Unit III: Interviewing

1. Definition and Objectives of Interviewing (~500 words)

Definition of Interviewing
Interviewing in clinical psychology is a purposeful, professional interaction between a clinician and a
client, aimed at collecting information, understanding psychological functioning, and establishing a therapeutic
alliance (Woollberg, 1990; Kaplan & Sadock, 2020). Woollberg (1990) defines the clinical interview as “a
professional conversation that balances information gathering with empathetic engagement, aiming to
understand the client’s psychological functioning, needs, and resources.” The clinical interview differs from
casual conversation because it is structured, goal-directed, and guided by ethical and professional
standards.
Interviews can be categorized into:
 Structured interviews: Standardized questions with fixed sequence; high reliability; used for
diagnostics and research (Kaplan & Sadock, 2020).
 Semi-structured interviews: Combines standardized questions with flexibility for follow-ups; balances
reliability with client-centered responsiveness (Comer, 2018).
 Unstructured interviews: Open-ended, client-led exploration; focuses on rapport and subjective
understanding (APA, 2006).

Objectives of Interviewing
The primary objectives of interviewing include:
1. Information Gathering
o Collecting comprehensive data about presenting problems, history, psychosocial context,
mental state, and functioning (Comer, 2018).
o Data includes developmental history, medical/psychiatric background, family, education, and
social environment (Kaplan & Sadock, 2020).
o Forms the foundation for case conceptualization, assessment, and treatment planning.
2. Establishing Rapport and Trust
o Building a therapeutic alliance enhances openness and collaboration (Bertolino, 2015).
o Demonstrates empathy, understanding, and non-judgmental acceptance.
o Trust enables clients to disclose sensitive or emotionally charged material.
3. Clarifying Problems and Goals
o Identifies client’s subjective concerns, priorities, and expectations (APA, 2006).
o Translates broad concerns into specific, actionable goals for assessment and intervention.
4. Observation of Behavior and Communication
o Enables assessment of verbal and non-verbal cues, including affect, posture, tone, and pacing
(Kaplan & Sadock, 2020).
o Provides indirect insight into personality, coping, and interpersonal dynamics.
5. Facilitating Client Expression
o Provides a safe space for clients to articulate thoughts, feelings, and experiences (Comer, 2018).
o Encourages self-reflection and insight, initiating the therapeutic process.
6. Assessing Fit and Readiness for Therapy
o Evaluates motivation, capacity for insight, and readiness to change (Bertolino, 2015).
o Assists in selecting appropriate interventions, modalities, and level of care.
7. Ethical and Legal Documentation
o Ensures confidentiality, informed consent, and legal compliance (APA, 2016).
o Provides a reliable record for supervision, treatment planning, and accountability.

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Conclusion
The clinical interview is both an art and science—structured yet flexible, informative yet empathetic. Effective
interviewing relies on therapist skill, ethical adherence, and integration of verbal and non-verbal cues
(Woollberg, 1990; Kaplan & Sadock, 2020). By fulfilling its objectives—information gathering, rapport-building,
problem clarification, observation, client expression, and readiness assessment—interviewing lays the
foundation for accurate assessment, goal setting, and effective psychotherapy (Comer, 2018; APA, 2006).

Interviewing Techniques (~500 words)

Introduction
Interviewing techniques in clinical psychology are methods used by therapists to collect accurate
information, establish rapport, and guide the therapeutic process. Techniques vary based on the degree of
structure, client needs, and purpose of the interview (Woollberg, 1990; Kaplan & Sadock, 2020). The choice of
technique affects reliability, depth of information, and therapeutic alliance.

1. Structured Interviews
Structured interviews involve a predetermined set of questions asked in a fixed order. They are highly
reliable and replicable, commonly used for diagnostic purposes, research, and standard assessment
(Comer, 2018). Examples include the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM (SCID).
Advantages:
 High consistency across clients and interviewers.
 Facilitates data comparison and research.
 Minimizes interviewer bias.
Limitations:
 Can feel rigid or impersonal, limiting rapport.
 Less flexible for exploring unique client experiences.

2. Semi-Structured Interviews
Semi-structured interviews combine preset questions with the flexibility for follow-up probes. They allow
the therapist to explore client-specific concerns while maintaining comparability across cases (Kaplan &
Sadock, 2020).
Advantages:
 Balances standardization with responsiveness.
 Encourages clarification, elaboration, and exploration of client perspectives.
 Supports diagnostic accuracy while remaining client-centered.
Limitations:
 Requires therapist skill to balance adherence and flexibility.
 Moderate risk of interviewer bias if probes are leading.

3. Unstructured Interviews
Unstructured interviews are client-led, with minimal predetermined questions. They emphasize rapport,
narrative understanding, and subjective experience (Woollberg, 1990).
Advantages:
 Facilitates client expression and insight.
 Enables observation of verbal and non-verbal cues.
 Useful for initial assessment, exploration, and therapeutic alliance.
Limitations:
 Low reliability and comparability across clients.
 Risk of omitting key information without careful therapist guidance.

4. Key Techniques within Interviews

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  Open-ended questions: Encourage elaboration and self-expression (Comer, 2018).
 Clarification questions: Ensure accuracy and understanding.
 Facilitation: Nonverbal cues, minimal encouragers, and prompts support dialogue.
 Confrontation: Gentle challenging of inconsistencies or avoidance to promote insight (Kaplan &
Sadock, 2020).
 Use of silences: Allows reflection, emotional processing, and depth in responses.
5. Verbal and Non-Verbal Components
 Verbal: Tone, pacing, phrasing, and language style affect rapport and clarity.
 Non-verbal: Eye contact, facial expressions, posture, and gestures provide additional information
about client affect, comfort, and engagement (Bertolino, 2015).

Conclusion
Interviewing techniques are central to effective psychotherapy, balancing structure, flexibility, and client-
centeredness. The choice of technique depends on assessment goals, client characteristics, and
therapeutic context. Structured methods maximize reliability, semi-structured methods balance accuracy with
exploration, and unstructured approaches foster deep insight and alliance. Competent therapists integrate
verbal, non-verbal, and facilitative strategies to ensure accurate assessment, engagement, and positive
outcomes (Woollberg, 1990; Kaplan & Sadock, 2020; Comer, 2018).

Interviewing – Characteristics, Micro-Skills, and Questioning Techniques (~600 words)

1. Characteristics of Effective Interviewing

Effective clinical interviewing requires a combination of interpersonal, cognitive, and observational skills.
Woollberg (1990) describes the clinical interview as a collaborative process that is purposeful, flexible,
empathetic, and ethically guided. Key characteristics include:
1. Purposefulness – Each interaction should have a clear goal, whether for assessment, problem
clarification, or therapeutic engagement (Kaplan & Sadock, 2020).
2. Flexibility – Therapists must adapt to client responses, cultural context, and emotional states
without compromising structure (Comer, 2018).
3. Empathy and Respect – Recognizing the client’s perspective, validating feelings, and maintaining a
nonjudgmental stance is essential for rapport and engagement (Bertolino, 2015).
4. Observational Awareness – Monitoring verbal and non-verbal cues such as tone, posture, facial
expression, and affect provides valuable diagnostic and therapeutic information (Kaplan & Sadock,
2020).
5. Ethical and Legal Adherence – Maintaining confidentiality, informed consent, and professional
boundaries ensures client safety and trust (APA, 2016).

2. Micro-Skills in Interviewing
Micro-skills are discrete, observable therapist behaviors that facilitate communication, understanding, and
therapeutic alliance (Ivey et al., 2013). Key micro-skills include:
1. Active Listening – Involves attending, paraphrasing, and reflecting the client’s verbal and emotional
content to demonstrate understanding.
2. Empathy – Recognizing and conveying understanding of client’s feelings and experiences.
3. Concreteness – Encouraging clients to provide specific, detailed examples rather than general
statements.
4. Confrontation – Gently addressing inconsistencies, avoidance, or denial to foster insight and
problem-solving.
5. Summarization – Periodically synthesizing information to clarify understanding and maintain
focus.

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 6. Facilitation – Encouraging clients to continue, pause, or explore topics with minimal verbal or non-
verbal prompts.
7. Use of Silence – Allowing pauses for reflection, processing of emotions, and deepening of discussion
(Kaplan & Sadock, 2020).

3. Questioning Techniques
The way questions are framed shapes client responses and engagement. Key types include:
1. Open-Ended Questions
o Encourage elaboration, self-reflection, and narrative (Comer, 2018).
o Example: “Can you tell me more about how that experience affected you?”
o Useful for exploring feelings, thoughts, and experiences.
2. Closed-Ended Questions
o Yield specific, concise answers; useful for confirming facts or clarifying details.
o Example: “Have you experienced panic attacks in the last month?”
o Often used in structured interviews or diagnostic assessment.
3. Clarification Questions
o Ensure accuracy of understanding and avoid assumptions.
o Example: “When you say you feel anxious, can you describe what that feels like physically?”
4. Facilitation and Encouragement
o Minimal prompts (e.g., nodding, “I see,” “Go on”) that maintain client flow and comfort.
5. Confrontation Questions
o Gently challenge inconsistencies or avoidant patterns to promote insight.

4. Integration of Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication

Effective interviewing combines verbal strategies (questions, reflections, summarization) with non-verbal
cues (eye contact, posture, tone) (Bertolino, 2015). Awareness of cultural and individual differences ensures
that communication is respectful and contextually appropriate.

Conclusion
The success of clinical interviews depends on the therapist’s skillful use of micro-skills, questioning
techniques, and awareness of client cues. Open-ended questions facilitate exploration, clarifications ensure
accuracy, and non-verbal sensitivity supports engagement and trust. Together, these characteristics form the
foundation of effective interviewing, enabling accurate assessment, therapeutic alliance, and evidence-based
intervention planning (Woollberg, 1990; Kaplan & Sadock, 2020; Comer, 2018).

References
 APA. (2016). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct.
 Bertolino, B. (2015). Therapeutic relationship and client outcomes. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 71(5),
456–469.
 Comer, R. J. (2018). Abnormal Psychology (10th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers.
 Kaplan, H. I., & Sadock, B. J. (2020). Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry (10th ed.). Wolters Kluwer.
 Woollberg, C. (1990). The Clinical Interview in Psychology. New York: Springer.
 Ivey, A., Ivey, M., & Zalaquett, C. (2013). Intentional Interviewing and Counseling: Facilitating Client
Development in a Multicultural Society (8th ed.). Cengage Learning.

Interviewing – Facilitation, Confrontation, Silences, and Verbal/Non-Verbal Components (~800 words)

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1. Facilitation in Clinical Interviewing
Facilitation refers to the therapist’s use of verbal and non-verbal strategies to encourage client expression,
reflection, and engagement during the interview (Woollberg, 1990; Comer, 2018). Facilitative techniques
allow the client to elaborate on concerns, explore emotions, and maintain focus, without the therapist
directing or dominating the session.
Key facilitative behaviors include:
1. Minimal Encouragers: Subtle verbal cues such as “I see,” “Go on,” or “Mm-hmm” signal attention and
support while allowing the client to continue (Kaplan & Sadock, 2020).
2. Paraphrasing and Reflection: Restating client statements in therapist’s words demonstrates
understanding and validates the client’s experience (Bertolino, 2015).
3. Open Body Language: Leaning slightly forward, nodding, and maintaining eye contact encourage
openness.
4. Clarification Prompts: Requests like “Can you tell me more about that?” help deepen the client’s
narrative.
5. Neutral Attitude: Avoiding judgment or unsolicited advice fosters a safe environment for disclosure.
Facilitation is particularly important when interviewing clients with high anxiety, trauma, or reluctance to
share, as it reduces resistance and builds trust (Comer, 2018).

2. Confrontation in Clinical Interviewing

Confrontation is the therapist’s deliberate effort to address discrepancies, avoidance, or inconsistencies
in a client’s narrative or behavior (Woollberg, 1990). Properly used, confrontation fosters insight, self-
reflection, and problem-solving.
Principles of Effective Confrontation:
1. Timing and Sensitivity: Confrontation should occur when the client is emotionally ready, not during
moments of high distress.
2. Nonjudgmental Language: Statements like “I notice that you say X but your behavior shows Y. Can we
explore this?” focus on observation, not blame (Kaplan & Sadock, 2020).
3. Collaborative Stance: The therapist invites the client to consider alternate perspectives, maintaining
a collaborative rather than authoritarian tone (Bertolino, 2015).
4. Purpose-Driven: Confrontation is used to enhance insight and facilitate change, not to criticize or
coerce.
Benefits of Confrontation:
 Reveals underlying conflicts or cognitive distortions.
 Promotes client self-awareness and accountability.
 Enhances the accuracy of assessment and treatment planning.

3. Silences in Clinical Interviewing

Silence is a powerful therapeutic tool that allows clients to reflect, process emotions, and formulate
responses (Comer, 2018). While silence can be uncomfortable for both therapist and client, it often precedes
insightful disclosure or emotional breakthroughs.
Functions of Silence:
1. Reflection: Provides time for the client to think about their experiences, feelings, and decisions.
2. Emotional Processing: Allows clients to experience and regulate strong emotions without
interruption.
3. Encouragement of Expression: The therapist’s calm presence during silence signals acceptance and
patience.
4. Observation: Therapist can notice body language, affect, and physiological cues during silent
moments.
Therapists can use silence strategically by observing its impact on client behavior and adjusting facilitation
accordingly (Kaplan & Sadock, 2020).
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4. Verbal Components of Interviewing
Verbal communication involves the words, tone, and pacing used during the interview. Effective verbal
strategies include:
 Open-ended questions: Facilitate exploration and narrative expression (Comer, 2018).
 Closed-ended questions: Useful for confirming factual information or specific symptoms.
 Clarification questions: Ensure accurate understanding of client statements.
 Paraphrasing and summarization: Reinforce understanding and maintain focus.
 Use of positive, nonjudgmental language: Enhances rapport and trust.

5. Non-Verbal Components of Interviewing

Non-verbal communication conveys emotional tone, engagement, and empathy, often complementing verbal
content (Bertolino, 2015; Woollberg, 1990). Key aspects include:
1. Eye Contact: Indicates attention and presence; culturally sensitive usage is essential.
2. Facial Expressions: Reflect empathy, understanding, and emotional attunement.
3. Body Language: Open posture, leaning forward, and nodding encourage disclosure.
4. Gestures and Touch: Minimal and culturally appropriate gestures can reinforce support.
5. Tone and Pace of Speech: Modulating voice helps convey calmness, understanding, and patience.
Non-verbal cues provide therapists with information about client affect, comfort, and engagement, guiding
intervention decisions and fostering a therapeutic alliance.

Conclusion
The use of facilitation, confrontation, silences, and verbal/non-verbal strategies forms the core of effective
clinical interviewing. Facilitation encourages expression, confrontation promotes insight, silence supports
reflection, and both verbal and non-verbal communication enhance engagement and assessment. Skillful
integration of these elements allows therapists to accurately assess client functioning, build trust, and
collaboratively plan interventions, forming the foundation for evidence-based, client-centered
psychotherapy (Woollberg, 1990; Kaplan & Sadock, 2020; Comer, 2018; Bertolino, 2015).

References
 APA. (2016). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct.
 Bertolino, B. (2015). Therapeutic relationship and client outcomes. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 71(5),
456–469.
 Comer, R. J. (2018). Abnormal Psychology (10th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers.
 Kaplan, H. I., & Sadock, B. J. (2020). Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry (10th ed.). Wolters Kluwer.
 Woollberg, C. (1990). The Clinical Interview in Psychology. New York: Springer.