the margin of leaves. Then the buds fall
on the soil and develops into new plant. Eg:-Bryophyllum

 By Stem:- In many plants, underground stems produce aerial shoots annually under favorable conditions.
Eg:- Potato, Ginger, Onion, Elephant yam, Colacasia
Potato Ginger

 By roots:-Roots produce adventitious buds which develop into new plants.

Eg:-Sweet potato
(B) Artificial vegetative propagation:-

 To prepare plants with desirable characters

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1. Cutting:- Rose, Sugar cane, Potato, Cactus

2. Grafting:- Mango, Apple, Lemon

3. Layering:- Jasmine, Hibiscus

4. Tissue Culture:- Orchids. Chrysanthemum / Ornamental plants

 First we have to scrap/remove cells/tissue from the growing tip of the plant.

 The cells are then placed in an artificial medium where they divide rapidly to form a small group of cells
called callus

 The callus is transferred to another medium containing hormones for growth and differentiation.

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 The plantlets are then placed in the soil so that they can grow into mature plants.

Advantage of Vegetative propagation:-

 It is a rapid, cheap and easy method of reproduction for the multiplication of plants.

 Disease free plants can be produced

 Superior quality of fruits or flowers can be produced by grafting

 Genetically identical plants are produced

 Plants raised by vegetative propagation can bear flowers and fruits more than those produced from
seeds.

 The propagation of plants such as banana, orange, rose and jasmine that have lost the capacity to
produce seeds

 Virus free plants are produced by micropropagation

4. Why is vegetative propagation practised for growing some types of plants?

 It helps to introduce plants in new areas where seed germination fails to produce mature plants due to
changes in environmental factors and the soil. It is a more rapid, easier, and cheaper method.

 Vegetative propagation is practiced for growing plants which usually do not produce seeds or produce
non-viable seeds. (Eg:-Banana, orange, rose and jasmine)

 Moreover, all plants produced through vegetative propagation are genetically similar to the parent plant.

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5. How does binary fission differ from multiple fission?

Binary fission Multiple fission

An organism divides into two An organism produces two

1 1
similar organisms or more organisms
A cyst or thick layer is not formed A cyst or thick layer is
2 2
around the cell formed around the cell

It generally occurs in favourable It can take place in

3 conditions 3 unfavourable conditions too
Example: Amoeba, paramecium Example:Malarial parasite

6. How will an organism be benefited if it reproduces through spores?

 An organism is benefited by reproducing through the spores because spores are surrounded by a
thick layer (Cyst) which protects them in adverse conditions. When the favourable conditions occur,
these spores start to grow again. In this way they are successfully live in unfavourable conditions.

 Spores are very light weight and they easily get dispersed through winds which give them more variations
and thus better chances of survival.

7. Can you think of reasons why more complex organisms cannot give rise to new individuals through
regeneration?---Page # 133

 In complex multicellular organisms, specialised cells make up tissues, tissue make up organs, organs
make up organ systems and finally organ systems make up organisms. Since complex multicellular
organisms have a very high degree of organisation in their body, they cannot be reproduced from their
cut body parts by the process of regeneration.

 Eg:-A dog is a complex multicellular organism which cannot be regenerated from its cut body part say,
a cut tail. This is because the cells present in the cut tail of a dog cannot produce dog's organs like
heart, brain, lungs, stomach, intestines and limbs, etc, needed for the making of a complete dog.

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants [Angiosperms]

 Reproductive part is flower, on which essential reproductive structures are inserted.

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Unisexual flower:-
 If a flower contains either stamens (Male) or carpel (Female) is known as unisexual flower.
Eg:-Papaya, Watermelon
Bisexual flower:-
 If stamen and carpel are seen in same flower is called Bisexual flower.
Eg:-Hibiscus, Mustard
Non-essential parts of flower:-
 Calyx-Green in colour, protects the flower bud. Individual units are called Sepals
 Corolla-Individual units are called Petals. Corolla attracts insects for pollination
Essential Parts (Reproductive part):-
 Androecium/Stamens (Male part)-It consists of anther & filament. Stamens produces pollen grains
and placed in anther.
 Each pollen grains produces two male gametes / male germ cells
 Gynoecium/Carpel/Pistil (Female part) - Stigma, Style and Ovary together constitute carpel
1. Ovary:-Is a swollen basal part of the carpel, in which ovules are located and each ovule contains an
embryo sac that bears a haploid egg cell (Female gamete)
2. Style:- Is the middle part of carpel through which pollen tube travels.
3. Stigma:- Is the apical part of carpel and it receives pollen grains.
Pollination:-
 Process in which pollen grains are transferred from ripe anther to stigma of the same flower / to
different flower of the same plant / or to another plant of same species is called pollination.
1. Self-pollination:-It is the transfer of pollen grains from an anther to the stigma of the same flower.
Eg:-Pea
2. Cross-pollination:-It is the transfer of pollen grains from one flower to another flower.
Eg:-Mango

Agencies of pollination

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Fertilization:-

 It is the process of fusion of male and female gamete, which takes place in the embryosac present in
the ovule.

 After pollination, pollen grains germinate on the stigma to form a pollen tube

 The nucleus in the pollen tube divides to form two male gametes.

 Pollen tube penetrates the stigma and passes through the style and enters the ovule through micropyle

 It releases two male gametes in embryo sac.

 One male gamete fuse with an egg cell to form zygote.

 The second male gamete fuse with two polar nuclei to form endosperm, which nourishes the zygote.

 Then the zygote divides several times to form an embryo within the ovule

 The ovule develops a tough coat and is gradually converted into a seed.

 The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit.

Ovary develops into------------------------------Fruit

Ovule develops into -----------------------------Seed

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Germination of pollen grains

 Then the petals, sepals, stamens and stigma may shrivel and fall off.

 In tomato, brinjal, strawberry, the sepals (calyx) of flower persists in the fruit.

Germination:-

 The seed contains the future plant or embryo which develops into a seedling under appropriate conditions.
This process is known as germination.

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8. How is the process of pollination different from fertilisation?

Pollination Fertilisation
Fertilisation occurs when the male
The fransfer of pollen grains from the anther
gamete present in pollen grain joins
1 of a stamen to the stigma of a carpel is called 1
with the female gamete (or egg)
pollination
present in ovule
It takes place by natural or artificial
2 It takes place by various pollinating agents 2
means

REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEINGS

 Human beings are bisexual with two separate sexes - Male & Female

 The male & female show distinctive features called secondary sexual characteristics.

 All these characters arrive after puberty

Puberty:-

 It is the transition stage in Adolescence (B/w 10 & 19 years of age)

 The age at which the gametes and sex hormones to be produced and the boy & girl become sexually
mature is called puberty.

 In human female, the age of puberty is 10 - 14 years

 In human male, the age of puberty is 13 - 16 years

Secondary sexual characters develop in Boys--by the influence of sex hormone (Testosterone)

 Development of pubic and armpit hair

 Increased activity of sweat glands and sebaceous glands

 Reaching mental, intellectual and emotional maturity

 Development of beard and moustache

 Voice box/Larynx/Adam's apple begins to grow, and develop deep voice

 Reproductive organs grow and start functioning. (Testes & Penis - occasionally erect in day dreams /
at night)

 Widening of shoulder

 Oily skin & appearance of pimples

 Darkening the skin color of genital area

Secondary sexual characters develop in Girls - by the influence of sex hormone (Estrogen)

9. What are the changes seen in girls at the time of puberty?

 Enlargement of breast (Mammary glands)

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 Development of pubic and armpit hair

 Broadening of pelvic/hip/buttocks area

 Beginning of menstrual cycle

 Reproductive organs grow and start functioning.

 Increased activity of sweat glands and sebaceous glands

 Reaching mental, intellectual and emotional maturity

 High pitch voice

 Darkening the skin color of genital area

 Maturation of fallopian tube (Oviduct)

Male Reproductive system:-It includes.
1. Primary sex organ - Pair of Testes (Testicles):- Produces Sperms &Testosterone

 The testes are situated outside the abdominal cavity within a pouch called scrotum

 The scrotum helps in maintaining the low temperature of the testes (2-2.5° C lower than the normal
internal body temperature) necessary for spermatogenesis.

 Each testis contains about 250 compartments called testicular lobules

 Each lobule contains 1 to 3 highly coiled seminiferous tubules (Structural and functional unit of
testis) in which sperms are produced.

2. Acessory ducts:-

 Route of sperm:-Seminiferous tubule(Main duct)--->Rete testis-->Vasa efferentia-->

Epididymis--->Vas deferens--->Ejaculatory duct--->Urethra--->Urethral meatus

 The sperms formed in testis (seminiferoustubule) are delivered through the vas deferens which unites
with a tube coming from the urinary bladder (urethra). So the urethra is a common passage for both
the sperms and urine. Hence it is called Urinogenital duct

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3. Accessory glands:-It includes

(i) Paired Seminal vesicles (ii) Paired Bulbo urethral gland (Cowper's gland)

(iii) Unpaired prostate gland

 The secretions of these glands provides easy transport & nutrition to sperm

Structure of sperm (Spermatozoa):-

 Sperm consists of Head, Neck, Middle piece and Tail. Head consists of haploid nucleus and has
genetic material (DNA)

 It has long tail which helps them to move towards the egg, through female genital tract

 Middle piece has spirally arranged mitochondria, which provides energy for the movement of sperm

10. What is the role of the seminal vesicles and the prostate gland?

(i) Both seminal vesicle and prostate gland secretes fluids which forms a part of the semen. The fluid
secreted from seminal vesicle forms 60% of semen while the fluid secreted from the prostate gland
forms 30% of the semen. It makes the path smooth through which the sperms travel.

(ii) This fluid protects the sperms from the acids present in the urethra.

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(iii) This fluid provides nutrition to sperms in the form of fructose, calcium and some enzymes.
(iv) Secretion of Bulbo urethral glands lubricates the penis during copulation/coitus

 Secretion of glands is called Seminal plasma

 Semen = Sperm + seminal plasma [Fructose, Calcium & certain enzymes]

Female Reproductive system:- Located in pelvic region. It includes the following

1. Primary Sex organ (Pair of Ovaries):- Produce Ovum and Oestrogen& Progesterone

 Located one on each side of lower abdomen

2. Acessory (Secondary) sex organ:-

(i).Pair of Oviducts (Fallopian tube) (ii) Uterus (iii) Vagina (Copulation canal)

Single Uterus (Womb):-

 The two oviducts unite to form an elastic bag-like structure known as the uterus.

 The uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix.

 The cervical canal along with vagina forms birth canal.

Fertilization:-

 The sperms enter through the vaginal passage during sexual intercourse. They travel and reach the
oviduct where the sperm fuse with egg to form zygote (Fertilized egg)

 Then the zygote begins to divide and move towards the uterus &gets implanted in the endometrial
lining of the uterus. Thus the lady is pregnant.

 The endometrial lining thickens and is richly supplied with blood to nourish the growing embryo.

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Placenta:-

 After implantation, finger-like projections (Villi) appear on the embryonic side which are surrounded by
the uterine tissue and maternal blood.

 The villi and uterine tissue become inter-digitated to form a disc like structure called placenta. Placenta
is the structural and functional unit between developing embryo (foetus) and maternal body.

Function of placenta:-

11. How does the embryo get nourishment inside the mother's body?

 The placenta is connected to the embryo through an umbilical cord

 The placenta facilitate the supply of oxygen and nutrients to the embryo and also removal of carbon
dioxide and excretory/waste materials produced by the embryo through an umbilical cord.

Parturition/Child birth/Delivery:-

 The average duration of human pregnancy is about 9 months (Gestation period)

 The process of delivery or the expulsion of fully formed young one from the mother's uterus through
birth canal is called parturition.

 The child is born as a result of rhythmic contractions of the muscles in the uterus.

What happens when the Egg is not fertilised? (Menstruation)

 If the released ovum is not fertilised, endometrial lining of the uterus and its blood vessels breaks
results discharge of blood and mucus comes out through vagina along with unfertilized / dead ovum is
called menstruation

 This cycle takes place roughly every month and usually lasts for about two to eight days.

 Menstruation occurs after the interval of every 28 days and the ovulation takes place at the14th day of
menstruation

REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH

 According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), reproductive health means a total well-being in all
aspects of reproduction, i.e., physical, emotional, behavioural and social.

 Introduction of sex education in schools should be encouraged to give right information and to avoid
myths and misconcepts about sex-related aspects, proper information about reproductive organs,
adolescence and related changes, safe and hygienic sexual practices, sexually transmitted diseases
STD/STI), AIDS, etc., would help the adolescent age group to lead a reproductively healthy life.

 The STIs include bacterial infections (gonorrhoea and syphilis), viral infections such as warts, HIV-
AIDS.

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Prevention:-

1. Avoid sex with unknown partners / Multiple partners

2. Always use condoms (Cover the penis) during coitus

3. Check the blood before blood transfusion

4. Avoid sharing of injection needle and surgical instruments

Contraceptive methods:-[To avoid Pregnancy]

1. Barrier method:-

Principle:- Prevents physical meeting of sperm and ovum with the help of barriers.

 These methods are available for both males and females.

 Condoms:- Are made of thin rubber/latex sheath that are used to cover the penis in the male or
vagina and cervix in the female, just before coitus so that the ejaculated semen would not enter into the
female reproductive tract.

Eg:-'Nirodh', Kohinoor etc. for male

 Female condom is called Femidom

2. Oral contraceptive: -------------------Saheli

 It is used by females only

 Oral contraceptives are hormonal preparations in the form of pills

 They can cause side effects

Principle: - Inhibits ovulation & implantation

3. Intra-Uterine Devices/Intra-Uterine Contraceptive Device [IUD/IUCD]:-

 Most widely accepted contraceptive methods in India.

 These devices are inserted by doctors or expert nurses in the uterus through vagina.

 IUDs are ideal contraceptives only for the females who want to delay pregnancy and/or space
[Link]:-Lippes loop, Cu T.

 Cu -T released copper ions suppress sperm motility and the fertilising capacity of sperms

 Side effect is irritation of uterus

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12. If a woman is using a copper-T, will it help in protecting her from sexually transmitted diseases?-

 It cannot prevent a women from sexually transmitted diseases, as it does not provide any barrier
against mixing of body fluids from two individuals

4. Surgical method/Permanent method/Terminal method/Sterilization method/ Irreversible

method:-

 Advised to both male and female partner.

 It is not an ideal contraceptive method, because reversibility is very poor or nil

Principle

 Blocks gamete transports and prevents conception

Vasectomy:-

 Sterilisation procedure in the male is called 'vasectomy'

 In vasectomy, a small part of the vas deferens is removed or tied up through a small incision on the
scrotum

 After vasectomy semen doesn't contains sperm

Tubectomy:-

 Sterilisation procedure in the female is called 'Tubectomy'

 In tubectomy a small part of the fallopian tube is removed or tied up through a small incision in the
abdomen or through vagina.

 It prevents pregnancy by blocking meeting between egg & sperm, and the egg will not be able to reach
the uterus.

 Surgery itself can cause infections and other problems if not performed properly.

Medical Termination of Pregnancy [MTP]:-

 Intentional or voluntary termination of pregnancy before full term is called MTP / induced abortion.

 Government of India legalised MTP in 1971 with some strict conditions to avoid its misuse such as to
check indiscriminate and illegal female foeticides and thus to maintain proper Female-Male sex ratio

 MTP is used to get rid of unwanted pregnancies either due to casual unprotected intercourse or failure
of the contraceptive used during coitus or rapes.

 Prenatal sex determination (Amniocentesis) has been prohibited by law, in order to avoid the female
foeticide
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QUESTIONS

1. Which of the following is an example of asexual reproduction?

A) Pollination B) Fertilization C) Budding D) Meiosis

2. In Amoeba, reproduction takes place by:

A) Budding B) Fragmentation C) Binary fission D) Regeneration

3. Which of the following organisms reproduces through budding?

A) Planaria B) Hydra C) Amoeba D) Plasmodium

4. What carries the information for inheritance?

A) Ribosome B) Cytoplasm C) DNA D) Mitochondria

5. Which process leads to the production of variations in organisms?

A) Nutrition B) Respiration C) Reproduction D) Excretion

6. In yeast, reproduction occurs by:

A) Fragmentation B) Binary fission C) Budding D) Spore formation

7. In plants, Bryophyllum reproduces by:

A) Stems B) Leaves C) Roots D) Flowers

8. The formation of new individuals from vegetative parts is called:

A) Regeneration B) Vegetative propagation

C) Budding D) Spore formation

9. Regeneration is seen in which of the following?

A) Amoeba B) Planaria C) Bryophyllum D) Plasmodium

10. Which mode of reproduction is common in Plasmodium?

A) Binary fission B) Multiple fission C) Budding D) Fragmentation

11. Which structure contains spores in Rhizopus?

A) Hyphae B) Roots C) Sporangia D) Ovules

12. In sexual reproduction, the number of parents involved is:

A) One B) Two C) Three D) Four

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13. In sexual reproduction, fusion of gametes leads to the formation of:

A) Embryo B) Zygote C) Seed D) Pollen

14. The male reproductive part of a flower is called:

A) Pistil B) Sepals C) Petals D) Stamen

15. Which part of the flower develops into fruit?

A) Ovary B) Stamen C) Petal D) Sepal

16. Which of the following is NOT a part of the female reproductive system?

A) Ovary B) Fallopian tube C) Vas deferens D) Uterus

17. Which structure carries the egg from ovary to uterus?

A) Uterus B) Fallopian tube C) Cervix D) Vagina

18. Which hormone is responsible for the production of sperms?

A) Testosterone B) Estrogen C) Progesterone D) Insulin

19. Fertilisation in humans occurs in the:

A) Uterus B) Fallopian tube C) Vagina D) Ovary

20. The shedding of the uterine lining is called:

A) Menstruation B) Fertilisation C) Implantation D) Ovulation

21. What is the function of placenta?

A) Excretion B) Protection of embryo

C) Provide nutrition to embryo D) Formation of zygote

22. The transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma is called:

A) Pollination B) Fertilisation C) Germination D) Vegetation

23. In which method, offspring are genetically identical to the parent?

A) Sexual reproduction B) Cross-pollination

C) Asexual reproduction D) Double fertilisation

24. Which reproduction method is used to grow rose plants?

A) Seeds B) Vegetative propagation

C) Budding D) Fragmentation

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25. Which organ produces sperms in males?

A) Testes B) Ureter C) Ovary D) Vas deferens

26. Which of the following diseases is sexually transmitted?

A) Malaria B) Tuberculosis C) Typhoid D) HIV-AIDS

27. Which device is a mechanical barrier to prevent pregnancy?

A) Condom B) Pills C) Copper-T D) Injection

28. Spore formation is a type of:

A) Sexual reproduction B) Asexual reproduction

C) Budding D) Fragmentation

29. Which part of the flower contains male gametes?

A) Ovary B) Sepal C) Pistil D) Pollen grains

30. Advantage of vegetative propagation is:

A) New plants different from parent B) Quick seed formation

C) Genetically identical plants D) Increases variations

ANSWERS
1. C 6. C 11. C 16. C 21. C 26. D
2. C 7. B 12. B 17. B 22. A 27. A
3. B 8. B 13. B 18. A 23. C 28. B
4. C 9. B 14. D 19. B 24. B 29. D
5. C 10. B 15. A 20. A 25. A 30. C

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CHAPTER - 12
HEREDITY

1. Accumulation of variation during Reproduction:

• Reproduction is a process that gives rise to new offspring that are similar to the parents but with some
variations between them due to the process of DNA copying.
• It may be noted that these differences are slightly visible in asexual reproduction as in plants, but they
are greater variations and diversity in the case of sexual reproduction which involves the fusion of two
different gametes.
• This leads to the variations that are seen in each generation.
• These variations may be advantageous or disadvantageous to the individuals and may or may not
enable them to cope with the changing environmental conditions. For example, the bacteria that can
tolerate higher temperatures would survive the heat waves.
• These variations accumulate over generations in the evolutionary process owing to the environmental
factors and lead to the formation of new species and are equally important for their survival.
2. Heredity:
• The biological process that maintains or passes on the characteristics and traits of the parents to
their offspring is termed heredity. Example, colour of skin or hair, eyes, height etc.
• This is responsible for maintaining the variations in generations and thus the evolution of species over
a period of time.
2.1 Inherited traits:
• The characteristics that are inherited from the parents are termed as traits, like eye colour or skin
colour in humans. If the parent has brown and black eyes, then the offspring may inherit a brown or
black or a combination of both.
• This depends on the set of genes responsible for that trait.
• The traits that are inherited in this manner are termed inherited traits and these are the cause of the
variations in the population, though everyone has a similar basic feature.
2.2 Rules for the Inheritance of traits- Mendel’s contributions:
• The rules of inheritance come from the fact that both the parents contribute equally to the development
of the traits in the offspring.

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• Gregor Johann Mendel, often referred to as the ‘Father of genetics’ was a pioneer who used his
science and mathematics knowledge to frame these laws of inheritance. He did so using pea plants
for his experiments as he found them easy to grow and they had greater number of visible characteristics
like tall/short, white/violet flowers, round/wrinkled seeds.

• Mendel found during his experiments that there were some factors controlling the traits, which are
now known as genes.
• The genes are present as a pair for a specific trait and then they are termed as alleles.
• Depending on the genes the expression of the traits could be either dominant or recessive. If we take
the tallness in a plant as dominant trait, then it can be denoted by ‘T’ and shortness in the plant would
be a recessive trait, denoted by ‘t’. Thus the plant will be tall if it’s alleles are ‘TT’ or ‘Tt’.
• The condition when the alleles of the genes have the same allele for a trait, they are termed as
homozygous.
Example - TT or tt.
• The condition when the alleles of the genes have the different alleles for a trait, they are termed as
heterozygous. Example - Tt.
• The morphological expression of a single character is termed as phenotype. Example - tallness or
shortness, round or wrinkled seeds of the plant.
• The genetic constitution or the allele pair for a specific trait is termed as the genotype. Example - Tt or
t tot TT.
• Mendel was a mathematician so; he found the statistics of the traits in each generation by using a
statistical method known as Punnett square for predicting the possible genotypes and phenotypes of
the offspring.
• He conducted his experiments to find two types of inheritance namely:
1) Monohybrid inheritance:

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• Mendel took a tall (TT) and short (tt) pea plant, crossed it to get the offspring. The first generation or F1
were all found to be tall, showing only one of the traits of the parent.

• Then he self-pollinated the parent and the F1 plants. It was interesting to see that the offspring of the
parent plants were all tall, but the offspring of the F1 plants, the F2 generation did not have all tall
plants. A quarter of them were short, which indicated that both traits of the parent was inherited by F1
generation.

• The traits of tallness was dominant and so it was expressed even with the genotype of TT, Tt but the
shortness was a recessive trait that could be expressed only with a genotype of tt.

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• So, the genotype - [Link] And the phenotype - 3:1

• The inheritance of a trait by a pair of single alleles of a gene is termed as monohybrid inheritance.

2. Dihybrid inheritance:

• When a pea plant with two different traits; a plant with round green colour seed (RRyy) is crossed with
wrinkled yellow seed (rrYY) plant.

• The F1 generation turned out to have round yellow seeds, RrYy, which showed the dominant traits to
be round shape and yellow colour

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• So, the genotype - 16 different combinations and the phenotype - [Link].

• The inheritance of different traits by two pairs of alleles for it is termed as dihybrid inheritance. And
here the two traits of round/wrinkled seeds and green/yellow colour were inherited independently.

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2.3 How do these traits get expressed?

• The DNA present in the cell is responsible for making the proteins. A section of this DNA that provides
information for one protein is termed as the gene for that specific protein.

• The proteins that are thus synthesized are essential in many of the biochemical reactions that are
responsible for the expression of a trait and they are controlled by specific enzymes.

• Any alterations in them will lead to a variation in that trait, and hence genes control the traits in a such
a way. If the traits are to be inherited independently from both the parents, then they need to be present
separately.

• Therefore each gene set is present as a separate independent pieces that are called as chromosomes,
with each cell having two sets, one each from both the parents.

• When these two germ cells combine, they tend to restore the number of chromosomes and hence
the DNA. Hence there are two genes for the expression of every trait.

2.4 Sex determination:

• There are various mechanism that determine the sex of a new born organism. It may be based on the
temperature where the fertilised eggs is kept as in few reptiles, or they may change sex as in snails.
Humans on the other hand the sex of a newborn child is determined predominantly by the genes
inherited from the parents.

• All the chromosomes in humans are not paired. There are generally a pair of 22 chromosomes, with
a one of the pair being from each of the parent. These generally determine all the traits.

• There is a pair of chromosomes known as the sex chromosomes that differ in males and females.
The females have a correct pair and they are termed as X chromosomes, but men have an X
chromosome and its pair as Y. So the genotype of women is XX and men is XY.

• If we look at the inheritance pattern of a male and female, we can see that X is inherited by the child
from their mother by default and the sex of the child depends on which pair of the sex chromosome is
being inherited from the father.

• If it X, then the pair becomes XX and the child is a girl and if Y is inherited, then it becomes XY and thus
the child is a boy

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QUESTIONS
1. What causes variation in organisms during reproduction?
A) Environmental factors B) DNA copying errors
C) External influences D) None of the above
2. In which type of reproduction do we see more variation?
A) Asexual B) Sexual C) Both equally D) None
3. Why is variation important in a species?
A) It leads to identical organisms B) It helps in evolution and survival
C) It decreases diversity D) It prevents reproduction
4. Heredity is the process of:
A) Passing on traits from offspring to parents
B) Passing on traits from parents to offspring
C) Developing new traits after birth
D) Preventing genetic variations
5. Which of the following is an inherited trait?
A) Pierced ears B) Eye color C) Tattoos D) Wound marks
6. What determines the inheritance of a trait?
A) The environment B) Genes from parents
C) Diet and lifestyle D) Medical conditions
7. Who is known as the ‘Father of Genetics’?
A) Charles Darwin B) Gregor Mendel
C) Louis Pasteur D) Watson and Crick
8. Why did Mendel use pea plants for his experiments?
A) They grow quickly B) They have visible contrasting traits
C) They can self-pollinate D) All of the above
9. Mendel’s law of dominance states that:
A) Recessive traits always appear B) Dominant traits always appear
C) Genes do not determine traits D) Traits are inherited randomly
10. The physical expression of a trait is called:
A) Genotype B) Phenotype C) Chromosome D) DNA
11. The genetic makeup of an organism is called:
A) Phenotype B) DNA C) Genotype D) Chromosome

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12. If a tall plant (TT) is crossed with a short plant (tt), what will be the phenotype of the F1 generation?
A) All short B) All tall
C) 50% tall, 50% short D) 75% tall, 25% short
13. A monohybrid cross involves how many contrasting traits?
A) One B) Two C) Three D) Four
14. In a monohybrid cross, the phenotypic ratio in the F2 generation is:
A) [Link] B) 3:1 C) [Link] D) 2:2
15. A dihybrid cross studies the inheritance of how many traits?
A) One B) Two C) Three D) Four
16. The phenotypic ratio in a dihybrid cross is:
A) 3:1 B) [Link] C) [Link] D) 4:1
17. A section of DNA that provides information for a trait is called:
A) Chromosome B) Gene C) RNA D) Enzyme
18. What are the alternative forms of a gene called?
A) DNA B) Chromosomes C) Alleles D) Nucleotides
19. Homozygous genotype means:
A) Having identical alleles for a trait B) Having different alleles for a trait
C) Having no alleles D) Having dominant alleles only
20. The number of chromosomes in human cells is:
A) 23 B) 46 C) 44 D) 22
21. Which of the following determines the sex of a baby in humans?
A) Mother’s genes B) Father’s genes
C) Equal contribution from both parents D) Environmental factors
22. What are the sex chromosomes in males?
A) XX B) XY C) YY D) XYY
23. What are the sex chromosomes in females?
A) XX B) XY C) YY D) XYY
24. If a father contributes an X chromosome, the child will be:
A) Male B) Female C) Twins D) Can’t be determined
25. Which pair of chromosomes determines the sex of a human?
A) 1st pair B) 5th pair C) 23rd pair D) 46th pair

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26. Which parent is responsible for determining the sex of a child in humans?
A) Mother B) Father C) Both equally D) Grandparents
27. In humans, what is the probability of having a male child?
A) 25% B) 50% C) 75% D) 100%
28. Which chromosome is responsible for male characteristics in humans?
A) X chromosome B) Y chromosome C) Any autosome D) None of the above
29. What is the genotype of a female child?
A) XY B) XX C) YY D) XYY
30. In which of the following organisms is sex determined by environmental factors like temperature?
A) Humans B) Birds C) Turtles D) Dogs

ANSWERS
1. B 6. B 11. C 16. B 21. B 26. B
2. B 7. B 12. B 17. B 22. B 27. B
3. B 8. D 13. A 18. C 23. A 28. B
4. B 9. B 14. B 19. A 24. B 29. B
5. B 10. B 15. B 20. B 25. C 30. C

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CHAPTER - 13
OUR ENVIRONMENT

 Environment:
Environment means anything that surrounds us. Living things live in their environment. They constantly
interact and adapt themselves in their environment. In which different types of interaction take part
between living and non-living things.
 Role of environment
Important role in healthy living and the existence of life on [Link] living species are dependent
on the environment for food, air, water, and other needs.
ECO-SYSTEM -ITS COMPONENTS?
Living and non- living things are the main components.

Living things - Plants, animals, microorganisms & human beings.

Non livings things - Temperature, rainfall, wind, soil, mineralsetc.
Living & non-living things interact and they maintain a balance in nature. This interaction in environment
forms an ecosystem.
ie, Ecosystem comprising, 1. Biotic components
2. Abiotic components
 Biotic components - Living organisms, eg: plants, animals, microbes, human beings etc.
 Abiotic components - Physical factors, eg: temperature, rainfall, wind, soil, minerals etc.
 Interaction in environment forms an ecosystem.
For example: Garden is an ecosystem.

 In a garden plants (grasses, trees; flower bearing plants like rose, jasmine, sunflower) and animals
(like frogs, insects and birds) interact for their growth and reproduction, it also affect the abiotic
components.
 Natural ecosystems:
It is an ecosystem found in nature where organisms freely interact with other components of that
environment.
eg: Pond, forest, lake, grass land, desert, coral reef, mangrove swamp etc.

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 Artificial/ manmade ecosystems:

It is a man-made system of plants, animals living in an area together with their surroundings.
eg: Aquarium, garden, crop field, zoo, park etc.
Activity 1
 What are the things that we need to keep in mind when we create an aquarium?
Large jar, water, oxygen and [Link] would need a free space for swimming. Provide oxygen through
an oxygen pump. Fish food is available in the market.
 If we add a few aquatic plants and animals it can become a self -sustaining system, how this happens?
They interact for their growth and reproduction; it acts as a self -sustaining system.
 Can we leave the aquarium as such after we set it up? Why does it have to be cleaned once in a while?
Do we have to clean ponds or lakes in the same manner? Why or why not?
In aquarium the uneaten food as well as the waste generated by the fishes mixes with the water and is
left untreated due to the lack of decomposers. The waste materials accumulate in water making toxic.
Hence an aquarium has to be cleaned after regular intervals.
In ponds/ lake don't needed to be cleaned because in which proper decomposers are present.
 According to the sustenance from the environment organisms can be classified into
1. Producers
2. Consumers
3. Decomposers
 Among them some organisms (plants) make organic compounds like sugar & starch from inorganic
substance (CO2, H2O), by using radiant energy (sunlight) inside the chloroplast.
 Producers: - Green plants and certain bacteria produce food by photosynthesis.
 Consumers: - Organisms depend on producers either directly/ indirectly.
eg: grass hopper, rabbit, cow, wolves, lion, tiger etc.
 Consumers can be classed variously as
1. Herbivores- an organism that mostly feed on plant.
eg: cow, sheep, goat, rabbits, buffalo, deer etc.
2. Carnivores- an organism that eat meat/ flesh of animals
eg: wild cat, lion, tiger, snakes, shark etc.
3. Omnivores- an organism has the ability to eat and
survive on both plant and animal.
eg: birds, dog, raccoon, human, some insects etc.
4. Parasites- an organism that lives on/ in a host organism and gets its food.
eg: cuscuta, loranthus, rafflessia, protozoans, hook worms, lice, mosquitoes, vampire bats, ring
worm etc.
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 Decomposers: - They break-down the dead remains and waste products of [Link]; they break-
down the complex organic substances into simple inorganic substances into the soil.
eg: bacteria and fungi.
 What will happen to the garbage, and dead animals and plants in their absence?
The natural replenishment of the soil takes place.
Activity 2
 While creating an aquarium did you take care not to put an aquatic animal which would eat others?
What would have happen other wise?
The sustenance between organisms will breakdown.
 Write the aquatic organisms in order of who eats whom and form a chain of at least steps.

Phytoplanktons  Zooplanktons  Small fishes  Big fishes

In this chain phytoplanktons are producers, zooplanktons are primary consumers (herbivores), small
fishes are secondary consumers and big fishes are tertiary consumers. In this chain the secondary
and tertiary consumers are omnivores, they eat and both plants and animals.
 Would you consider any one group of organisms to be of primary importance? Why or why not?
Primary important for plants because they are produces food, they uptake all living organisms directly/
indirectly. If the absence of produces no other organisms can exist in environment in natural manner.
Food Chains and Webs.
 Food Chain: - In ecology, the sequence of energy/ matter transfers in the form of food from organism
to organism.
In environment a series of organisms feeding on one another, in which each organisms take part at
various biotic levels form a food chain.
 Food chain in nature.
a. In forest:

Plants  Deer  Tiger

b. In grassland:

Grass  Grass hopper  Frog  Snake  Vultures

c. In pond:

Phytoplankton  Zooplankton  Fishes  Bird

 Grazing food chain (GFC)

The Grazing food chain (GFC) begins with producer (plants)
eg: Grass  Grass hopper  Frog  Snake  Vultures
 Detritus food chain (DFC)
The detritus food chain (DFC) begins with dead organic matter.
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eg: Decomposers (detritivores) convert the organic matter present in the dead decays of plants and
animals (detritus) into simple inorganic matter, and it enter into the soil.
 Trophic level: -
In each food chain, the biotic levels/ steps called trophic level.

Autotrophs  Herbivores  Small carnivores  L arg e carnivores

0 0
(Pr oducers) (1 Consumers) (2 Consumers) (30 Consumers)
Ist trophic level 2nd trophiclevel 3rd trophic level 4th trophic level

 Food web:
Interconnected/ overlapping food chains in an ecosystem called food web.
 Standing crop:
Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material at a particular time called as the standing crop.
 It is measured as the mass of living organisms (biomass) or the number in a unit area.
 Biomass of a species is expressed in terms of fresh or dry weight.
ENERGY FLOW
 Organisms eat food act as fuel to provide energy to do work.
ie, Interaction between various components in environment involves flow of energy from one to another.
 Autotrophs capture the energy from sunlight (1%) and convert it into chemical energy.

Autotrophs 
energy
 Heterotrophs & Decomposers
 Plants are eaten by primary consumers, energy is lost as heat to the environment.
 An average of 10% of the food eaten is turned into its own body (10 % law ).
 ie, only 10% of the energy is transferred into higher trophic level from the lower trophic level.
 The flow of energy is unidirectional.

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 The energy flow does not revert back.

Bio-magnification
The accumulation of non -biodegradable chemicals/ wastes in higher trophic level through food chain
known as bio- magnification.
Activity 3
 Pesticide are present in ready-made food items, some states have banned these products.
 The pesticides which above Maximum residue limit (MRL) in the samples were banned.
 India banned the production of dicofol without any exemption since 2019.
 The draft notification, titled Banning of Insecticides Order 2020, prohibits the import, manufacture,
sale, transport, distribution and use of 27 pesticides, including acephate, atrazine, benfuracarb, butachlor,
captan, carbofuran, chlorpyriphos etc.
 What are the sources of pesticides in food items?
The source for pesticide residues in our food could be through the application of pesticides on crops,
with residues remaining in the fruits and vegetables. The application of pesticides in homes to disinfect.
 Could pesticides get into our bodies from this source through other food products too?
Yes, pesticides have every change to get into our bodies through the food we eat. We should take
organic food and buy organic food as far as possible. We should clean the vegetables and fruits.
Sometimes peeling the fruits may help.
 What methods could be applied to reduce our intake of pesticides?
1. Buy organic and locally grown fruit and vegetables
2. Wash fruits and vegetables before eating.
3. Know which fruits and vegetables have higher levels of pesticide residue.
4. Grow your own produce.
5. Use non-toxic methods for controlling insects in the home and garden.
6. Have a 'no shoes' policy in your home.
HOW DO OUR ACTIVITIES AFFECT THE ENVIRONMENT?
Ozone Layer and how it is Getting Depleted
 Ozone is found in the upper part of the atmosphere (stratosphere), and it acts as a shield for absorbing
ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
 It shields the earth from ultraviolet; UV is injurious to living organisms. This radiation is highly damaging
to organisms, eg: skin cancer.
 Ozone is deadly poison, and it is two types.
1. Bad Ozone- formed in troposphere that harms plants and animals.
2. Good Ozone- found in the upper partstratosphere.
 Formation of Ozone

1. O2 
UV
OO

2. O  O2  O3  Ozone 

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 Ozone gas is continuously formed by the action of UV rays on molecular oxygen, and also degraded
into molecular oxygen in the stratosphere. There should be a balance between production and
degradation of ozone in the stratosphere.
 The thickness of the ozone measured in terms of Dobsonunits(DU).
 The depletion of the ozone layer.
 The amount of ozone in the atmosphere began to drop sharply in the 1980s.
 This decrease based on synthetic chemicals like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which are used as
refrigerants and in fire extinguishers.
 In 1987, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) succeeded to freeze CFC production at
1986 levels.
 It is now mandatory for all the manufacturing companies to make CFC-free refrigerators throughout
the world.
Activity 4
 Whichchemicals are responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer?
 Synthetic chemicals like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which are used as refrigerants and in fire
extinguishers.
 CFCs discharged in the atmosphere move and reach stratosphere.
 In stratosphere, UV rays act on CFCs& releasesCl atoms. This Cl degrades ozone & releasesmolecular
oxygen and it stop the production of ozone formation.
 CFCs are added to the stratosphere, they are permanent and continuously effects on Ozone
 Find out if the regulations put in place to control the emission ofthese chemicals have succeeded in
reducing the damage to theozone layer.
 The deleterious affects of ozone depletion, an international treaty, known as the Montreal Protocol,
was signed at Montreal (Canada) in 1987 (effective in 1989) to control the emission of ozone depleting
substances.
 In 1987, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) succeeded to freeze CFC production at
1986 levels.
 It is now mandatory for all the manufacturing companies to make CFC-free refrigerators throughout
the world.

 Many more efforts have been made for reducing the emission of CFCs and other ozone depleting
chemicals.

 Has the size of the hole in the ozone layer changed in recent years?

 2018 assessment by the world meteorological organization found that the southern ozone hole has
been shrinking by about 1% to 3% per decade since the year 2000, with the 2019 hole measuring
smaller than it ever has since 1982.

 The wide spread use of certain chemicals changed our atmosphere chemical composition and created
a hole in the UV- deflecting ozone layer above us. Researches continue to keep track of the hole and
their observations show that it has grown in size since last year.

 On September 20, 2020 the annual ozone hole reached its peak area at 24.8 million square kilometers,
roughly three times the size of the continental united states
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Managing the Garbage we produce

 What are the waste materials that are thrown awayin our daily activities?

Plastic bottles, glass bottles, tins, aluminum foil, plastic straws, paper waste,cardboard

 What happens after we throw them away?

Most waste goes into the bin; later returning to our homes as recycled products. Wastes from the
roadsides and other area are collected by teams of local refuse collectors and taken to recycling
plants across the country.

It home we sort our waste into separate categories, these are generally plastics, metals and glass in
one bin; paper and cardboard in another and garden waste also has its own separate bin. By sorting all
these at home we should be left with a household waste that contains mostly food and non-recyclables,
thus minimizing the amount that ends up at landfill.

Activity 5

 Collect waste material from your homes. This could include all the waste generated during a day, like
kitchen waste (spoilt food, vegetable peels, used tea leaves, milk packets and empty cartons),waste
paper, empty medicine bottles/strips/bubble packs, old and torn clothes and broken footwear.

 Bury this material in a pit in the school garden or if there is no space available, you can collect the
material in an old bucket/ flower pot and cover with at least 15 cm of soil.

 Keep this material moist and observe at 15-day intervals.

 What are the materials that remain unchanged over long periods of time?

Non- degradable substance like milk packets, empty medicine bottles/strips/bubble packs and broken
footwear remain unchanged.

 What are the materials which change their form and structure over time?

Spoilt food, vegetable peels, used tea leaves, waste paper,old and torn clothes.

 Of these materials that are changed, which ones change the fastest?

Food and vegetable wastes- Spoilt food, vegetable peels.

 Why the same enzyme does not break-down everything we eat?

Enzymes are specific in their action; specific enzymes are needed for breakdown of a particular
substance.

Eg: pepsin is needed to breakdown proteins while lipase is needed to digest fats.

 Why many human-made materials like plastics will not be broken down by the action of bacteria or
other saprophytes?

These materials will be acted upon by physical processes like heat and pressure, but under the ambient
conditions found in our environment;these persist for a long time.

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Activity 6

 What are biodegradable and non-biodegradable substances?

Substances which can be decomposed and broken down to simpler substances by micro-organisms
acting on it is called bio-degradable

Eg: Food waste, paper waste, human waste, manure, sewage sludge.

Substances which cannot be acted upon by microorganisms and are not broken down into simpler
substances are called non-biodegradable substances.
Eg: Plastic bags, shopping bags, plastic containers and plastic water bottles, metals, hazardous
substances, pesticides etc.

 How long are various non-biodegradable substances expected tolast in our environment?
Cardboard milk cartons-5 years
Plastic bags: 10-20 years
Plastic containers- 50-80 years
Plastic soda -450 years
Leather shoes: 25-40 years
Nylon fabric: 30 to 40 years
Glass bottle -500 years
Aluminum soda can - 350 years

 These days, new types of plastics which are said to be biodegradable are available. Find out more
about such materials and whether they do or do not harm the environment.
Bio-plastics are plastic materials produced from renewable biomass sources, such as vegetable fats
and oils, corn starch, straw, woodchips, sawdust, recycled food waste, etc. from the biomass is
environmentally friendly.
There are a few new fossil fuel plastics that can also be biodegradable.
Eg: Polybutylene succinate (PBS), Polycaprolactone (PCL), Polybutyrateadipate terephthalate (PBAT)
and Polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH/PVA).
1. Why are some substances biodegradable and some non-biodegradable?
The main reason of a substance being biodegradable is being organic that can be used up by scavengers
of environment.
Some substances are non- biodegradable because they are synthetic and cannot be decomposed by
the microorganism.
2. Give any two ways in which biodegradable substances would affect the environment.
Biodegradable substances are decomposed by the action of microorganisms. Decomposed materials
are recycled through a geo-chemical cycle. They may produce foul smell during the decomposition
process.
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They may produce some harmful gases such as ammonia, methane, carbon dioxide, etc., which can
further-cause global warming.
3. Give any two ways in which non-biodegradable substances would affect the environment.
a. The non-biodegradable substances get accumulated and don't decompose; it remains in the
ecosystem and causes pollution, chokes the system of many animals and kills them.
b. These substances due to accumulation cause water and soil pollution e.g., pesticides, detergents,
polythene.

Activity 7

 Find out what happens to the waste generated at home. Is there asystem in place to collect this
waste?

The wastes generated at homes are decomposed by the microorganisms, they put into the land via
landfills method. We throw them into the dustbins, and they are brought together and separated and
then, the wastes are regenerated.

Waste disposal strategies mainly are incineration, composting, recycling, and landfilling

 Find out how the local body (panchayat, municipal corporation,resident welfare association) deals with
the waste.

They try to first segregate the waste into different types - bio degradable, non-bio degradable and
medical waste. The waste which can be recycled is sent to the concerned places. Medical waste is
disposed carefully, to avoid contamination.

 Are there mechanisms in place to treat the biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes separately?

Biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes should be discarded/collected in two different dustbins

so that they can be collected separately. If the two wastes are collected in a single bin, they would mix
and may form toxic compounds which can cause pollution.

Then these waste materials are treated by different steps.

Most communities have sewage treatment plants, which treat sewage waste.

 Calculate how much waste is generated at home in a day.

How much of this waste is biodegradable?

4.9 pounds per person per [Link] total generation of municipal solid waste (MSW) in 2018 was 292.4
million tons, approximately 69 million tons were recycled and 25 million tons were composted.

 Calculate how much waste is generated in the classroom in a [Link] much of this waste is
biodegradable?

Small chalks, used pens, wrappers, pencil shavings, polythene bags and aluminum foils/ papers are
common waste generated from class rooms.

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The waste generated at classroom is approx 1kg. In 1kg waste more than 600gm is non-biodegradable
waste and rest 400gm is biodegradable waste.

 Suggest ways of dealing with this waste.

Reduce Food Wastage, about a quarter of the waste coming out of schools is food [Link]
paper waste; kids are generally interested in arts and crafts at school. Useeco-friendly Stationery.

Activity 8

 Find out how the sewage in your locality is treated. Are theremechanisms in place to ensure that local
water bodies are notpolluted by untreated sewage?

Sewage can be treated close to where the sewage is created, ie, decentralize system/ on-site system
(eg: septic tanks, bio-filters or aerobic treatment systems).

Alternatively, sewage can be collected and transported by a network of pipes and pump stations to a
municipal treatment plant.

Regularly check the water samples BOD level and also the different metallic presence which affect
negatively in environment/ ecosystem.

 Find out how the local industries in your locality treat their wastes. Are there mechanisms in place to
ensure that the soil and water are not polluted by this waste?
Local industries are treat their waste by making it less toxic for animals and plants and secret less
amount of wastage and to make the water cool first which they throw.
By using different instruments measure the pollution in soil- gas chromatograph, atomic absorption
spectrometer, or mass spectrometer.

Bacteria Tests, Mineral Tests, pH Testing are used to check water pollution.

Activity 9

 Find out what hazardous materials have to be dealt with while disposing of electronic items. How
would these materials affect the environment?

Electronic items contain some hazardous materials such as cadmium, lead, mercury, chromium,
some compressed gases, PVCs etc. Which can contaminate the environment by dumping, melting
and burning of electronic wastes. Mercury can cause damage to the nervous system, kidneys and
brain.

 Find out how plastics are recycled.

The main types of recycling: mechanical and chemical. In mechanical recycling, where plastic is
washed, ground and melted or chemical recycling, whereby plastic is broken down into monomers to
form new polymers to be reused.

 Does the recycling process have any impact on the environment?

Yes, the recycling process has an impact on the environment. Plastic materials don't decompose so
it is not an environment friendly.

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QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following groups contain only biodegradable items?
A) Grass, flowers and leather
B) Grass, wood and plastic
C) Fruit-peels, cake and lime-juice
D) Cake, wood and plastic
2. Which of the following constitute a food-chain?
A) Grass, wheat and mango B) Grass, goat and human
C) Goat, cow and elephant D) Grass, fish and goat
3. Which of the following are environment-friendly practices?
A) Carrying cloth-bags to put purchases in while shopping
B) Switching off unnecessary lights and fans
C) Walking to school instead of getting your mother to drop you on her scooter
D) All of the above
4. Generally, in an ecosystem greater number of individuals are present
A) 1st trophic level B) 2nd trophic level C) 3rd trophic level D) 4th trophic level
5. The flow of energy through trophic levels is
A) Unidirectional B) Bidirectional C) Multidirectional D) None of these
6. The energy available at each trophic level gets diminished progressively due to
A) Movement is multi directional B) Loss of energy at each level
C) No loss of energy D) Both A & C
7. The maximum concentration of non-biodegradable chemicals get accumulated in
A) Producers B) 1st trophic level
C) 2nd trophic level D) Higher trophic levels
8. Why our food grains such as wheatand rice, vegetables and fruits, and even meat, contain varying
amounts of pesticide residues?
A) Algal bloom B) Eutrophication
C) Bio-magnification D) Both a & b
9. Which of the following chemicals are non- biodegradable
A) BHC (Benzene hexachloride) B) DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane)
C) Parathion D) All the above

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10. What are the problems caused by the non-biodegradable wastes that we generate?
A) The non-biodegradable substances get accumulated and don't decompose; it remains in the
ecosystem and causes pollution, chokes the system of many animals and kills them.
B) These substances due to accumulation cause water and soil pollution e.g., pesticides, detergents,
polythene.
C) Soil destruction, bio-magnification of mercury, DDT.
D) Ecological imbalance.
11. What are trophic levels? Give an example of a food chain and state thedifferent trophic levels in it.
Ans : Each step/ level of the food chain forms a trophic level.

Autotrophs  Herbivores  Smallcarnivores  Large carnivores

0
(Pr oducers) (1 Consumers) (20 Consumers) (30 Consumers)
1st trophic level 2nd trophic level 3rd trophic level 4th trophic level

The autotrophs/ producers are at the first trophic level. They fix up the solar energy, it available for
heterotrophs/ consumers. The herbivores/ primary consumers come at the second, small carnivores/
secondary consumers at the third and larger carnivores/ tertiary consumers form the fourth trophic
level
12. What is the role of decomposers in the ecosystem?
Ans : Decomposers (detritivores) convert the organic matter present in the dead decays of plants
and animals (detritus) into simple inorganic matter and it enter into the soil.
They act as a cleansing agent. They help in recycling the nutrients. They provide space for new being
in the biosphere by decomposing the dead.
13. How unknowingly some harmful chemicals enter our bodies through the food chain?
Ans : The use of several pesticides and other chemicals to protect crops from diseases and pests
attack. These chemicals are washed down into the soil or into the water bodies through rain. From the
soil/ water bodies these chemicals are absorbed by the producers along with water and minerals, and
these chemicals move on to the next trophic level respectively. This way chemical enters the food
chain.
14. If the use of pesticides and other chemicals are non -biodegradable to protect crops from diseases
and pests attack, what will happen?
Ans : They get accumulated progressively at each trophic level. If human beings occupy the top level
in any food chain, the maximum concentration of these chemicals gets accumulated in our bodies.
This phenomenon is known as biological magnification.
15. The presence of a detectible pesticide residue does not mean an unsafe level, why?
Ans :  Evaluates new and existing pesticides to ensure that no harm to infants and children as well
as adults.
 Continuously improve safety standards to pesticides on food.
 Pesticide residue is detected on a fruit or vegetable does not mean it is unsafe.
 Very small amount of pesticide decrease considerably as crops are harvested, transported,
exposed to light, washed, prepared and cooked, so the presence of a detectible pesticide
residue does not mean an unsafe level.

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16. What are major environmental problems?

Ans :  Pollution
 Global warming
 Overpopulation
 Waste disposal
 Loss of biodiversity
 Deforestation
 Ozone layer depletion
17. What will happen if we kill all the organisms in one trophic level?
Ans : If we kill all the organisms in one trophic level, the lower trophic level will grow more in number
and the higher trophic level will not survive. The flow of energy from one trophic level to other will not
take place. Its results, disruption in the food web & the ecosystem.
18. A. Will the impact of removing all the organisms in a trophic level be different for different trophic
levels?
Ans : Yes, the impact of removing all the organisms in a trophic level will be different for different
trophic levels.
Eg: consumers such as deer are removed from their trophic level, consumers such as lions, which
eat deer, will die because of the unavailability of food; the population of lions will be reduced.
[Link] the organisms of any trophic level be removed without causing any damage to the ecosystem?
No, the organisms of no trophic level can be removed without causing damage the ecosystem, as
removing them can disturb the food chain.
19. What is biological magnification? Will the levels of this magnification be different at different levels of
the ecosystem?
Ans : Accumulation of non- biodegradable wastes in higher trophic level through food chain known as
bio-magnification.
The accumulation level of chemicals in different trophic level is different, accumulation happens gradually
from lower to higher and its concentration is high in top trophic level.
20. If all the waste we generate is biodegradable, will this have no impact on theenvironment?
Ans : They generate a large amount of microbial flora around the wastes. Production of harmful
gases causing pollution. These microbes can cause many communicable diseases in humans, plants
and animals. These generate bad odour on burning due to the release of certain gases.
21. Why is damage to the ozone layer a cause for concern? What steps are being takento limit this
damage?
Ans : It shields the earth from ultraviolet. Ozone is an important gas for all kinds of ecosystems on
earth as it protects the ecosystem from the harmful effects of ultraviolet radiations cause skin cancer,
cataract and affect our immune system.
Reduce the emission of maximum synthetic chemicals like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which are
used as refrigerants and in fire extinguishers.

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22. What is ozone and how does it affect any ecosystem?

Ans : Ozone is a gas composed of three atoms of oxygen. Ozone is an important gas for all kinds of
ecosystems on earth as it protects the ecosystem from the harmful effects of ultraviolet radiations
cause skin cancer, cataract and affect our immune system.
23. How can you help in reducing the problem of waste disposal? Give any two methods.
Ans : By separating biodegradable substances from non-biodegradable substances. By reducing,
reusing and recycling non-biodegradable substances. By putting the organic waste into compost pits
dug in the ground and preparing compost.

ANSWERS
1. C 3. D 5. A 7. D 9. D

2. B 4. A 6. B 8. C 10. A

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