Communication Process Model Organizational Behavior

Communication is important in building and sustaining human relationships at work. It

cannot be replaced by the advances in information technology and data management
that have taken place over the past several decades. Communication can be thought of
as a process or flow. Before communication can take place, a purpose, expressed as a
message to be conveyed is needed. It passes between the sender and the receiver. The
result is transference of meaning from one person to another.

This model is made up of seven parts:

1. the communication source,
2. encoding,
3. the message,
4. the channel,
5. decoding,
6. the receiver, and
7. feedback.
The Communication Process Model.

Source
The source initiates a message. This is the origin of the communication and can be an individual,
group or inanimate object. The effectiveness of a communication depends to a considerable
degree on the characteristics of the source. Aristotle believed that acceptance of the source's
message could be increased by:-
 Pathos – Playing on the emotions of the receiver.
 Logos – Generating logical arguments or
 Ethos – Asking for message acceptance because the source is trustworthy.
The person who initiates the communication process is known as sender, source or
communicator. In an organization, the sender will be a person who has a need or desire to send a
message to others. The sender has some information which he wants to communicate to some
 other person to achieve some purpose. By initiating the message, the sender attempts to achieve
understanding and change in the behaviour of the receiver.

Encoding
Once the source has decided what message to communicate, the content of the message must be
put in a form the receiver can understand. As the background for encoding information, the
sender uses his or her own frame of reference. It includes the individual's view of the
organization or situation as a function of personal education, interpersonal relationships, attitudes,
knowledge and experience.

Three conditions are necessary for successful encoding the message.

 Skill: Successful communicating depends on the skill you posses. Without the requisite
skills, the message of the communicator will not reach the requisite skills; the message of
the communicator will not reach the receiver in the desired form. One's total
communicative success includes speaking, reading, listening and reasoning skills.
 Attitudes: Our attitudes influence our behaviour. We hold predisposed ideas on a number
of topics and our communications are affected by these attitudes.
 Knowledge: We cannot communicate what we don't know. The amount of knowledge the
source holds about his or her subject will affect the message he or she seeks to transfer.
The Message
The message is the actual physical product from the source encoding. The message contains the
thoughts and feelings that the communicator intends to evoke in the receiver.

The message has two primary components:-

 The Content: The thought or conceptual component of the message is contained in the
words, ideas, symbols and concepts chosen to relay the message.
 The Affect: The feeling or emotional component of the message is contained in the
intensity, force, demeanour (conduct or behaviour), and sometimes the gestures of the
communicator.
According to D.K Berlo - "when we speak, the speech is the message. When we write, the
writing is the message. When we paint, the picture is the message. When we gesture, the
movements of our arms, the expressions on our faces are the message".
The Channel
The actual means by which the message is transmitted to the receiver (Visual, auditory, written or
some combination of these three) is called the channel. The channel is the medium through which
the message travels. The channel is the observable carrier of the message. Communication in
which the sender's voice is used as the channel is called oral communication. When the channel
involves written language, the sender is using written communication. The sender's choice of a
channel conveys additional information beyond that contained in the message itself. For example,
documenting an employee's poor performance in writing conveys that the manager has taken the
problem seriously.

Decoding
Decoding means interpreting what the message means. The extent to which the decoding by the
receiver depends heavily on the individual characteristics of the sender and receiver. The greater
the similarity in the background or status factors of the communicators, the greater the probability
that a message will be perceived accurately. Most messages can be decoded in more than one
way. Receiving and decoding a message are a type of perception. The decoding process is
therefore subject to the perception biases.

The Receiver
The receiver is the object to whom the message is directed. Receiving the message means one or
more of the receiver's senses register the message - for example, hearing the sound of a supplier's
voice over the telephone or seeing the boss give a thumbs-up signal. Like the sender, the receiver
is subject to many influences that can affect the understanding of the message. Most important,
the receiver will perceive a communication in a manner that is consistent with previous
experiences. Communications that are not consistent with expectations is likely to be rejected.

Feedback
The final link in the communication process is a feedback loop. Feedback, in effect, is
communication travelling in the opposite direction. If the sender pays attention to the feedback
and interprets it accurately, the feedback can help the sender learn whether the original
communication was decoded accurately. Without feedback, one-way communication occurs
between managers and their employees. Faced with differences in their power, lack of time, and a
desire to save face by not passing on negative information, employees may be discouraged form
providing the necessary feedback to their managers.
 When people communicate, they differ not only in non-verbal behaviours and language but in the
degree to which they provide and seek information. Such differences constitute various
communication styles. A popular model for describing differences in communication style is the
Johari window developed by Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham.

The name Johari is derived from the first names of its developers. The Johari window is a grid
that describes tendencies for facilitating or hindering interpersonal communication.

The Johari Window

The model classifies an individual's tendencies to facilitate or hinder interpersonal

communication along two dimensions: exposure and feedback. Exposure is defined as the extent
to which an individual openly and candidly divulges feelings, experiences, and information when
trying to communicate. Feedback is the extent to which an individual successfully elicits
exposure from others. These dimensions translate into four "windows" – open self, hidden self,
blind self and undiscovered self.
1. Open Self: The open self is the arena information known to the person and to others. A
large arena results from behaviour that is high in both exposure and feedback. There
would generally be openness and compatibility and little reason to be defensive. This type
of interpersonal relationship would tend decrease interpersonal conflict.
2. Hidden Self: In this situation the hidden information is known to the person but not to
others; it encompasses those things or feelings that we are aware of but don't share with
others for fear they will think less of us or possibly use the information against us. Very
large hidden knowledge can cause problems if the person expends too much effort in
keeping secrets or others if suspicious about the lack of disclosure. There is potential
interpersonal conflict in this situation because the person may keep his or her true feelings
or attitudes secret and will not open up to the others.

3. Blind Self: The blind self are information known to others but not to yourself. This is the
result of no one ever telling you or because you are defensively blocking them out. The
person may be unintentionally irritating to the other. The other could tell the person but
may be fearful of hurting the person's feelings. Such a configuration is rarely total human
resources. Further more, the person is likely to make many blunders, reflecting
insensitivity to others. As in the "hidden self", there is potential interpersonal conflict in
this situation.

4. Undiscovered Self: The undiscovered self includes feelings, experience, and information
that neither you nor others are aware of. It arises from lack of communication. A manager
whose unknown area is very large tends to be an autocratic leader, perceived as aloof.
Employees may have trouble discerning what this person wants. In other words, there is
much misunderstanding and interpersonal conflict and is almost sure to result. The Johari
window only points out possible interpersonal styles. It does not necessarily describe but
rather helps analyze possible interpersonal conflict situations.

The National Training Laboratory (NTL) recommends seven guidelines for providing feedback
for effective interpersonal relations. These guidelines can help to decrease the potential for
interpersonal conflict.
Barriers to communication are factors that block or significantly distort successful
communication. Effective managerial communication skills helps overcome some, but not all,
barriers to communication in organizations. The more prominent barriers to effective
communication which every manager should be aware of is given below:

Filtering
Filtering refers to a sender manipulating information so it will be seen more favourably by the
receiver. The major determinant of filtering is the number of levels in an organization's structure.
The more vertical levels in the organization's hierarchy, the more opportunities for filtering.
Sometimes the information is filtered by the sender himself.

If the sender is hiding some meaning and disclosing in such a fashion as appealing to the receiver,
then he is "filtering" the message deliberately. A manager in the process of altering
communication in his favour is attempting to filter the information.

Selective Perception Communication barrier

Selective Perception
Selective perception means seeing what one wants to see. The receiver, in the communication
process, generally resorts to selective perception i.e., he selectively perceives the message based
on the organizational requirements, the needs and characteristics, background of the employees
etc. Perceptual distortion is one of the distressing barriers to the effective communication. People
interpret what they see and call it a reality. In our regular activities, we tend to see those things
that please us and to reject or ignore unpleasant things. Selective perception allows us to keep out
dissonance (the existence of conflicting elements in our perceptual set) at a tolerable level. If we
encounter something that does not fit out current image of reality, we structure the situation to
minimize our dissonance. Thus, we manage to overlook many stimuli from the environment that
do not fit into out current perception of the world. This process has significant implications for
managerial activities. For example, the employment interviewer who expects a female job
applicant to put her family ahead of her career is likely to see that in female applicants, regardless
of whether the applicants feel that way or not.

Emotions
How the receiver feels at the time of receipt of information influences effectively how he
interprets the information. For example, if the receiver feels that the communicator is in a jovial
mood, he interprets that the information being sent by the communicator to be good and
interesting. Extreme emotions and jubilation or depression are quite likely to hinder the
effectiveness of communication. A person's ability to encode a message can become impaired
when the person is feeling strong emotions. For example, when you are angry, it is harder to
consider the other person's viewpoint and to choose words carefully. The angrier you are, the
harder this task becomes. Extreme emotions – such as jubilation or depression - are most likely to
hinder effective communication. In such instances, we are most prone to disregard our rational
and objective thinking processes and substitute emotional judgments.

Language
Communicated message must be understandable to the receiver. Words mean different things to
different people. Language reflects not only the personality of the individual but also the culture
of society in which the individual is living. In organizations, people from different regions,
different backgrounds, and speak different languages. People will have different academic
backgrounds, different intellectual facilities, and hence the jargon they use varies. Often,
communication gap arises because the language the sender is using may be incomprehensible,
vague and indigestible. Language is a central element in communication. It may pose a barrier if
its use obscures meaning and distorts intent.

Words mean different things to different people. Age, education and cultural background are
three of the more obvious variables that influence the language a person uses and the definitions
he or she gives to words. Therefore, use simple, direct, declarative language.

Speak in brief sentences and use terms or words you have heard from you audience. As much as
possible, speak in the language of the listener. Do not use jargon or technical language except
with those who clearly understand it.

Stereotyping
Stereotyping is the application of selective perception. When we have preconceived ideas about
other people and refuse to discriminate between individual behaviours, we are applying selective
perception to our relationship with other people. Stereotyping is a barrier to communications
 because those who stereotype others use selective perception in their communication and tend to
hear only those things that confirm their stereotyped images. Consequently, stereotypes become
more deeply ingrained as we find more "evidence" to confirm our original opinion.

Stereotyping has a convenience function in our interpersonal relations. Since people are all
different, ideally we should react and interact with each person differently. To do this, however,
requires considerable psychological effort. It is much easier to categorize (stereotype) people so
that we can interact with them as members of a particular category.

Since the number of categories is small, we end up treating many people the same even though
they are quite different. Our communications, then, may be directed at an individual as a member
of a category at the sacrifice of the more effective communication on a personal level.

Status Difference
The organizational hierarchy pose another barrier to communication within organization,
especially when the communication is between employee and manager. This is so because the
employee is dependent on the manager as the primary link to the organization and hence more
likely to distort upward communication than either horizontal or downward communication.
Effective supervisory skills make the supervisor more approachable and help reduce the risk of
problems related to status differences. In addition, when employees feel secure, they are more
likely to be straight forward in upward communication.

Use of Conflicting Signals

A sender is using conflicting signals when he or she sends inconsistent messages. A vertical
message might conflict with a nonverbal one. For example, if a manager says to his employees,
"If you have a problem, just come to me. My door is always open", but he looks annoyed
whenever an employee knocks on his door". Then we say the manager is sending conflicting
messages. When signals conflict, the receivers of the message have to decide which, if any, to
believe.

Reluctance to Communicate
For a variety of reasons, managers are sometimes reluctant to transmit messages. The reasons
could be:-
 They may doubt their ability to do so.
 They may dislike or be weary of writing or talking to others.
 They may hesitate to deliver bad news because they do not want to face a negative
reaction.
When someone gives in to these feelings, they become a barrier to effective communications.

Projection
Projection has two meanings.
a. Projecting one's own motives into others behaviour. For example, managers who are
motivated by money may assume their subordinates are also motivated by it. If the
subordinate's prime motive is something other than money, serious problems may arise.
b. The use of defense mechanism to avoid placing blame on oneself. As a defense
mechanism, the projection phenomenon operates to protect the ego from unpleasant
communications. Frequently, individuals who have a particular fault will see the same
fault in others, making their own fault seem not so serious.
The "Halo Effect"
The term "halo effect" refers to the process of forming opinions based on one element from a
group of elements and generalizing that perception to all other elements. For example, in an
organization, a good attendance record may cause positive judgements about productivity,
attitude, or quality of work. In performance evaluation system, the halo effect refers to the
practice of singling out one trait of an employee (either good or bad) and using this as a basis for
judgement of the total employee (e.g., seeing the well dressed manager as the "good" manager).
 Direction of Communication flow in an Organization

Within organizations, there are three directions in which communications flow: downward,
upward and laterally (horizontal).

Downward Communication
Downward communication involves a message travelling to one or more receivers at the lower
level in the hierarchy. The message frequently involves directions or performance feedback. The
down ward flow of communication generally corresponds to the formal organizational
communications system, which is usually synonymous with the chain of command or line of
authority. This system has received a great deal of attention from both managers and behavioural
scientists since it is crucial to organizational functioning.

Upward Communication
In upward communication, the message is directed toward a higher level in the hierarchy.

It is often takes the form of progress reports or information about successes and failures of the
individuals or work groups reporting to the receiver of the message. Sometimes employees also
send suggestions or complaints upward through the organization's hierarchy.

The upward flow of communication involves two distinct manager-subordinate activities in

addition to feedback:
a. The participation by employees in formal organizational decisions.
b. Employee appeal is a result against formal organization decisions. The employee appeal is
a result of the industrial democracy concept that provides for two-way communication in
areas of disagreement.
Stimulating Upward Communication
Although most managers agree on the need for upward communication, it is often not clear what
actions can be taken to stimulate it. Given this situation, it is important to develop ways to
stimulate upward communication. Planty and Machaver give the following suggestions.

If properly utilized, upward communication is potentially one of the most useful managerial
practices. Upward communication keeps managers aware of how employees feel about their jobs,
co-workers and the organization in general. Managers also rely on upward communication for
ideas on how things can be improved.

Lateral Communication
When takes place among members of the same work group, among members of work groups at
the same level, among managers at the same level or among any horizontally equivalent
personnel, we describe it as lateral communications. In lateral communication, the sender and
receiver(s) are at the same level in the hierarchy. Formal communications that travel laterally
involve employees engaged in carrying out the same or related tasks.

The messages might concern advice, problem solving, or coordination of activities. The direction
of communication in organizations explained above is summarized.

Directions of Communication in Organization

A communication network is the pattern of directions in which information flows in the
organization. Channels of communication (networks by which information flows) are either
formal networks or informal networks. Formal networks follow the authority chain and are
limited to task-related communications. The informal network (grapevine) is free to move in any
direction, skip authority levels, and is as likely to satisfy group members' social needs as it is to
facilitate task accomplishments.

Types of Communication Networks in Organizations

Types of Communication Networks in Organizations is shown below

Chain Network
In chain network, communication travels up and down through the hierarchy. Each person
communicates with only the person directly above or below in terms of reporting relationships.
The chain network rigidly follows the formal chain of command.

Y Network Communication
Y Network
In the Y network, the flow of communication resembles an upside down Y; information flows
upward and downward through the hierarchy, widening to encompass the number of employees
reporting to a supervisor.

Wheel Network
In a wheel network, information flows to and from a single person. Employees in the group
communicate primarily with that person rather than with each other. Such a communication
network is a fast means of getting information to employees, since the person at the hub of the
wheel can do so directly and efficiently. The wheel network relies on the leader to act as the
central conduit (channel) for the entire group's communication.

The chain network, the Y network and the wheel network are fairly centralized in that most
messages must flow through a pivotal (essential, crucial) person in the network. In the wheel
network, the most centralized, all messages must flow through the individual at the centre of the
wheel. In the chain network, some members can communicate with more than one member of the
network, but the individual in the centre of the chain still tends to emerge as the controller of the
messages. In the Y network, the member at the fork of the "Y" usually becomes the central
person in the network.

Circle Network
In a circle network, employees communicate only with adjoining members of the organization.
The circle network is analogous to a group working in a physical arrangement such that workers
can communicate with their immediate neighbour but not with others in the group.

All channel network communication examples

The All-Channel Network or the Star Network

In an all-channel network, communications flow upward, downward and laterally among all
members of the group. This pattern of communication supports an egalitarian, (equal,
unrestricted) participative culture and fosters (promote, cultivate) cross-functional efforts.

The all-channel network is best if you are concerned with having high member satisfaction.
The circle network and the all-channel network are more decentralized in that there is freer
communication among the various members. In the circle network, each member can
communicate with the individual on either side. The all-channel network is the most
decentralized of the networks; each member can communicate with any other member.