Institute of Engineering & Management

University of Engineering & Management

DEPARTMENT OF BASIC SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES

Course Title: Physics

Course Code:
BSPH101/201

SUPPLEMENTARY STUDY MATERIALS

Academic Year: 2025-2026

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & MANAGEMENT

(AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
PHYSICS

Course Objective:

1. To train the students to grasp the concepts of different areas of physics, appropriate for
applications in different branches ofengineering.

2. To expand their knowledge of Physics, which will be suitable for different engineering streams.

3. Learn to apply the different theories of physics in real life problems.

4. Try to think new problems of physics for applications in engineering.

Course Outcomes
The first-year B. Tech physics course offers theoretical foundation for a variety of
engineering specialties, including mechanical, electrical, electronics, and computer science.
It generates a thorough knowledge in the fundamentals of engineering and science. The
course will enable the student to:

CO1: Develop an understanding of the fundamental theories of physics such as optics,

electromagnetic theory, classical mechanics, quantum mechanics and statistical mechanics for
engineering applications in societal and environmental contexts.

CO2: Study the wave nature of light by means of phenomena like interference, diffraction
and LASER and to study the Maxwell’s equations to understand the concepts of
electromagnetic theory.

CO3: Using the concepts of classical mechanics to study the motion of particles and systems,
learning the postulates of quantum mechanics to analyze the behavior of particles in
quantum levels and understanding the behavior of physical systems by statistical methods.

CO4: Develop an ability to analyze and solve theoretical problems of physics.

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Course Content:

Module Pages
No. Description of Topic
No.
1 Mechanics:
6
Part A: Vector Calculus
Representation of a vector, Some Important Definitions about Vectors, Resolution of a
Vector into Components, Product of Two Vectors, Triple Product, Scalar and Vector
Fields, Partial Derivative of Vectors, Gradient of Scalar Field, Divergence of Vector
Field, Curl of a Vector Field, Curl in the Context of Rotational Motion.

Part B: Classical Mechanics

Inertial and Non-Inertial Frame of references, Friction, Problems including

Constraints and Friction, Conservation Laws, Rigid Body, Angular Velocity Vector,
Moment of Inertia, Acceleration of a Rigid Body Rolling Down an Inclined plane.

2 Oscillations:

Introduction, Relation of Simple Harmonic Motion with Circular Motion, Differential 10

Equation of Simple Harmonic Motion, Various Characteristics of SHM, Energy of a
Particle Executing SHM and Law of Conservation of Energy, Differential Equation of
Free or Undamped Vibrations, Damped Vibrations, Solution of the Equation of a
Damped Oscillator and its Analysis, Electrical Analogy of SHM and DV, Analysis of
Forced Vibration, Resonance, Energy of a Forced Vibrator, Sharpness of Resonance,
Quality Factor, Forced Vibration in an LCR Circuit.

Optics:
3 12
Interference :

Interference of Light, Young’s Experiment, Resultant Intensity due to Superposition of

Two Interfering waves, Interference and Conservation of Energy, Determination of
Fringe Width in Young’s Experiment, Shape of Interference Fringes, Conditions for
Interference of Light, Coherent Sources, Production of Coherent Sources, Fresnel’s
Biprism, Displacement of Fringes, Phase Change on Reflection, Interference due to
Thin Films, Interference due to Wedge Shaped Thin Films, Formation of Newton’s
Ring.

Diffraction:

Different types of Diffraction Phenomena, Difference between Interference and

Diffraction, Fraunhofer Diffraction due to a Single Slit, Fraunhofer Diffraction due to a
Double Slit, Difference between Single Slit and a Double Slit Diffraction Pattern,
Diffraction due to Plane Diffraction Grating, Rayleigh’s Criteria on Resolution,
Resolving Power of a Grating, Application of Diffraction Grating.

Laser:

Characteristics of Laser, Absorption and Emission of Radiations by Matter, Working

Principle of Laser, Population Inversion in Laser, Basic Components of Laser System,
Optical Resonator and Q value, Threshold Condition for Sustaining of Laser Action,
Typical Lasers, Application of Lasers.
 3

4 Introduction to Electromagnetic Theory:

Magnetic Flux, Faraday’s law of Electromagnetic Induction, Electromotive Force, Integral 22

Form of Faraday’s Law, Displacement Current, Ampere’s Circuital Law, Modified
Ampere’s law, Continuity Property of Current, Maxwell’s Equations.

5 Quantum Mechanics: 23
Introduction, Wave Function and its Physical Significance, Normalization of Wave
Functions and Orthogonality of Wave Functions, Operators in Quantum Mechanics,
Fundamental Postulates of Quantum Mechanics, Time-Dependent Schrodinger’s
Equation, Time- Independent Schrodinger’s Wave Equation, Application of
Schrodinger’s Equation, Quantum Harmonic Oscillator, the Hydrogen Atom.

6 Statistical Mechanics :
28
Introduction, Concept of Phase Space, Concept of Energy levels and Energy states,
Macrostate and Microstate, Thermodynamic Probability and Entropy, Equilibrium
Macrostate, MB, BE and FD statistics, Maxwell-Boltzmann (MB) Statistics, Bose-Einstein
(BE) Statistics, Fermi-Dirac (FD) Statistics, Classical Statistics as a special case of
Quantum Statistics, Density of states or Quantum states in energy range between  and
 +d  , Fermi distribution at zero and non-zero temperature, Derivation of Plank’s law of
Radiation from BE Statistics, Comparative Study of Three Statistical Distribution
Functions.

Learning Resources:

TEXT BOOK:

1. Engineering Physics by Sujay Kumar Bhattacharya, McGraw Hill Education

2. Physics by [Link], Monoj K Harbola et. al.,Cengage (Chapter 2)

REFERENCE BOOKS:

1. Theory and problems of Theoretical Mechanics by Murray R. Spiegel SI (Metric) edition

2. Advanced Acoustics by [Link], The new book stall, Revised Ninth Edition, 2009

3. A textbook on Optics, [Link] and [Link], Sreedhar Publishers, fifth edition

4. Introduction to Electrodynamics by David [Link], 3rd Edition

5. Concepts of Modern Physics (Sixth Edition) by Arthur Beiser (Published by McGraw-Hill)

 4

CO-PO Mapping:

CO PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12

PO

PCC-EC302.1 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 3

PCC-EC302.2 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 3

PCC-EC302.3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 3

PCC-EC302.4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 3

PCC-EC302* 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 3

1: Low (Slight) 2: Moderate (Medium) 3: Substantial (High)

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This study material is only for use of IEM & UEM students.
 6

Module-1 : Classical Mechanics

Scalar fields and Vector fields

Field: A field is a physical quantity which is assigned to every point in space (or, more generally,
space-time). If a field is independent of time is called stationary or steady state field.

Scalar field: A scalar quantity, smoothly assigned to each point of a certain region of space, is
called a scalar field.

Example: time, temperature, volume, density, mass, energy etc.

One can denote scalar field as  (x, y, z) which can be represented as different scalar surface. And
since the scalar field has a definite value at each point in space it is independent of the coordinates

Vector field: A vector field is a function which has both a magnitude and a direction in space and
it can vary at different space points.

Example: electric fields, magnetic fields, gravitation fields etc.

Dot Product of Vectors

Cross Product of Vectors

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Concept of Gradient
 
Let A   everywhere in a region of space, defined by a 1  x  a 2 b1  x  b 2
and c 1  x  c 2 , where  ( x , y , z ) is a Scalar field and has
continuous derivatives in the region.

        
    iˆ  ˆj  kˆ   x, y , z   iˆ  ˆj  kˆ
 dx dy dz  dx dy dz

Mathematical analysis of Constrained Motion

8
 9

Questions:

1. Particles P and Q, of masses 0.6 kg and 0.2 Kg respectively, are attached to the ends of a light
inextensible string, which passes over a smooth fixed peg. The particles are held at rest with the
string taut. Both particles are at a height of 0.9 m above the ground as shown in Fig. 1.
The system is released and each of the particles moves vertically.
Find (a) the acceleration of P and the tension in the string before P reaches the ground and
(b) the time taken for P to reach the ground. (g = 10m/s2). (10) [BL5]
[Hints: Use the given formula above.]

Fig.1

2. A block of mass 2 kg is at rest on a horizontal floor. The coefficient of friction between

the block and the floor is µ. A force of magnitude 12 N acts on the block at an angle 
to the horizontal, where tan  = ¾. When the applied force acts downward as in Fig. 2a,
the block remains at rest.

(a) Show that µ  6/17

(b) When the applied force acts upwards as shown in Fig. 2b, the block slides along the
floor. Find another inequality for µ. (10) [BL5]
[Hints: Use the friction related formula.]

3. Consider a system of four particles in x-y plane. Of these, two particles each of mass m
are located at (-1, 1) and (1, -1). The remaining two particles each of mass 2m are
located at (1, 1) and (-1, -1). Analyze the xy- component of the moment of inertia of this
 10

system of particles. (5) [BL4]

[Hints: Use the concept of moment of inertia.]

4. If A and B are irrotational, analyze that A  B is solenoidal. (5) [BL4]

[Hints: Use the concept of divergence and curl of a vector.]

5. A particle of mass m moves in the X-Y plane and the position of the particle is given by
� = � � ��� �� + � � ��� �� where a, b and  are constants.

Evaluate that
(a) The force acting on the particle is always directed to towards the origin.
(b) Calculate the torque and angular momentum about the origin.
(c) Is the force field conservative? (10) [BL5]

Module-2: Oscillations

Equation of motion of free vibration:

�� � �
� =− � �
��
Solution:� = � ��� �� + �

Equation of motion of damped vibration:

�� � �� �
� =− �� �� − � �
��
�� −�� � �� −�� �
Solution: � = �−�� � � + � �−
Case 1 (Low damping b <�):� = ��−�� ��� �� − �� � + � , where � = �� + ��
Case 2 (Critical damping b ~ �):� = �−�� � + � + � − � �
�� −�� � �� −�� �
Case 3 (Large damping b >�):� = �−�� � � + � �−

Equation of motion of forced vibration:

�� � �� � ���
� + �� �� + � � = � �
��
� is frequency of external periodic force.
 11

Questions:

1. A particle of mass m is attached to a horizontal spring of force constant k, initially at rest.

The spring is compressed by a distance x0 and then released. As the particle oscillates, it
encounters a horizontal rough surface with coefficient of kinetic friction μ. Determine the
maximum compression xmax of the spring such that the particle does not come to a complete
stop during its motion. (5) [BL5]

[Hint:To determine the maximum compression xmax of the spring where the particle does not
stop, analyze the energy considerations and effect of friction.]

2. Using the conservation of energy principle analyze that angular velocity of a simple
pendulum of string length L is

1/2
2
�= � − ��� 1 − ����
��2

Where � is angle made by the string with the vertical axis at a particular time. (5) [BL4]

[Hint:Use the conservation of energy: Total energy = Kinetic energy + Potential energy]

3. A conical buoy floats with its axis vertical and its apex points downwards in a big vessel
containing water. If the weight of the buoy is 300 lbs and 1 [Link] of water weights 64 lbs, find
the time period of vertical oscillations, if the diameter of the base is 4 ft and the height of the
cone is 5 ft. (5) [BL4]

[ Hints: From the concept of Archimrdes’ principle deduce the equation of motion and hence
calculate the time period.]

4. In one dimensional motion of a mass of 10 gm, it is acted on by a restoring force and a resisting
force. Spring Constant = 10 dyne/cm and damping coefficient =2 dyne-sec/cm. (i) Find whether
 12

the motion is aperiodic or oscillatory, (ii) the value of the resisting force which will make the
motion critically damped, (iii) the value of the mass for which the given forces will make the
motion critically damped, (iv) suppose that, the mass is given an initial impulse of 20 gm-cm/sec,
while at rest, obtain an expression for the displacement x at a time t. (5) [BL5]

5. A mass-spring system consists of a mass m=0.5 kg and a spring with a spring constant
k=200 N/m. The system is subject to a damping force Fd = −bv where b = 3 kg/s. Additionally,
the system is driven by an external force F(t) = 10cos(3t) N.
(i) Determine the steady-state amplitude of the system.
(ii) Evaluate the effect of damping on the amplitude by comparing the result with the undamped
system.
(iii) Analyze the system's response if the driving frequency is altered to the natural frequency of the
undamped system. (10) [BL5]

Module – 3: Optics

Interference of Light

Definition
The phenomenon in which alternate bright and dark bands or fringes are produced as a result of
superposition of two monochromatic light waves of same wavelength, equal or nearly equal
amplitude and having constant phase difference proceeding in the same direction is called
interference of light.

Conditions for sustained interference

(i) The light sources must be coherent. The light waves must have constant phase difference.
(ii) The two sources must emit monochromatic light waves. The amplitude should also be
equal or nearly equal.
(iii) The two sources should be very narrow.
(iv) The sources must lie very close to each other.
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Intensity of the light at the point of superposition

I  a12  a 22  2a1a 2 cos 
Where a1 and a2 are the amplitudes of the light waves and δ is the phase difference between them.

Conditions for bright and dark fringes path difference between the light waves of wavelength λ

In terms of phase difference

Bright fringes: cosδ = 1 or δ = 2nπ where n = 0, 1, 2, 3…..etc.

Dark fringes: cosδ = -1 or δ = (2n+1)π where n = 0, 1, 2, 3…..etc.

In terms of path difference

2 
Bright fringes:    2n or   2n where n = 0, 1, 2, 3…..etc.
 2
2 
Dark fringes:    (2n  1) or   (2n  1) where n = 0, 1, 2, 3…..etc.
 2

Position of nth bright fringe (xn) and nth dark fringe (xn) on the screen

Distance between the slits = d, Distance of the screen and the slits = D
Wavelength of the light waves = λ

n D D 
For bright fringe x n  and for Dark fringe xn  (2n  1)
d d 2

Fringe width (β) of bright and dark fringes

D
 Therefore fringe widths of bright and dark fringes are equal.
d

Newton’s Rings

Radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens = R, Wavelength of light = λ and Refractive index of the
thin film = μ

Rn 4nR
Radius of the nth dark ring (rn) rn  Diameter of the nth dark ring (Dn) D n 
 

(2n  1)R
Radius of the nth bright ring (rn) rn 
2
 14

2(2n  1)R
Diameter of the nth bright ring D n 


Relation between the radius of curvature (R) of the plano-convex lens and the wavelength of
the light

(D2m  n  Dn2 )
R
4m

Diffraction of Light

Diffraction is a phenomenon of bending of light around the corner of a sharp obstacle. Diffraction of
light is noticeable when the dimension of obstacle is close to the wavelength of light. Light enters
into the geometrical shadow region deviating from linear path.

Single slit diffraction

sin 2  a sin 
Intensity I  I o where Io = (CAa)2 and  
 2

a – Slit width, λ – wavelength of the light, θ – angle of diffraction

Condition of minima: α = mπ where m = ±1, ±2, ±3…..

3 5
Condition of maxima:   tan  where α = 0, ± ,±
2 2

Double slit diffraction

sin 2  a sin  d sin 
Intensity I  4I 0 cos 2  where Io = (CAa)2,   and  
 2
 
a – Slit width, d- separation between the slits (d = a + b) ,λ – wavelength of the light and
θ – angle of diffraction.

Condition of diffraction minima: α = mπ where m = ±1, ±2, ±3…..

3 5
Condition of diffraction maxima:   tan  where α = 0, ± ,±
2 2

Condition of interference minima:   (2s  1) where s = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3….
2
Condition of interference maxima: β = pπ, where p = 0, ±1,± 2, ±3,…..

Diffraction grating

Plane diffraction grating consists of a number of parallel and equidistant lines ruled on an optically
plane parallel glass plate by a fine diamond point. The number of such ruled lines per mm is of the
order of 100. Each ruled line behaves as an opaque line while the transparent portion between two
consecutive ruled lines behaves as a slit. If a be the width of a clear space and b be the width of a
 15

ruled line, then the distance (a+b) is called grating element or grating constant. In optics, a
diffraction grating is an optical component with a periodic structure that diffracts light into several
beams travelling in different directions. The directions or diffraction angles of these beams depend
on the incident angle to the diffraction grating, the spacing or distance between adjacent diffracting
elements (e.g., parallel slits for a transmission grating) on the grating, and the wavelength of the
incident light. The grating acts as a dispersive element. Because of this, diffraction gratings are
commonly used in spectrometers.

sin 2  sin 2 N
Intensity I  I 0
 2 sin 2 
a sin  d sin 
where N = no of slits, Io = (CAa)2,   and  
 
Grating equation: (a  b) sin   n where n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3….
d sin   n
d
Angular dispersive power of a Grating - d
d d cos  n
d
d n

d d cos 
d sin   n
Maximum number of Grating spectra (nmax) (a  b) sin   n
(a  b) sin 
n

(a  b)
n max 


Resolving power of a Grating   d sin N

 nN 
d d 

LASER

The word LASER is an acronym forLight Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

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Absorption and Emission of Radiation

Absorption

The atom will absorb the photon and will go to the upper excited state E2. This phenomenon is
called Absorption.
The atom cannot stay in the excited state forever. It can stay there for a certain period of time which
is known as the lifetime of the excited state.

Emission
The atom will come down to the lower excited state E1 and release the amount of energy
hν12 = E2 – E1

Population Inversion
• Let us consider N1 and N2 are the number of atoms in the lower energy state E1 and higher
energy state E2 respectively
 17

• According to Boltzmann distribution, under thermal equilibrium

N2/N1 = e –(E2 – E1)/KT
At room temperature, most of the atoms remain in lower energy state E1.
Hence in this condition, stimulated emission is negligible due to fewer amounts of atoms
in level E2.
• To achieve sufficient stimulated emission more atoms are required in level 2, ie, N2> N1. This
is known as population inversion.
Population inversion can be attained by optical pumping.

Einstein’s A, B Coefficients
dN dN
Rate of absorption:  1  B12 N1u  Rate of spontaneous emission:  2  A 21 N 2
dt dt
dN 2
Rate of stimulated emission:   B21 N 2 u 
dt
Here A21, B12, B21 are known as Einstein’s A, B coefficients.

The radiation energy density (uυ)

8h 3 1
u  h
c3
e kT  1
Relation between Einstein’s A, B Coefficients

A 21 8h 3
 B12  B21
B21 c3

Active medium
is placed
between a pair
of mirror .
Such a closed
system is
called Optical
Resonator
 18

mc
Frequency of cavity modes:  m  L – Length of the cavity, μ – refractive index of the
2L
active medium.
Here m = 1, 2, 3,……… represents cavity modes of different frequencies.
c
The separation between frequencies of two consecutive modes is:    m 1   m 
2L
The Quality factor Q of the cavity
Maximum energy stored per cycle in the mode
Q  2
Energy dissipated per cycle in the mode

It can also be expressed as Q  where Δω is the linewidth.

 19

Problems

1. (i) In the context of Young's Double Slit Experiment, consider a scenario where the distance
between the slits is increased. Explain how this change affects the resulting interference
pattern on the screen. Provide a detailed analysis of the impact on fringe separation, fringe
visibility, and overall pattern characteristics. Additionally, discuss the underlying wave nature
of light and the key factors influencing the observed pattern. Finally, evaluate the practical
implications of these changes in the experiment on the precision and accuracy of
measurements. Justify your evaluation based on the fundamental principles of wave optics
and the mathematical expressions governing interference in the double-slit configuration. (5)
[BL 5]
[Hint: This question requires students to recall and understand the basic principles of
Young's Double Slit Experiment, apply their knowledge to predict the effects of
changing parameters, analyze the consequences in terms of interference patterns, and
ultimately evaluate the broader implications of such changes on experimental
outcomes.]

(ii) A film of oil (refractive index – 1.7) is formed between a plane glass plate and an equi-
convex lens (refractive index of both may be taken as 1.5). The focal length of the lens is 1 m.
Estimate the radius of 10th dark ring when light of wavelength 600 nm falls normally on the
combination (5) [BL 5]
mR
[Hints: Use rm2  . Here m = 10, λ = 600 × 10-9 m, n = 1.7. Find R
n
1 1 1
from  (n  1)(  ) . Therefore, R1 = R2 = R = f = 1 m. Thus rm = 1.879 mm]
f R1 R 2

2. (i) The refractive indices of a glass for wavelengths 656.3 nm and 527.0 nm are respectively
1.6545 and 1.6635. Calculate the length of the base of a 60 degrees prism of this glass which
can just resolve sodium lines of wavelengths 589.0 nm and 589.6 nm. t-length of base of
� ��
prism. [Hint: = � ] (5) [BL4]
�� ��

ii) Fraunhofer double slit diffraction pattern is observed in the focal plane of a lens of focal
length 0.5 m. The wavelength of incident light is 500 nm. The distance between two
maxima adjacent to the maximum of zero order is 5mm and the fourth order maximum is
missing. Find the width of each slit and the distance between their centres. (5) [BL 4]

3. (i)An oil film (r.i. n=1.2) on water (r.i. n=1.33) is viewed from directly above with light of
wavelength 600 nm in air. The film appears circular and has a central thickness 1μm
decreasing to zero thickness at the edge. Evaluate whether the edge will appear bright or dark.
How many dark rings appear in the fringe? (5) [BL 5]
 20

[Hints: The incident rays suffer identical phase changes at the upper and lower surface of
the film. So the condition for the mth bright fringe at the centre is
2nD
2.n.d = mλ or m  . At the edge optical path difference = 0. So it appears bright ( m = 0).]


(ii) Lights of wavelengths 580 nm and 450 nm are used in Young’s double slit experiment.
Determine the least distance from the central fringe where the bright fringe of the two
wavelengths coincides. The separation between the slits (d) is 3 mm and the distance of the
screen from the slits is 1 m. (5) [BL5]

[Hints: Consider nth bright fringe of wavelength 580 nm coincides with the (n+1)th bright fringe
n D
of wavelength 450 nm. Position of the nth bright fringe x n  .
d
Calculate the value of n. Then determine the least distance from the central maxima using the
n D
expression x n  ]
d

4. (i) Light of wavelength 500 nm and 520 nm falls on a grating having 5000 lines/cm. If a lens
of focal length 2 metres is used to form spectra on a screen, evaluate the distance between the
lines (a) in the first order, (b) in the third order. (5)[BL5]
1 m1 m 2
[Hints: a  b  , sin 1  , sin 2 
5000 (a  b) (a  b)

Angular separation    2  1

Hence, the linear separation of the lines will be y  f ]

(ii) A star is viewed by eye at night. How large is the image formed on the retina? Assume
diameter of the pupil is 5 mm and distance between the pupil and the retina is 3 cm. Given λ =
550 nm. (5) [BL5]

1.22
[Hints: 2  2  if L is distance between the pupil and the retina and D is diameter of the
d
pupil, Then the diameter of the image of the star on the retina is d s  2 L ]

5. (i) Consider a case of double slit diffraction, where slit width is 0.0088 cm, separation
between the slits is 0.07cm and wavelength of light used 632.8 nm. Find the number of
interference minima occurring between the two diffraction minima on either side of the
central maxima. (5) [BL4]

[Hints: Condition for diffraction minima: a sin   m , where m =1


Condition for interference minima: d sin   (2n  1) ]
2
 21

(ii) A parallel beam of light of wavelength 500 nm is incident normally on a narrow slit of
width 0.2 mm. The Fraunhofer diffraction pattern is observed on screen which is placed at
the focal plane of a convex lens (placed very closed to the slit) of focal length 20 cm.
Calculate the distance between the first two maxima on the screen. (5) [BL4]

[Hints: In single slit diffraction, condition for first order maxima is a sin 1  1.43
condition for second order maxima is a sin 2  2.46 .Calculate θ1 and θ2 using these
conditions. The distance between first two maxima = (2  1 )f where f is the focal
length of convex lens.]

6. (i) Using the principles of quantum mechanics and the characteristics of a Helium-Neon (He-
Ne) laser, derive an expression for the population inversion necessary for laser action.
Assume a four-level laser system and consider relevant energy levels. Include a step-by-step
explanation of the mathematical expressions involved. (5) [BL5]
[ Hints: Begin by describing the energy levels involved in the He-Ne laser system.
Apply the principles of statistical mechanics to establish the population distribution among
these energy [Link] the rate equations to express the rate of change of population in
each energy level. Equate the rates of change to zero to find the conditions for population
inversion. Finally, derive an expression for the population inversion in terms of relevant
parameters such as spontaneous and stimulated emission rates, and pumping [Link]
question requires a deep understanding of quantum mechanics, statistical mechanics, and the
specific characteristics of a He-Ne laser.]

(ii) A 20 mW He-Ne laser has efficiency of 2 %. Consider that all input energy is utilized to
pump the atoms from the ground state to an excited state which is 15 eV above the ground
state. Determine how many atoms are pumped to the excited state in one second. (5) [BL6]

[Hints: Power input = Power output/Efficiency. Number of atoms excited/second = Input

power/energy difference between ground and excited states]

7. (i) Consider an optical resonator of length 15 cm. Determine the number of modes present in
the wavelength range 6 nm about a central wavelength of 520 nm. (5) [BL5]

[Hint: Frequency separation between two consecutive modes = c/2L]

(ii) The energy gap between two levels corresponds to the wavelength λ = 600 nm. Calculate the
ratio of populations of the two states in thermal equilibrium at room temperature. (5) [BL5]

[Hint: N2/N1 = e-(E2 – E1)/KT]

 22

Module – 4 : Introduction to Electromagnetic Theory:

General form of Maxwell’s equations:

ρ
∇. E =
ϵ
∇. B = 0
∂B
∇ × E =−
∂t
∂E
∇ × B = μ J + μϵ
∂t

Conduction current density: J = σE ≡ Jc

∂E ∂E
Displacement current density: Jd = ϵ ∂t = Kϵ0 ∂t

Questions:

1. Investigate the formation of electromagnetic wave within a capacitor and inductor in an

electrical circuit having AC voltage source. (5) [BL4]

[Hints: Draw the circuit with the capacitor and inductor. Using the concept of Maxwell’s
equations, indicate the formation of electric field and magnetic field within the capacitor and
inductor.]

2. A parallel plate capacitor with circular plates of radius 2.5 cm and the plates are 5 mm apart.
The plates are connected to a AC voltage source 180 sin 30 �� . Find the maximum
displacement current. (5) [BL4]

[Hint: Use formula of displacement current density.]

3. Consider a parallel plate capacitor immersed in sea water. The charge on the capacitor is
varied according to , where = 4 108 Hz. At this frequency sea water has
permittivity = 81 , permeability and resistivity = 0.23 -m. Find out the ratio
of the amplitudes of the conduction and the displacement current densities between the plates.
(5) [BL5]

[Hints: Using the form of the variation of charge on the capacitor plate, calculate the electric
field as a function of time. Using the form of the electric field obtained calculate the conduction
current density and displacement current density.]

4. A parallel plates capacitor with circular plates of radii R is being charged. Derive an expression
 23

for the induced magnetic field around a circular path of radius r<[Link] the electric field
��
within the plates to be uniform without any edge effect. Evaluate � for r = R = 55 mm and �� =
1.5 × 1012V/ms. (5) [BL5]

[Hints: Use Maxwell’s equations.]

5. TEM wave of frequency 300 GHz propagates in vacuum along the +veX-direction. It has
an electric field of amplitude 28.28 m. The wave is linearly polarized with the plane of
vibration of the electric field at an angle 450 to the X-Z plane. Evaluate the expression of �
and �. (10) [BL5]

[Hint:TEM wave propagates along X-direction. So Ex = 0, Bx = 0]

Module – 5 : Quantum Mechanics

Quantum Mechanical Wave Functions and Operators.

In Quantum Mechanics we can associate a wavefunction ψ with every particle. All

observables in Quantum Mechanics (for example Energy, Momentum and Position) can be
represented as operators. An operator has to be Hermitian in order to qualify to be a Quantum
Mechanical Operator.

Following table shows different operators corresponding to different observables,

 24

• The commutative law does not generally hold for operators. In general, �^ �^ ≠ �^ �^
• It is convenient to define the quantity [�^, �^ ] = �^ �^ − �^ �^, which is
called the commutator of �^and �^.
• Note that the order matters, so that, [�^, �^ ] = −[�^, �^ ], If �^ and �^ happen to commute,
Then [�^, �^ ] = 0. For two physical quantities to be simultaneously observable, their
operator representations must commute.
• Some useful rules for evaluating commutators,

• The non-commutivity of the position and the momentum operators (the inability
to simultaneously determine particles position and its momentum) is represented
with theHeisenberg uncertainty principle, which in mathematical form is
expressed as:

• Expectation Values.
Any observable in quantum mechanics is represented by an operator (as mentioned
earlier). Evaluation of expectation values involve Quantum Mechanical Averaging of
such operators to get the average value of the corresponding observables. The expectation
value 〈�〉 in terms of the wavefunction � and corresponding operator � is given by,

• Particle in a one dimensional infinite potential well.

A particle is subjected to a potential:

∞, x≤ 0
V(x) = 0 0<x<L
∞ x≥L
After solution of the corresponding Time-Independent Schr� dinger Equation the
wavefunction corresponding to the �th Eigen state �n(x) is of the form:
For 0 < x < L
 25

The corresponding Energy Eigen value is:.

Quantum Linear Harmonic Oscillator

The Quantum Linear Harmonic Oscillator like a Classical Harmonic Oscillator is subjected to
apotential V(x) = (1/2)m�2�2. So, the corresponding Time Independent Schr��dinger
Equation is:
[ p^2 + 1m�2 � 2 ]ψ(x)=E ψ(x), ω being the angular frequency of oscillation.
2m 2
Solving the second order differential equation the energy eigen values are:

n is an integer. The wave functions corresponding to the eigen states are products of a Special
Function known as Hermite Polynomial and a Gaussian Function.

Quantum-Mechanical Tunneling:

• Now we consider the situation where classically the particle does not have enough
energy tosurmount the potential barrier, E <V0.
• Tunneling is a quantum mechanical phenomenon when a particle is able to penetrate
through apotential energy barrier that is higher in energy than the particle’s kinetic
energy.

• The quantum mechanical result, however, is one of the most remarkable features of modern
physics, and there is ample experimental proof of its existence. There is a small, but finite,
 26
probability that the particle can penetrate the barrier and even emerge on the other side.

• This amazing property of microscopic particles play important roles in explaining several
physical phenomena including radioactive decay. Additionally, the principle of tunneling
leads to the development of Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) which had a profound
impact on chemical, biological and material science research.
−2�
• Approximate tunneling probability≃ ��� [ 2�(� − �) ]
ℏ

Questions:

1. Considering the ground state of a linear harmonic oscillator, find the relation between the
expectation value of kinetic and potential energies. (5) [BL4]

[Hint: If calculated correctly the average values of kinetic and potential energies should be equal]
.
2. i)Evaluate whether the following states are eigen states of the momentum operator?
a) Eigen states of particle confined in a one dimensional potential well
b) Ground state eigen function of a simple harmonic oscillator
c) Ground state eigen function of a hydrogen atom
d) Free particle eigen function
e) Eigen states of particle confined in a three dimensional potential well
Justify your answer through appropriate calculation. (5) [BL 4]
[Hint: Use the expression for momentum operator and act it on the specified eigen states]

ii) Consider a physical system which has a number of observables that are represented by the following matrix:
5 0 0
�= 0 1 2
0 2 1
Find the results of the measurement of the observables. (5) [BL4]
[Hint: Evaluate the eigen values of the matrices].

3. A particle in the infinite square well has an initial wave function an even mixture of the ground and first
excited states : ψ(x,0) = A[�0 (x)+�1 (x)]
a) Normalize ψ(x, 0) (Hint: Use the orthogonality condition of the states).
�2ħ2
b) Find ψ(x, t) and ψ(x, t) 2 [Hint: Let � = 2��2]
c) Compute � and � . Notice that � oscillates in time. Compute the amplitude of oscillation.
d) If one measures the energy of the particle, then what values are obtained? What is the probability of
getting each of them? (10) [BL4]
 27

4. (a) Prove the following commutator identity :

[AB, C] = A [B,C] + [A,C] B (5) [BL5]

(b) Using the above identity formulate that [��, �] = �ℏ���−1 (5) [BL5]

[Hint: Apply the concept of commutator and using the knowledge of position and momentum operator
derive the above relation]

5. Quantum phenomena are often negligible in the “macroscopic” world. Show this numerically for the
following cases:
(a) The amplitude of the zero-point oscillation for a pendulum of length l = 1 m and mass m = 1 kg.
(b) The diffraction of a tennis ball of mass m = 0.1 kg moving at a speed w = 0.5 m/sec by a window of
size 1 x 1.5 m2.

(c) Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of the tennis ball first and using it calculate diffraction angles in
the horizontal and the vertical directions. ] (10) [BL5]
[Hint: (a) Apply the energy relation of the harmonic oscillator gives the average potential energy as
� 1 ℏ�
< � >= 2 or 2 ��2 �2 = and calculate A from this.
4

6. Consider a particle which can move freely with in rectangular box of dimensions a × b × c with
impenetrable walls. The potential can be written mathematically as;
V = 0 (Inside)

= infinite (at surface and outside).

(a) Calculate the wave function and Energy values using Schorindnger wave equation.

(b) What do you understand about the degeneracy of the energy states? Show that for a cubical box no
degeneracy is observed for the ground state, whereas first excited state is three fold degenerate? (10)
[BL5]

[Hints: Apply the concept of 1D box in 3D case and using the knowledge of degeneracy calculate it.]

7. Let’s suppose a particle of mass m is confined within a symmetric one-dimensional box with impenetrable
walls. The potential energy function for this system is given by:

V(x) = 0, for -a ≤ x ≤ a,

V(x) = ∞, for x < -a or x > a .

 28

Using Schrödinger wave equation calculate the energy Eigen value and the wave function for a particle in
this well potential. From symmetry point of view comment why you are getting odd and even wave-
functions? (10) [BL5]

[Hints: Apply the concept of 1D box for the asymmetric 1D potential box in and using that knowledge
calculate it.]

Module 6: Statistical Mechanics

Statistical mechanics is a branch of physics that connects the microscopic properties of

individual atoms and molecules to the macroscopic or bulk properties of materials. It
provides a framework for understanding thermodynamics, phase transitions, and various
other phenomena in condensed matter physics, astrophysics, and beyond.

 Microstate:
A microstate refers to a specific detailed microscopic configuration of a system. For a given
set of particles, a microstate specifies the position and momentum of each particle.

 Macrostate:
A macrostate is defined by macroscopic quantities such as temperature, pressure, volume, and
energy, which describe the overall state of the system without specifying the details of
individual particles. Multiple microstates can correspond to the same macrostate. For
example, a gas in a box with a given temperature and pressure can have countless
arrangements of individual molecules (microstates) that result in the same overall
conditions (macrostate).

 Phase Space:
Phase space is a conceptual multidimensional space in which all possible states of a system
are represented. Each state is a point in this space, with dimensions corresponding to all
possible values of position and momentum coordinates. For a system of N particles in
three dimensions, the phase space has 6N dimensions, consisting of 3N position
coordinates and 3N momentum coordinates. Phase space provides a complete description of a
system's state. By examining trajectories in phase space, we can study the evolution of a
system over time. The density of points in phase space can also be used to determine
thermodynamic properties.

 Maxwell-Boltzmann (MB) Statistics:

Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics describe the distribution of particles in classical systems where
quantum effects are negligible. It is applicable to ideal gases and assumes that the particles are
distinguishable.
 29

Properties:
1. The MB distribution applies to non-quantum, distinguishable particles.
2. It describes the distribution of molecular speeds in gases.
3. At higher temperatures, particles have higher kinetic energies.

�� 1
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution function � �� = =
�� ��+���

 Fermi-Dirac (FD) Statistics:

Fermi-Dirac statistics apply to fermions, particles with half-integer spin that obey the Pauli Exclusion
Principle, which states that no two fermions can occupy the same quantum state simultaneously.
Properties:
1. FD statistics apply to electrons in metals, neutrons in neutron stars, and other fermionic systems.
2. At absolute zero, all states up to the Fermi energy are occupied.
3. The distribution shows a sharp cutoff at the Fermi energy at low temperatures.
�� 1 �� 1
Fermi-Dirac distribution function � �� = = ��+��� , here � =− , � = ��,
�� +1 ��

 Bose-Einstein (BE) Statistics:

Bose-Einstein statistics apply to bosons, particles with integer spin that do not obey the Pauli
Exclusion Principle. Multiple Bosons can occupy the same quantum state.
Properties
1. BE statistics apply to photons, helium-4 atoms, and other Bosonic systems.
2. Bosons tend to cluster into the same state, leading to phenomena like Bose-Einstein
condensation.
3. At low temperatures, a significant fraction of particles can occupy the lowest energy state.
�� 1 � 1
Bose-Einstein distribution function � �� = = ��+��� −1 , here � =− , � = ��,
�� ��

 Applications and Implications:

Classical Systems

In classical systems, such as ideal gases, MB statistics effectively describe the distribution of
particle velocities and energies. These principles underpin the kinetic theory of gases and are
essential for understanding macroscopic gas properties like pressure and temperature.
 30

Quantum Systems
For quantum systems, FD and BE statistics are crucial. FD statistics explain the behavior of
electrons in solids, leading to the development of semiconductor technology and our
understanding of metals and insulators. BE statistics are vital for understanding superfluidity and
the behavior of photons in blackbody radiation.

Thermodynamic Quantities
The different statistical distributions allow us to derive macroscopic thermodynamic quantities
from microscopic properties:
Entropy (S): Measures the number of accessible microstates. Higher entropy corresponds to more
disorder.
Internal Energy (U): The average energy of the system.

Heat Capacity (C): How much energy is needed to change the system's temperature. Pressure (P)
and Volume (V): Relations derived from the distribution of particles and their interactions.

Questions:

1. Assume that the entropy (S) and the statistical number (No. of microstate = W) of a physical
system are related through an arbitrary functional form S = f (W), Deduce this functional
form of entropy considering the additive character of S and the multiplicative character of W.
(5) [BL4]
[Hint: try to find the function, which gives f (A.B) = f (A) + f (B)]
2. Write a MATLAB code to check the validity of the postulate of equal a priori probability by
tossing two coins many times. (5) [BL6]
[Hint: Probability of head in toss is 50%]
3. Find out the phase space trajectory of a Simple Harmonic Oscillator. (5) [BL4]
[Hint: Write down the total energy in terms of position and momentum and then plot that phase
space]
4. A system has a single particle state with 0, 1, 2, and 3 energy units. Discuss the macrostates
and microstates for three distinguishable particles to be distributed in these energy states such
that the total energy of the system is 3 units. (5) [BL5]
[Hint: Use MB Statistics]
 31

5. Determine the temperature at which the mean speed of hydrogen molecules will be same as
that of oxygen molecules at 350C. (Given, the molecular mass of hydrogen molecule is 2 and
of oxygen molecule is 32.) (5) [BL4]
[Hint: Use the formula for Mean velocity from MB Statistics]

6. A cubic meter of atomic hydrogen at 0o C and at atmospheric pressure contains about 2.7 ×
1025 atoms. Find the number of these atoms in their first excited states (n=2) at 0o C and
100000 C. (5) [BL 4]
� �2 � �2
[Hints: = �− �2−�1 /��]
� �1 � �1

7. Find the Fermi energy in copper on the assumption that each copper atoms contributes one
free electron to the electron gas. The density of copper is 8.94 × 103 ��/�3 and its atomic
mass is 63.5 u. (5) [BL 5]

8. If the Fermi energy of a metal at thermal equilibrium � = � K is 12 ��, find (i) the average
energy of free electrons in the metal, (ii) the speed of electron corresponding to the above
average energy.
3
[Hints: ���� = �� ] (5) [BL 4]
5

**********************************
Study Materials Prepared by:

Prof. Saswati Barman

Prof. Koyel Ganguly
Prof. Soumyadipta Pal
Prof. Arnab Basu
Prof. Ranabir Banik
Prof. Subarna Datta