BOK: the inspector will be familiar with ALL the requirements and information in API 577

Weld Preparation (QA)

(Inspectors QA tasks) Confirm that the weld preparation, joint fit-up and dimensions are as per design and WPS.

Details pertaining to weld preparation that should be reviewed:

i) Surface preparation: weld surfaces are free of contaminants and BM defects (lamination, cracks etc.)
ii) Preheat is applied: if required and as per referencing code, specification and WPS, for thermal cutting
and welding.
iii) Hydrogen bake-out is performed: as specified and according to procedure.
iv) Descaling the weld joint: free from oxide and sulfide scales and HC residue.
v) Weld joint geometry is as per WPS (joint type, bevel angle, root opening etc.)
vi) Alignment is acceptable to project requirements.
vii) Socket welds have the appropriate gap.

Welding consumables (QA)

(Inspector’s QA tasks) Confirm electrodes and filler metal are segregated, that fluxes and inert gases are identified,
are as specified and are acceptable; Confirm that storage ovens for welding consumables have a visible temperature
display and have automatic temperature control.

i) Filler material:
a. Are clean and free of contaminants
b. Are being properly handled and stored
c. Type and size are correct as per WPS
d. (if alloy) is properly identified as alloys and stored separately from other welding shiz.
ii) Flux and coating:
a. Coating on electrodes is neither damaged nor wet (if wet, the discard the SMAW electrode)
b. Flux is properly handled and is correct for the welding process (check procedure)
iii) Inert gases:
a. Is appropriate for shielding and backing
b. Gas composition is correct as per welding procedure and meets purity requirements.
c. The shielding gas and purging gas manifolds are bled periodically to prevent backfilling with air.

Tasks during welding operations

Welding inspection during the welding procedure should include audit parameters to verify that the welding is
performed according to the WPS. This includes, establishing a QA and QC audit procedure with the welding
organization, confirm welding parameters are listed in the WPS and WPQ, and weldment examination (completing
physical checks, visual examination and in-process NDE).

QA/QC procedure with the welding organization:

Details on QA/QC audit procedures that should be reviewed include:

i) Welder is responsible for welding as per the WPS and has ready access to the approved version before
and during.
ii) Welder is tested and certified to the welding procedure being used
iii) (if required) Welder has received any special training and mock-up weldments have been performed
iv) Welder and appropriate quality control personnel understand the inspection hold-points
v) Welder is responsible for quality craftmanship of weldments
vi) Reference API 577 Annex B. (Normative actions to address improperly made production welds)
Welding parameters and techniques: confirm welding parameters and techniques are listed in the WPS and WPQ.

Inspector’s QA tasks and details related to welding technique and welding parameters:

i) Essential variables as per WPS are being met during welding

ii) Filler material, fluxes and inert gas composition/flowrate is as specified in the WPS
iii) Supplementary essential variables (where required) are being met during welding
iv) Preheating:
a. During tack welding (and tack welds removed if required)
b. During root pass and for interpass temperature:
Max interpass temperature should be specified for austenitic stainless steels, duplex stainless steels,
and non-ferrous alloys (type-300 stainless steels).
Max interpass temperature should also be specified for carbon steels and low-alloy steels that
require that require impact testing.
v) Other variables to check up on:
a. Purge technique, flow rate, O2 analysis, etc.
b. Equipment settings: volts, amps, fire feed speed, etc.
vi) Travel speed (the primary element in determining heat input)
vii) Heat input where appropriate

Weldment Examination: complete physical checks, visual examination and in-process NDE

(Inspector’s QA tasks) weldment examination ‘during’ welding.

i) Tack welds are incorporated into the root and free of defects
ii) Weld root has complete penetration (determined by NDE)
iii) Cleaning between weld passes and back-gouged surfaces is acceptable and as per WPS
iv) NDE, if required, between weld passes on back-gouged surfaces meets acceptance criteria
v) In-process ferrite measurement if required is done and recorded
vi) In-process rework if any, noted through visual examination, is completed and defect removal is
accomplished.
vii) Final weld reinforcement and fillet weld dimensions meet spec and drawings
viii) All additional welds are identified on as-built drawing weld map to account for any additional NDE
required.

Tasks upon completion of welding

Final tasks upon completion of weldment should include those that ensure final weld quality before placing the
weldment in service. These include, complete visual inspection of the weldment for obvious defects, verify NDE is
performed at select location and examiner’s findings are reviewed, verify PWHT (if any), verify pressure testing (if
any), and a final document audit to identify any inaccuracies or incomplete information.

Appearance and finish: Inspector’s QA tasks; complete visual inspection of the weldment for obvious defects
(undercut, cold lap, porosity etc.) to ensure weldment complies with owner-user specification

i) Size, length and location of all welds conform to drawings / specifications / code.
ii) Welder stamping/marking of welds confirmed
iii) Required NDE is completed and discontinuities are reviewed against acceptance criteria per the
referenced standard or code.
iv) Material verification / PMI is completed on welds (after welding completion) and fittings (during pre-
fabrication and during installation), if required by the specification (CAIR?)
v) Temporary attachment and attachment welds are removed, blended in with the base metal and
applicable NDE is completed.
NDE review: Inspector’s QA tasks; verify NDE is performed at select locations and review examiner’s findings to
ensure compliance with code or referenced standard. Details pertaining to NDE that should be reviewed:

i) Specified locations are examined

ii) Number of examinations specified for each location are completed
iii) Document that all NDE and associated tables are correctly executed and documented
iv) NDE is performed after final PWHT
v) Radiographic quality is in accordance with ASME Sec 5 Article 2 and that the inspector is in agreement
with the examiner’s findings.
vi) Check joints for delayed cracking (esp. thick sections, highly constrained joints, joints of high strength
materials, and services with potential for delayed cracking)

Postweld Heat Treatment: Verify PWHT is reviewed and accepted to be in accordance with specified procedure.

i) Before PWHT begins:

a. Paint marking and other detrimental contaminants removed
b. Temporary attachments are removed
c. Equipment internals such as valve internals are removed to prevent damage
d. Equipment is adequately supported to prevent distortion
e. Machined surfaces are protected from oxidation
f. Temperature monitoring system is calibrated
g. Thermocouples are attached properly
h. Thermocouples are attached to the thickest and thinnest part of the fabrication
i. Local heating bandwidth is adequate
j. Insulation is applied to the component where local heating is required
ii) After PWHT is completed
a. Temperature and hold time are as per PWHT procedure
b. Heating rate and cooling rate are as per PWHT procedure
c. Hardness testing indicates an acceptable heat treatment

Pressure Testing: pre testing is performed, reviewed and accepted as per reference procedure

i) Pressure meets test specification

ii) Hold time / test duration meets test specification
iii) Component metal temperature is within min-max limits
iv) Pressure drop or decay is acceptable as per procedure
v) Visual examination does not reveal leakage or material defects
vi) All welds and components are accessible for visual inspection and not covered with paint, insulation or
other matter.

Document Audit: perform final review of the inspection package to check for any missing data or inaccuracies.

i) All verifications in the quality plan were properly executed.

ii) Inspection reports and NDE examiner’s findings and interpretations are accurate
iii) Inspection reports are complete, accepted and signed by the responsible parties
iv) All documentation is retained as required by referencing code and company standard

Nonconformances and defects:

At any time during welding inspection if defects or nonconformances with respect to referencing code, standard or
specification arise, they should be brought to the attention of those responsible for the work.

Welding should not proceed until the defect is fully removed, the weld corrected and reinspected until the weld is
found to be acceptable.
The required corrective action depends upon the nature of the nonconformance and its impact on the weldment’s
properties. Corrective action may include reworking the weld.

Repair welds:

When inspection identifies a rejectable defect, the inspector should mark the area for repair, remove the defect,
verify defect removal (typically using MT or PT), and perform all necessary repair welding.

Repair welding should be performed in accordance to a repair weld procedure acceptable by inspector or engineer.
After the repair the weld should be inspected using the same techniques that initially identified the defects.

If the inspection indicates that the repair is acceptable, then no further action is needed and the equipment can be
put back into service.

If the repair was unsuccessful (the same defect reappeared or a new defect) then the inspector and welder (possibly
the welding engineer) should evaluate the reason before attempting a second repair.

How many times a weld can be repaired before being fully cut out depends upon several factors (weld size, base
metal thickness and MOC, weld application, heat treatment, weld complexity/position etc.)

When a weld has failed a weld quality test more than two times then the welding engineer or inspector should be
notified to determine the cause(s) of the defect(s) and advise appropriate path forward.

NDE Examiner Certification:

Referencing Codes or Standards: Typically, weld construction standards such as ASME code for pressure vessel
construction or pressure piping, or API codes for repair of in-service vessels (510) or piping (570), refer to certification
of qualification by third parties, example:

ASNT SNT-TC-1A: Personnel Qualification and Certification in Nondestructive Testing

 Provides employer guidelines employer guidelines for the certification of NDE personnel

ANSI/ASNT CP-189: ASNT Standard for Qualification and Certification of Nondestructive Testing Personnel
 Provides employers standards for the certification of NDE personnel

Although an inspection company may appoint a Level III examiner, the owner-user may prefer that the Level III
Examiner be certified by examination, at least for the initial certification.

Owner-User qualification
If the referencing code or specification does not indicate a specific quality standard, then the owner-user can ask the
personnel performing inspection to demonstrate competency by demonstration. See API in service inspection
documents for further details (ex: API Qualification for Ultrasonic Testing Examiners – QUTE).

To successfully complete the owner-user’s test, the examiner candidate must successfully detect, locate and
characterize 80% of the defects in the weld sections with known defects that they’ve been asked to examine. Those
who are unable to detect or mischaracterize more than 20% of the known defects, fail. Owner user may choose
another pass point if they so wish.

Candidate requirements: the examiner candidates will be told that they have the examine weld sections and
that they will be given a pass/fail score. No other information is to be given.

Term: candidate who passes the test is qualified for 3 years. If their performance is brought into question at
any time then the owner-user can retest them at their own discretion.

Approval of the candidate, as a competent examiner, is restricted to the owner-user organization only. It’s
not deemed as an API certification or endorsement.

Weld Inspection Data Recording:

Reporting Details: The inspection report in many cases becomes a permanent record maintained and referenced for
the life of the part.
General info: customer / project#, site / contract#, date of inspection, component / system, sub assembly /
description, weld identification, weld type / material thickness;

Inspection info: Date of inspection, procedure#, examiner, examiner certification info, inspection method,
visual aids and other equipment used, weld reference datum point

Inspection results: Inspection sheet#, inspection limitation, all recordable and reportable indications
description, for each recordable indication (indication#, location – from weld reference datum and
centerline, u/s or d/s from reference point (or clockwise / ccw), size and orientation of indication, type of
indication (linear / rounded), acceptability per acceptance std or ref code, remarks or notes, sketch of
indication, reviewer and level of certification, reviewer’s comments.

Terminology: When reporting the results of an inspection, it is important to use std terminology.
Metallurgy:
The welding process is somewhat akin to making a casting in a foundry. A weld can be considered a small casting as it
has a grain structure very similar to that of a casting, however the thermal conditions experienced during welding
can produce characteristics both deleterious and beneficial, unique to welding.

Castings
The overall arrangement of grains, grain boundaries, and phases present in the casting is called the microstructure.
Because castings used in the refinery industry are typically alloyed, they contain several microstructure phases.
A phase is any structure that is physically and compositionally different.
In general, it is desirable to keep the grain size small because this improves strength and toughness.
Small grains can be formed by increasing cooling or reducing heat input (in the case of welding).
Reduced temperatures encourage crystal formation and reduce time for crystal growth => small crystal size.
Segregation: compositional variations in the microstructure (can impair casting properties).
Trace elements can cause variation in solidification temperature of different microstructural phases due to
differences in solubility of said trace elements in the melt.
Trace elements include Sulfur, Carbon, Phosphorous etc.
As the metal cools, the trace elements are entrapped in the phases that solidify last, in spaces between the grains.
The grain boundary regions can have a much higher percentage of trace elements than the grain itself, leading to
reduction in strength and ductility.
Segregation can be minimized by, eliminating or reducing trace elements, using high purity melting stock, special
melting practices (under vacuum, or inert gas – to minimize contamination), or subsequent heat-treatment to
homogenize the structure.
In many carbon steels, segregation is minimized by using oxygen scavengers (aluminum, silicon, or Al+Si), and these
steels are called “killed” or fully killed” steels.
“Inclusions” or trace elements in the metal can provide sites for formation of in-service defects such as hydrogen
assisted cracking.
Gases (ex: H2) that get trapped inside the melt as it solidifies, can cause voids or porosity in the structure, leading to
cracking.
To avoid inclusion of gaseous trace elements in the metal, clean the weld bevels thoroughly, remove moisture, use
low-H2 electrodes, correct storage & baking of electrodes, use proper purging with high quality welding gases.
In refinery industry, castings are primarily used for components of complex shape (ex: pump casing, impeller, buffing
boxes) – machining from bar stock would be very wasteful here.

Wrought Materials
Most metallic materials used for fabrication in Refineries and Chemical Plants are used in the wrought form.
Wrought material is produced by working the cast ingot (rolling, forging, extrusion) at elevated temperatures
Mechanical working of the cast ingot at elevated temperatures produces a uniform grain composition and a smaller,
uniform grain shape.
Wrought materials can have more than one microstructural phase that may have different grain structures.
Austenitic stainless steels are composed of microstructural phases called austenite, which have grains of the same
crystal structure.
Many Al, Ni, Cu & Ti alloys are also single-phase materials.
Single-phase materials are often strengthened by the addition of alloying elements that lead to formation of
nonmetallic or intermetallic precipitates.
Addition of carbon to austenitic stainless steels leads to the formation of very small precipitates of iron carbide and
chromium carbide in the grains and in grain boundaries – these precipitates strengthen the alloy.
Formation of chromium carbide at the grain boundaries during welding or other high-temperature exposure can
deplete the adjacent area of chromium. This microstructure is called sensitized microstructure and can result in
severe intergranular corrosion in the areas adjacent to the grain boundaries that are depleted of chromium.
In general, finer dispersion of precipitates leads to more strengthening, but it is very temperature dependent
because precipitates begin to breakdown at elevated temperatures (whereupon the metal loses the strengthening
effect).
Alloys may also consist of more than one phase and crystal structure. Several copper alloys (ex: brass) have two
distinct phases. Plain carbon steel is also a two-phase alloy (Ferrite which is relatively pure iron, and Pearlite which is
a lamellar mixture of ferrite and Fe3C – iron carbide).
Pearlite is form after the addition of 0.06% or more carbon to ferrite.
Ferrite by itself is a weak material.
Fast cooling (quenching) of non-alloyed steel and addition of alloying elements (ex: chromium) to steel, other phases
may form: rapid quenching, forms bainite and martensite, these increase the strength and hardness of the material
at the cost of ductility; typically, martensite and bainite is undesirable – except where hard-facing material is
required.

Welding Metallurgy
Welding metallurgy is concerned with melting, solidification, gas-metal reactions, slag-metal-reactions, surface
phenomenon, and base metal reactions.
There are three parts of a weld: weld metal, heat affected zone (HAZ) and base metal;
Weld metal solidifies rapidly and has a fine-grain dendritic structure;
Segregation of alloy elements can occur in the solidified weld metal – hence the weld metal is less homogenous than
the base metal, which negatively affects the properties of the weld metal.
HAZ is the portion of the base metal that is adjacent to the weld metal but has not been melted. However, the HAZ
does get its mechanical properties and microstructure changed due to exposure to the high temperatures for
welding.
Steel HAZ typically undergoes a change in grain size, or grain structure and hardness.
Extent of the HAZ depend upon the heat input during welding (more heat, larger HAZ).
For carbon steels, the HAZ includes regions of the base metal that have been heated to over 730degC.
Each weld pass has it’s own HAZ and overlapping HAZs extend throughout the whole thickness of the base metal.
The weldability of the material is dependent upon its chemical composition (for carbon steels it’s the carbon content)
and there are ranges of welding parameters that can produce sound welds (with desirable mechanical properties) –
the wider the range, the better the base metal’s weldability.
Nitrogen can be used as a shielding gas for welding of austenitic stainless steels or duplex stainless steels.
Reactive gases such as carbon-di-oxide (which breaks down into carbon and oxygen at arc temperatures) are
generally ok to use for carbon and low-alloy steels.
In high-alloy metals or reactive metals, C)2 shielding can become a problem as it can result in an increase of carbon
content and formation of metal oxides, which can be detrimental to the corrosion resistance of the high-alloy metal.
High-alloy metals are only welded with inert shielding gas (with only slight additions of reactive gases to promote arc
stability.

Melting Temperature
Meeting the melting temperature of the filler or base metal is typically not a problem in arc welding because the arc
temperatures far exceed the filler and base metal melting temperatures (of carbon and low alloy steels). If more heat
is required, the welder can simply turn up the amps.
Pure metals have definite specific melting and boiling points (just above the solidification point). But complete
melting of alloyed metals occurs over a range of temperatures.
Solidus temperature is the temperature at which an alloyed material starts to melt
Liquidus temperature is the temperature at which the alloyed material has fully melted.
Between these two temperatures lie the different meting points of the various phases comprising the alloy metal.

Thermal conductivity:
Metals with high electrical conductivity also have high thermal conductivity.
Metals with higher thermal conductivity require higher heat input to weld (because the heat input form the arc is
dissipated more quickly through the metal body). They may require a preheat.
Steel is a poorer conductor of heat than Aluminum hence Al requires a high heat input to weld (even though the
melting temperature of Al is lower – 660degC – than that of steel ~1450degC).
Generally, a material that contains substantial alloying elements has lower thermal conductivity and will require
lower heat input to weld.
Coeff of thermal expansion;
Measured in linear units per degree.
Coeff of expansion is not constant; As the metal phase may change with temperature, so too can the coeff of
expansion.
Metals with a higher coefficient of expansion is more susceptible to warping and distortion during welding.
The welding procedure should account for the increase in dimensions during welding and the shrinkage during
cooling; consequently the proper tolerances should be used.
Joining metals with vastly different coefficients of thermal expansion can result in thermal fatigue and cause the part
to fail prematurely.
Special filler metals are used to minimize the adverse effects caused by inherent differences between the metals
being joined (other measures include avoiding excessive restraint during welding, and PWHT to relieve residual
stresses).

 Castings are less dense than wrought materials (bcoz castings include porosity and inclusions)
 Since welds are basically castings, the possibility of porosity and inclusions is an important consideration in RT.
 Density of shielding gas is important because less dense shielding gas disperses faster; denser gases protect the
weld for longer before dispersion.

Mechanical Properties
Conducting tests to verify the value of the welded metal’s mechanical properties (ex: tensile strength) is an essential
part of weld procedure qualification.
Tensile strength, yield strength, ductility, hardness and toughness.
Inspector should verify that the mechanical properties meet the design requirements.
Nominal stress of a material is equal to its tensile strength.
Work hardening: the strength increase in a material as a result of applied stress in the plastic deformation zone.
 For design purposes the maximum usefulness of the material should be based on it’s yield strength instead of
the UTS or fracture strength.
Both elongation (%) and reduction in area (%) are measures of a material’s ductility.
Ductility can deteriorate due to thermal cycling in service. Reduction can be so great as to make cracking
unavoidable during repair welding. This is commonly seen in high-alloy tubesheets.
The Bend test is used to evaluate the relative ductility and soundness of a welded joint (specimen is bent to a
specified radius and the resulting cracks or imperfections arising on the tensile side of the bend are evaluated for
acceptance or rejection).
Hardness of a material is its resistance to plastic deformation by indentation. (demo all hardness tests)
Indentation hardness is measured by Brinell, Rockwell, Knoop and Vickers hardness tests.
Hardness tests can provide information about the metallurgical changes in the metal.
In alloy steels a high harness can indicate the presence of untempered martensite in the weld metal or HAZ.
Telebrineller test is the field equivalent of the Brinell test (demonstration);
1. Test bar

2. Anvil

3. Rubber head (encases anvil)

4. Resting block (non-skid footing)

5. Hardened steel ball

6. Specimen metal (work piece)

7. Spacing bar (moves the test bar forward)

Consistent accuracy is maintained when the test bar BHN is within 15% of the specimen BHN and is of the same
general material. (Testing nonferrous materials with carbon steel bars causes impact errors that must be
compensated for by applying correction factors to the test results.
BHN of specimen=¿ ¿
Where BHN = Brinell hardness number
Rockwell hardness testing differs from Brinell hardness in that the Rockwell number is inversely proportional to the
additional depth that an indenter is forced into the specimen by a heavy (major) load beyond the depth previously
applied by a lighter (minor) load.
Minor load is always 10kg, but the major load can be 60kg, 100kg or 150kg.
Rockwell indenters can be diamond-cones indenters (commonly known as Brale), or hardened steel ball indenters of
various diameters. Chosen type depends upon specimen material and anticipated hardness.
Nb. Rockwell hardness test is based on depth, Brinell is based on area of the indentation.
Example Rockwell hardness = 55RHC where R = rockwell, H=hardness, C=suffix dependent upon the combination of
load and type of indenter.
Brinell and Vickers hardness tests are similar in that they are both an expression of the ratio of load applied (in kgf)
to the area of the indentation left on the specimen.
Vicker’s hardness test an indenter of a definite shape is pressed into the work material, the load removed, and the
diagonals of the resulting indentation measured. The hardness number is calculated by dividing the load by the
surface area of the indentation. The indenter for the Vickers test is made of diamond in the form of a square-based
pyramid. The depth of indentation is about one-seventh of the diagonal length. The Vickers hardness value is
preceded by the designation (HV).
Vicker’s harness number (HV) is the same as the diamond pyramid hardness (DPH) number.
 There are often in-service degradation requirements that are hardness related. For example, susceptibility to
wet H2S cracking in carbon steel is reduced if hardness levels are maintained below HRC 22 (respectively, a
“100” reading on the HRB or a “61.5” reading on the HRA scale).

Toughness
The ability of a material to deform plastically before fracturing.
Fracture toughness (important material property for pressure vessels and tank designers) defined as the ability to
resist fracture or crack propagation under stress.
Charpy impact test measures a material’s fracture toughness. (Notched bar impact test)
Charpy impact test: Charpy impact test is a pendulum-type single-blow impact test where the specimen is supported
at both ends as a simple beam and broken by a falling pendulum. The energy absorbed, as determined by the
subsequent rise of the pendulum, is a measure of the impact strength or notch toughness of a material. The tests
results are usually recorded in foot-pounds. The type of notch and the impact test temperature are generally
specified and recorded, in addition to specimen size (if they are subsize specimens, smaller than 10 mm x 10 mm).

Preheating
Def: heating of the weld and surrounding base metal (HAZ) to a predetermined temperature prior to start of welding.
Additionally, a maximum interpass temperature will be specified on the WPS.
 Primary purpose of preheating carbon and low-alloy steels is to reduce the tendency for hydrogen induced
delayed cracking. Preheating drives moisture away from the welding surface, which eliminates a potential
source of hydrogen; preheating also slows the cooling rate which prevents the formation of brittle martensite
in the weld metal and HAZ.
Preheating is performed for a number of reasons:
 Eliminate moisture in the weld area
 Bring the temperature up to preheat or interpass temperature
 Reduce cooling rate to prevent hardening and reduction in ductility of the weld and HAZ
 Reduce shrinkage stress in weld and base metal (important in weld joints with high restraint)
 Meet code requirements of the applicable fabrication code such as ASME BPCV
[!] If preheat is specified in the WPS then the inspector must confirm that the required temperature is maintained
(using IR gun, pyrometer, thermocouple, temperature-indicating crayon); Inspector should remember that if preheat
is required then that preheat has to be applied during tack-welding, arc-gouging or thermal cutting of the metal
(essentially, apply preheat before carrying out any process that will induce temperature changes comparable to
welding in the base metal.
[!] How to apply preheat? Preheat can be applied in a number of different ways, such as, electrical resistance coils
(common in pipe and tank fabrication), or an oxyacetylene or natural gas torch. Good practice is to uniformly heat an
area three times the size of the weld on either side of the weld with a minimum of 2in on either side of the weld to
ensure the HAZ has been encompassed.
- When welding dissimilar metals with differing preheat requirements, the higher preheat value will govern and
will be identified on the WPS.
Def: “Preheat Maintenance”: some alloys require controlled cooling or an extended heating after weld completion
and before PWHT. Continuous or special heating during welding may also be necessary to avoid cracking (see ASME
Sec 9).

Heat Treatment
- Imparts desirable mechanical properties to a steel that are appropriate for its intended service, through
microstructure changes (phase transformations).
- Heat treatments are achieved by bring a the metal to transition temperature (1700 to 1800oF), holding for a time
and wing to cool down at various rates.
- Full annealing: after transition temperature is achieved, allow to cool slowly well below transition temperature.
Typically the cooling is done inside the furnace or heat-insulating material. The resultant material has high
toughness and ductility (but low hardness). Ideal for further working.
- Normalizing: The ferrous material is heated to above transformation temperature and then removed from the
furnace and allowed to air-cool well below transformation temperature. This realigns the metal’s grain structure,
resulting in higher hardness and relative strength than annealed material.
- Carburizing the purpose of carburizing is to diffuse the carbon atoms to the outer layer of the material to form
carbides which significantly increase the material’s surface hardness at the cost of ductility.
o Performed at high temperatures (1700oF / 930oC) in a carbon rich liquid bath or gas.
o Dimensional changes are a typical side-effect of this method
o Typical applications of carburization include wear surfaces such as blades.
- Hardening property of a ferrous alloy that determines the depth and distribution of hardness induced by
quenching.
o Hardness depends primarily of the carbon content of the material
o Hardenability is depended upon alloying elements such as chromium, vanadium, molybdenum.
(ex: AISI 1040 medium carbon steel with no alloying elements has a lower hardenability than AISI 4340
low-alloy steel which has the same amount of carbon but also alloying elements Cr, Ni, Mo & Si)
o Hardenability can be an indirect indicator of weldability
o Significant amount of martensite formation in the HAZ can lead to hydrogen assisted cracking or a loss in
ductility or toughness
o In case of high harness obtained after welding (higher than those below) PWHT may be necessary

- Tempering decreases metal brittleness (increases ductility and toughness, reduced internal stresses); generally
results in a reduction in yield strength and tensile strength.
o PWHT the primary purpose is stress relieving a welded fabrication.
  In ferritic welds PWHT is also conducted to reduce the hardness of the HAZ
o PWHT allows the material to creep at elevated temperature, thus relieving internal stresses.

Material Test Reports (MTRs)

There are typically two types of MTRs:
i) Heat Analysis or Mill Certificate: statement of the chemical analysis and %weights of the chemical
elements present in an ingot or billet. The test sample comes form the molten state of the “heat” (a
quantity of steel melted, usually in a single furnace).
ii) Product Analysis: statement of the chemical analysis of the material and supplied by the material
manufacturer. The test sample is a piece taken from the final solidified end-product of the casting.
- The product analysis report is actually of more use to the inspector and engineer because it provides a more
reliable identification of the actual material being used.
- API 577 talks about MTRs only in reference to carbon, low-alloy and stainless steels.
- MTR contents:
i) Manufacturer’s name
ii) Date of manufacture
iii) Heat number of the material
iv) National standard applicable (ASTM, ASME, MIL-STD etc.)
v) Heat treatment (if applicable)
vi) Chemistry of the heat (%weight of constituent elements)
vii) Mechanical properties (required by the National Standards)
viii) Other national standard requirements
ix) Supplemental information:
a. Impact strength
b. Ductile to brittle transition temperature
c. Fracture toughness
d. Elevated mechanical property testing (tensile, hot ductility, creep testing)
e. Hardenability
f. Hardness
g. Garin size evaluation (microstructure analysis)
h. NDE (ex: UT)
- Inspector should use MTR to:
o Materials used for fabrication or repair meet applicable standards
- Welding engineer can use MTRs to:
o Determine weldability of the material(s) used
o Recommend welding procedure, pre-heat and post weld heat treatment
- Chemical analysis of the material can be used to calculate the carbon equivalent
- MTRs are not generally supplied to the purchaser unless specifically asked for (it is good practice to ask for mill
test reports).

Weldability of Materials
- There is no universal definition of weldability
- Weldability depends upon a number of different things
o Chemical composition, microstructure, mechanical properties, welding process, weld joint design
- Metallurgy is the primary factor affecting weldability
o Carbon content has the greatest effect on mechanical properties (such as UTS, ductility, toughness) in
the HAZ and weldment. It is the primary determinant of the necessity for PWHT and preheat.
o Tramp elements or Scavenger elements are elements in carbon steels and low alloy steels that are not
intentionally added and can have an effect on the weldability. These elements are S, P, Sn, Sb, As.
- Carbon Equivalent is a tool used to evaluate the weldability of carbon steel and low alloy steel.
Mn C + Mo+V ¿+Cu
CE=C + + +
6 5 15
 CE < 0.35 require no preheat
0.35 < CE < 0.55 require preheating
CE > 0.55 require preheating and PWHT
Nb: requirements for preheating should be evaluated by considering other factors such as hydrogen level,
humidity and section thickness. Preheating is of significant benefit to the weldment and should be considered
with developing a welding procedure.

- Weldability of High-alloy steels:

o High alloy steels include austenitic stainless steels (SS304, SS316, SS321)
 Contain low carbon, 15% < Cr < 32%, 8% < Ni < 37%
 Resistant to corrosion and high temperature degradation
 Have good weldability and can be welded using any common welding process
 Common considerations: solidification cracking, hot cracking, distortion, maintaining corrosion
resistance.
o Low alloy steels include 1¼ Cr – ½ Mo through 9 Cr – 1 Mo steels
o Solidification cracking and hot cracking (sometimes called hot shortness) are directly related to weld
metal chemistry and the resultant metallurgical phases that form in the weld metal. The cracking
mechanism of both solidification cracking and hot cracking is the same. Cracks can occur in various
regions of the weld with different orientations. They can appear as centreline cracks, transverse cracks,
and as microcracks in the underlying weld metal or adjacent HAZ. Cracking is primarily due to low-
 melting-point liquid phases which allow boundaries to separate under the thermal and shrinkage
stresses during weld solidification and cooling.
o Austenitic welds require a minimum delta ferrite to resist cracking
o The most common measure of weldability of austenitic stainless steel is the ferrite number of the weld.
o The amount of ferrite in the weld metal is primarily a function of both base metal and weld metal
chemistry. For welds made without filler metal, the base metal chemistry should be appropriate to
produce the small amounts of ferrite that are needed to prevent cracking. If the base metal chemistry
does not allow for ferrite formation, then filler metal is recommended to produce adequate ferrite in
the weld metal.
o Small amounts of Nitrogen absorbed in to the weld can reduce ferrite formation
o Recommended to have 5% to 20% ferrite content to prevent cracking.
o [!] Thermal conductivity of austenitic stainless steels is about one-third that of carbon steel and the
coefficient of thermal expansion is about 30 % greater.
 This means that distortion is greater for austenitic stainless steels than for carbon steels. More
frequent tack welds may be necessary for stainless steels to limit shrinkage
o Reduction in corrosion resistance of austenitic stainless steels due to welding:
 Areas exposed to temperatures between 800 – 1650oF (430 – 900oC) for long enough may
precipitate chromium carbides in the grain boundaries, thus reducing corrosion resistance.
 Using low carbon content SS such as 304 or 316 or normalized SS such as 321 or 347 can prevent
this phenomenon.
 Low carbon electrodes or stabilized grades of bare filler metal should be used.
 To prevent a loss in corrosion resistance, the root of the weld should be protected by using an
inert backing gas such as argon or nitrogen.
o Nickle-alloy materials are generally less weldable than austenitic stainless steels
 Ni-alloy weld pools are sluggish to move, hence susceptible to sidewall LOF, welder will need to
oscillate the torch to ensure sidewall fusion, bevel angle will need to be larger (and root face
thinner) to accommodate oscillation / weaving of the torch.
 Preheat is not recommended because Ni alloys are susceptible to hot cracking. In fact Ni alloy
weld pools should be allowed to freeze as quickly as possible.

Refinery and Petrochemical plant welding issues

- Hot tapping and in-service welding
o Primary concerns are burn through and cracking
 Burn-through will occur if un-melted area underneath the weld pool can no longer support the
internal pipe pressure.
 Cracking will occur when the weld pool cools too fast and forms a crack-susceptible
microstructure (can be caused by fast flowing fluid inside the pipe).
o Low hydrogen electrodes are to be used for hot tap (E7016, E7018, E7048) and in-service welds.
o [!] Extra-low-hydrogen consumables EXXXX-H4 should be used in case of carbon steels with more than
0.42% CE, or where HAC (hydrogen assisted cracking) can occur, or in high-strength and highly
constrained areas.
o Root pass with low-hydrogen electrodes reduces risk of HAC. It also reduces risk of burn-through
because the amount of heat directed to the base metal is less than when using cellulosic-type
electrodes. However, manipulation of low-hydrogen electrode for root pass is not as easy but it can be
performed by training and practice.
o Yet, some refining locations use cellulosic electrodes because they are easier to operate and provide
more control over the welding arc. While they CAN be used for root and hot passes, cellulosic electrodes
have the following adverse effects on weldment integrity:
 Deep-penetration and high-risk of burn through
 High diffusible hydrogen, therefore higher risk of HAC.
o Minimum flow rate in pipe is 1.3ft/s (0.4m/s) for liquid or gas to dissipate heat from weld and minimize
possibility of burn through or combustion.
o For liquids, there is a limit to the max flow rate because it can cause rapid cooling and high hardness in
the weld zone. Generally, 1.2m/s is the upper limit.
o For gases there is no max limit, as long as preheat can be maintained. (70oF / 20oC should be maintained
throughout the weld).
o For welding attachments to storage tanks ensure the weld location is 36in (900mm) below the
liquid/vapor line. Normal circulation will ensure effective heat dissipation.
o For no-flow or intermittent flow lines (ex: flare) should not be attempted. Unless it can be determined
that no explosive or flammable mixtures will be generated as a result of welding. Which most of the
time implies that there should be no ingress of oxygen. If this cannot be guaranteed then inert gas or
nitrogen purging should be used in the line.
Hot taps
o Welds associated with hot-taps and in-service welding cannot be stress relieved, thus may be
susceptible to cracking in certain environments.
o During repairs or alterations of alloy material piping systems, material verification of the existing and the
new materials is required to establish that the selected components are as specified.
o In some jurisdictions, the hot-tap component may be required to have a registered design (which should
be verified).
o Buttering the surface of the run pipe before attaching a hot tap nozzle is particularly recommended,
especially when the pipe is fabricated from plate material because this can prevent lamellar tearing as a
result of weld shrinkage, where the thickness of the pipe is such.
Buttering
o In-service welds are susceptible to high hardness and hydrogen cracking in the HAZ. Buttering is
recommended here since it allows a more closely controlled heat input in the parent material and
permits use of temper bead welding technique. Temper bead technique tempers the HAZ during the
deposition of the second layer of weld metal; This is particularly useful where the cooling effect of the
process fluid is high.
o Buttering allows a balanced welding sequence to be used, and if correctly applied can reduce the
potential distortion of the pipe after welding.
o Normally two layers of weld metal should be deposited (especially for dissimilar metal welds) to reduce
impact of weld dilution. The first pass should be ground down to half its original thickness and the
second pass should be deposited as close the edge of the first pass as possible. Subsequent layers if any
should be deposited in the same way.
o [!] Final thickness of the nozzle-to-pipe weld, after grinding should be no less than 6mm or as specified
in the weld procedure.
o [!] Width of the buttering should be sufficient to overlap the nozzle attachment by 6mm on both the
inside and outside diameters.
Inspection tasks typically associated with hot tapping or in-service welding
i) Verify adequate thickness along lengths of proposed welds, typically using UT.
ii) Verify appropriate welding procedure is being employed
iii) Ensuring welder qualification to use said welding procedure
iv) Verify flow conditions are acceptable for welding
v) Specify sequence of welding full encirclement sleeves and fittings (circumferential and
longitudinal welds)
vi) Verify fit-up of hot tap fittings
vii) Audit welding to ensure the appropriate welding procedure is being followed
viii) Perform NDE of completed welds and in-process inspection, as required.
a. Typically this is done with VT or UT shear wave (special config for joint configuration).
b. And MT or PT as applicable for material temperature – generally MT using dry color-contrast
particles will provide the required inspection.
ix) Witness leak testing of fitting
x) Perform PMI testing on the hot-tap component material (check if hot-tap component requires a
registered design)
 xi) Documentation (of all of the above) and have a responsible engineer approve the plan prior to
implementation.

- Lack of fusion (LOF) with GMAW-S welding process

o Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) can use short-circuit mode for material transfer which has the
characteristic of fast freezing weld pool. [!] The fast-freezing weld pool allows welding out of position,
weld thin base metals and weld open butt root passes. This fast-freezing weld pool causes LOF concern.
Due to the inherent LOF risk of this welding process, the BPVC Sec IX applies the following restrictions:
i) Requires welders to qualify with mechanical testing rather than RT since LOF is difficult to detect
with RT.
ii) Limits qualifying base metal thickness to 1.1x the test coupon thickness for coupons less than
1/2in thick as per variable QW-403.10
iii) Limits qualifying weld metal thickness deposition to 1.1x the deposited thickness for coupons
less than 1/2in thick as per variable QW-404-32.
iv) Making variable QW-409.2 (a change from globular, spray or pulsed transfer welding to short-
circuit transfer mode, or vice versa) an essential variable when qualifying a welder for the
GMAW-S process.
o GMAW-S technique can suffer from incomplete fusion particularly in the sidewall of steep or narrow
weld preparations.
 This occurs as transfer of small fast-freezing droplets only occurs while the electrode is short-
circuited by contact with the work piece. Intermittent loss of contact can leave areas of LOF.
o In shallow weld preparations, these are also difficult to detect with conventional radiographic
techniques.
 Consequently, a higher standard of NDE inspection is required.
 In pipeline welding, automated ultrasonic has been adopted to overcome this problem

- Caustic Service
o Carbon steel and low alloy steels are susceptible to SCC stress corrosion cracking in caustic service
o Austenitic stainless steels are also susceptible but at high temperature steam environments (CS-SCC =
caustic steam stress corrosion cracking, occurs in SS in temp range of 120 – 200oC, where there’s caustic
steam from NaOH or KOH solutions, and residual or external stress on the pipe);
o Cracking is a function of temperature, caustic concentration, and operating or residual stress
o [!] Prior to welding or PWHT clean the weld area 6in on either side of the weld location with 5% acetic
acid (to neutralize any caustic that may be present). Water-wash the neutralized caustic and check that
the pH is neutral using a pH paper or phenolphthalein solution (turns pink in response to caustic).
 If surface is still caustic then re-neutralize until neutral pH is reached
o Material cleanliness is especially important when welding Ni based alloys. Ni alloys should be cleaned
with SS wire brush.
o [!] Inspection should be performed when welding on caustic contaminated surfaces. Prior to weld repair
in caustic service, a corrosion specialist should review the details of the welding plan to ensure
suitability for service – inc. welding wire / electrode selected, weld procedure, details of weld prep,
PWHT, and NDE details for completed welds. Similar review is required for surfaces in H2S, Amine, HF
acid, H2 service, sour & wet H2S service and situations with dissimilar metal welds.
o C-SCC cracks can be seen visually but best detected using WFMT, ET, RT or ACFM.
o Surface prep by grit blasting, high-press water blasting is usually required.

- Controlled Deposition Welding

o PWHT can be foregone for CDW in some instanced where PWHT is not feasible (or unnecessary) or may
have a detrimental effect on the equipment or piping.
o CDW is limited to materials in P-No. 1, P-No. 3 and P-No. 4 with further restrictions (impact testing,
hardness testing) in applicable codes.
  Where impact tests are required, the PQR should include sufficient tests to determine if the
toughness of the weld metal and the HAZ of the base metal in the as-welded condition is
adequate at the MDMT (see ASEM Sec. VIII Div. 1 Parts UG-84 and UCS-66, or ASME B31.3)
 Where special hardness limits are necessary for SCC resistance the PQR shall include harness
tests as well. Hardness limits are specified in NACE SP0472 and NACE MR0103).
o The WPS is to include the following additional requirements:
i) The supplementary essential variables in ASME Code Sec IX para QW-250 shall apply.
ii) Stick to the temperatures in the procedure qualification test. i.e.:
a. Max weld heat input shall not exceed that used in procedure qualification test.
b. Minimum pre-heat temperature for welding shall not be less than that used in the
procedure qualification test.
c. Max inter-pass temperature for welding shall not be greater than that used in the procedure
qualification test.
iii) Preheat temperature shall be checked to ensure that:
a. 4in of the material or 4x the material thickness (whichever is greater) on each side of the
weld joint is maintained at the minimum temperature during welding.
b. If the weld does not penetrate through the full thickness of the material, the minimum
preheat temperature needs only be maintained 4in or 4x the material thickness (whichever
is greater) on each side of the weld joint
iv) Use only electrodes and filler metals that are classified by the filler metal spec with an optional
supplemental diffusible hydrogen designator of H8 or lower.
v) When shielding gas is used with the weld process, the gas shall exhibit dew point less than or
equal to -50oC.
vi) Surfaces will be maintained dry during welding and free of rust, mill scale, and hydrogen
producing contaminants (such as grease, oil and organic materials)
vii) The welding technique shall be CDW, temper bead or half bead technique. The specific
technique used will be the same one in the procedure qualification test.
viii) For welds made by SMAW, after completion of welding and without allowing the weldment to
cool below the minimum preheat temperature, the temperature of the weldment will be raised
to 500oF ±50oF (260oC ±30oC) for a minimum period of 2hrs to assist outgassing diffusion of any
weld metal hydrogen.
ix) After the weldment has cooled, the final temper bead layer shall be removed, leaving the weld
substantially flush with the surface of the base material.
o In general, CDW is not applied to situations where the reason for PWHT is to avoid stress corrosion
cracking (SCC). It’s used only when PWHT is impractical, or to avoid excessive grain growth in certain
types of alloys.

See Unit 14 of Welding Print Reading.pdf for welding symbols

Annex C (WPS / PQR Review)

- Essential variables are those that when changed affect the mechanical properties of the weld
o Listed on both PQR and WPS
- Supplementary essential variables are conditions that affect the toughness of the weld joint, HAZ or BM.
o Become Essential Variables when toughness testing is required for procedure qualification
 In which case they are listed on both the WPS and PQR.
o Supplementary essential variables apply when PWHT is required
- Nonessential variables are conditions in which a change is not considered to affect the mechanical properties of
the joint
o Must be listed in the WPS, but optional on the PQR (encouraged, and at the discretion of owner-user).
o If reported on PQR, they must be actual variables documented during the qualification process, using
actual ranges.
- No changes to WPS are allowed except to non-essential variables, to accommodate production requirements
where requalification is NOT necessary.
- No changes to PQR are allowed except editorial corrections.
o The PQR shall be certified accurate by the organization responsible for its creation