TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH RECORD 1460

Semi-Integral Bridges:
Movements and Forces
MARTIN P. BURKE, JR.

For six decades the state of Ohio has been building continuous concrete Until 1955, steel girder bridges were of riveted construction. In
slab bridges with flexible integral abutments. For three decades it has 1955, the first fully welded girder bridges were constructed. There-
been building continuous steel beam and girder bridges with flexible after, all rolled beam and girder bridges were of fully welded con-
integral abutments. Although this type of construction is now routine in
Ohio for most bridges, there were a number of exceptions for such tinuous construction. In 1963, high-strength bolts were adopted in
applications. For example, bridges skewed greater than 30 degrees, con- place of welding for field splices.
tinuous bridges longer than 300 ft (91.4 m), and bridges with abutments In the early 1960s, the first integral details were developed and
on rigid foundations were routinely provided with movable deck joints adopted for steel structures. Since that time, Ohio has been building ·
at abutments. More recently, however, Ohio has conceived and is de- continuous integral bridges with main members of steel or rein-
veloping a semi-integral abutment concept that has enabled it to extend forced concrete.
the application range of bridges with jointless decks to most bridges-
In summary, Ohio has been building continuous integral concrete
even to those applications with exceptional characteristics. This semi-
integral abutment concept is also now being used to retrofit existing slab bridges for over 60 years and continuous integral steel bridges
end-jointed continuous bridges. Ohio's concept for semi-integral for over 30 years. These bridges were not exceptions. This type of
bridges is described, and a number of the peculiarities that should be construction was adopted as standard, and most bridges were con-
recognized and provided for are discussed. Properly designed and con- structed this way. The primary goal of Ohio designers was the elim-
structed, this semi-integral bridge concept should extend the application ination of bridge deck joints whenever practicable.
range of bridges with jointless decks to most applications-even to However, with respect to the application of end-jointed continu-
those not normally associated with integral types of construction.
ous bridges and integral continuous bridges, there were a number of
notable exceptions. Bridge decks longer than 600 ft ( 183 m) were
A semi-integral abutment concept has been developed and adopted provided with end joints and an intermediate joint. Bridges skewed
by Ohio for the design of some new highway bridges and the retro- greater than 30 degrees, those longer than 300 ft (91.4 m), curved
fitting of single-span and multiple-span continuous bridges. How- bridges, and those bridges with wall-type abutments or stub-type
ever, to understand and appreciate why this type of design has been abutments on rigid foundations were still provided with deck joints
adopted by Ohio, while the design details and construction proce- at abutments. With these few exceptions, almost all of Ohio's other
dures are still evolving, will require a brief acquaintance with bridges were constructed as fully continuous integral bridges. The
Ohio's experience with the development and adoption of both end- others that did not lend themselves to integral types of construction
jointed continuous bridges and continuous integral bridges. were provided with movable joints at abutments and, except for the
Beginning in the early 1930s Ohio adopted, for most applications, bridges with extreme skews, elastomeric joint seals.
embankments, stub-type abutments, and continuous construction If the bridge deck joint sealing systems available to transporta-
for single- and multiple-span stream crossings and grade separation tion departments had been of a higher functional quality and dura-
structures. This was true for bridges of concrete and steel. For the bility, further interest in expanding.the application range of integral
shortest multiple-span bridges and those with span lengths of less types of design probably would have waned. However, the poor
than about 50 ft (15 m), continuous concrete slabs were used. Of quality of these systems and the constant maintenance that they re-
particular interest is that these original concrete slab designs and quired compelled bridge designers to seek ways to adapt the attri-
most subsequent similar designs used integral abutments, with each butes of integral construction to those bridges still being provided
abutment supported by a single row of vertical piles. Consequently, with movable joints at abutments. Figure 1 shows the basic design
with respect to continuous concrete bridges, Ohio has been building configuration that has evolved from that search.
fully continuous integral bridges for over 60 years. The basic features of the semi-integral abutment concept of
For steel bridges, fully continuous members were first achieved Figure 1 include the absence of a bridge deck joint; a superstructure
in the early 1930s by the use of riveted splices at piers. At the same that moves longitudinally on elastomeric bearings almost indepen-
time, the use of field welding was being perfected and some of the dent of ngid abutment foundations; abutment members, including
shortest beam bridges were made continuous by the use of field- piling, that can be designed to operate well within the usual allow-
welded splices at piers. These initial splices consisted of partial able stress limits; superstructure end areas that are reduced, result-
butt-welded beams supplemented by fillet-welded cover plates. By ing in less passive pressure and pressures that are less eccentric with
the mid-1940s, all field splices of rolled beam bridges with span respect to the neutral axis of the superstructure (i.e., lower axial
lengths of up to 84 ft (25.6 m) were field butt welded at piers to loads and bending moments because of passive pressure); and abut-
achieve continuity. ment and end diaphragm configurations that are simple to design,
simple to reinforce, and relatively simple to construct.
Note, however, that this design does not eliminate the need for
Burgess & Niple, Limited, 5085 Reed Road, Columbus, Ohio 43220. movable joints. In fact, it doubles their number because, in addition
2 TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH RECORD 1460

Integral
1
2 -9
11
fixed piers, it receives its longitudinal restraint almost exclusively
end - diaphragm 1'-0" l'-9" Approach from sources not normally used in bridge design for this purpose.
slab Longitudinal restraint comes from approach slab-subbase friction,
~ brg's-
shearing resistance of elastomeric bearings, and the compressive
resistance of structure backfill. However, during cold weather, after
the superstructure contracts away from the abutments (and away
from the backfill), only the shearing resistance of half of the bear-
To of
slope ings and the frictional resistance of the approach slabs moving
relative to the subbase will be immediately available to restrain the
-0 c superstructure against externally applied longitudinal forces. For
1
2 - 0" c Iear -....'../~,_-//==iF::11•m::::::t::::( this reason, it would be desirable if the granular backfill at abut-
ments could be placed and consolidated during cold weather or at
night during hot weather so that the backfill could initially con-
tribute more restraint to supplement that of the approach slabs and
bearings for resisting longitudinal forces.
Providing tum-back wingwalls cantilevered from the superstruc-
ture in place of straight wingwalls would provide additional longi-
bearings tudinal restraint by mobilizing the resistance of backfill-wingwall
friction, or for wingwalls with irregular surfaces, the shearing
1 1
2 -9
1 11
1-6
11
1-d resistance of the backfill. For longer multiple-span structures,
5 -9
1 11
attaching the superstructure to a free-standing pier would be another
way of providing additional resistance to longitudinal forces.
FIGURE 1 Semi-integral abutment concept similar to that of Generally, longitudinal resistance provided by approach slabs
Ohio for single- and multiple-span continuous bridges on rigid and bearings should be sufficient to satisfy specification require-
supports (spread footings on bedrock, two or more rows of ments respecting the resistance to longitudinal forces. For moderate
piles, pedestals to bedrock, etc.). This design concept is not earthquake forces, the resistance provided by the consolidated back-
recommended for footings on soil or flexible foundations (single fill should provide the additional longitudinal restraint needed for
row of piles, etc.).
moderate-length bridges, even during cold weather. For longer
bridges, anchorage to piers can provide the extra longitudinal
restraint needed, even for large longitudinal forces.
to a movable joint at the level of the bridge seat, another movable
joint is needed between the approach slab and approach pavement.
However, although it has doubled their number, this design concept Lateral Restraint
has reduced a bridge's vulnera~ility to substantial maintenance. If
these joints fail to function as desired, their failure will not have the Figure 2 shows an elevation view of a typical semi-integral abut-
damaging consequences that have come to be associated with mal- ment. In this view, the superstructure is separated from the abutment
functioning deck joints and joint sealing systems. by an essentially horizontal movable joint at the bridge seat and ver-
However, a few words of caution. Although it has expanded the tical movable joints between the superstructure and transverse
application range for bridges without deck joints, the semi-integral wingwalls. The horizontal bridge seat joint is shown in Figure 1.
design concept described in this paper possesses a number of The vertical wingwall joints are similar except that only fillers and
unusual characteristics that must be recognized and provided for. sealers are provided for unskewed bridges. Consequently, the abut-
Otherwise, application of this type of design may result in bridges ments of this semi-integral bridge concept function essentially as
that do not satisfy all of their functional requirements. A discussion longitudinal guides for the superstructure.
of these characteristics is the primary focus of this paper.

SUPERSTRUCTURE RESTRAINT

Of all the characteristics of the semi-integral bridge concept

described in this paper, the longitudinal, lateral, and vertical
restraints of the superstructure are the most important. This type of
structure should not be considered for design unless its designer is
familiar with these characteristics and makes appropriate design
provisions to account for them.

Longitudinal Restraint

The details in Figure 1 show that the superstructure that is supported

on movable elastomeric bearings moves almost independently of
the abutments. That is why this design concept is adaptable to FIGURE 2 Semi-integral abutment with transverse
bridges with various types of rigid abutments. For bridges without wingwalls.
Burke 3

Vertically, the superstructure is supported by elastomeric bear- L AL

ings in the bridge seat joint. Laterally, the superstructure is sup-
ported by the interaction of the superstructure, approach slab, and
backfill; to some extent by the compressive resistance of the filler
in the lateral joints; and to some extent by the shearing resistance of
the elastomeric bearings in the bridge seat joint. For applications in
which substantial lateral resistance is necessary [such as skewed
structures (described later) or structures exposed to stream flow
pressure or earthquake forces], guide bearings are necessary and
their use in the wingwall joints or elsewhere between beams is
recommended.
For superelevated bridges where bridge seat joints (Figure 2) are
sloped parallel to the deck surface and where elastomeric bearings
are also sloped, lateral guide bearings are needed to resist the lateral I
component of the superstructure reaction. Otherwise, support bear- PASSIVE PRESSURE Pp
ings should be set on level bridge seat surfaces. When considering
FIGURE 3 Passive pressure development for semi-
most of the application situations that have to be contended with in integral bridges.
the design of semi-integral bridges with characteristics similar to
the concept described in this paper, the routine use of guide bear-
ings should be considered as standard for most, if not all, such
applications.

Rotational Restraint
:: :.·
On the basis of the analysis given below, superstructures of some

~I
skewed semi-integral bridges will, unless restrained by guide bear-
ings, tend to rotate in a horizontal plane. This tendency will be
greater for bridges with greater skews. Horizontal rotation will ini-
Assumed passive
tiate sooner for longer bridges. The characteristics of this behavior
are described as follows. pressure d;s1r;buOon L c~se
As superstructures of semi-integral bridges expand in response to 1
rising ambient temperatures, superstructure elongation (D..L) will be BRIDGE DECK PLAN
resisted by backfill being compressed at abutments (Figure 3).
Force is required to compress backfill, and this same force will re- FIGURE 4 Elongation and rotation of semi-integral
strain superstructure elongation by inducing compressive stresses in bridge superstructures before rotation.
the superstructure. When considering the relative compressibility of
backfill and a reinforced concrete superstructure- even thoroughly
consolidated granular backfill-it should be clear that almost all of Because the external forces act on both ends of the superstructure
the expected superstructure elongation will occur as compression of a semi-integral bridge (Figure 4), the eccentric longitudinal force
of backfill. Only a slight amount of compression will occur in the component ft, will tend to rotate the superstructure toward the acute
superstructure, as evidenced by a slight reduction in the amount of corners of the structure or, for the skew shown in Figure 4, in a
superstructure elongation that would have been evident if the elon- clockwise direction. The lateral force components on the other hand
gation· had been unresisted. These compressive stresses are shown (ft, tan <!> or ft, tan 8) will tend to resist this rotation.
summarized in Figure 4 as the resultant longitudinal superstructure Using the shearing resistance of an idealized granular backfill and
compressive force ft, sec 8. The centralized location of this resultant the frictional resistance of backfill on the backfill-structure interface
force is based on the assumption that structure backfill is homoge- surfaces, it can be shown that superstructures of semi-integral
neous and that it would be uniformly compressed throughout the bridges skewed greater than about 15 degrees will be unstable
width of the superstructure. The components of this resultant force unless they are provided with guide bearings at both abutments.
against the backfill are the normal force as a result of passive pres- With respect to Figure 4, and the symbols tabulated below, that
sure ft,· and the lateral force ft, sec e sine, or in simpler terms, ft, tan statement can be justified by a short series of computations as follows:
e. If lateral guide bearings for the superstructure are not provided
and the force ft, tan e is not adequately resisted at the structural back- L = bridge deck length,
fill interface [by friction of backfill on superstructure end-
diaphragms (ft, tan 8) or by the shearing resistance of backfill (ft, tan e = bridge skew angle,
<J>)], differential movement at the structural backfill interface will ft, = total passive pressure,
commence. When considering the shearing resistance of backfill
(ft, tan <!>) or the frictional resistance of backfill on smooth concrete FS = factor of safety,
surfaces (ft,tan 8), usually the latter force will be found to be the
<!> = angle of internal friction of backfill, and
smaller of the two, and it will govern behavior at the structural back-
fill interface. 8 = angle of structural backfill interface friction.
4 TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH RECORD 1460

For the superstructure of a skewed bridge to be stable, the force Rotation of the flat-ended superstructure will alter the earth pres-
couple tending to resist rotation (Pµtan oLcos 0) must be equal to or sure distribution within the backfill. As rotation commences, the
greater than the force couple tending to cause rotation (Pµ L sin 0) or obtuse comers of the superstructure will move into and compress
the backfill while the acute comers will move away from and allow
PµLsin 0 $ Pµtan oleos 0 (1) the backfill to expand. The amount of movement into and away
from the backfill may appear insignificant when compared with the
Providing a factor of safety against rotation original movement into the backfill (AL) caused by thermal elon-
gation of the superstructure. However, slight movements of soil-
PµLsin 0 $ Pµtan oleos 0/FS (2) retaining structures can have significant effects on soil pressures.
Earth pressure research documented previously (J, p. 7 .2-60; 2)
Because the weight of attached approach slabs and slab-subbase indicates that a fair amount of structural movement into the backfill
friction will tend to resist movement, a safety factor of 1.5 seems (about 5 percent of its height) is needed to achieve full or ultimate
sufficient for this situation. Inserting this factor in Equation 2 and passive pressure. On the other hand, only a very small amount of
simplifying yields the following: movement away from the backfill (about 0.1 percent of its height)
will result in active pressures. On the basis of these relationships of
sin 0 $ tan ocos 0/1.5 movements to pressure, it is assumed that backfill compression
tan 0 $ tan o/1.5 caused by the rotational movement of the obtuse corners into the
0 $ arc tan (tan o/1.5) (3) backfill would only slightly increase passive pressure because this
movement is so small relative to the initial superstructure elonga-
Assuming that the angle of friction at the structural backfill tion, AL. However, at the acute comers, the slight rotational move-
interface (o) is 22 degrees, as discussed in a previous work ment of the superstructure away from the backfill probably will
(J, p. 7.2-63) about granular backfill on a smooth concrete surface, result in a drop of soil pressure from the initial passive pressure
Equation 3 suggests that the bridge skew angle 0 must be equal to caused by AL to active pressure.
or less than 15 degrees to be stable. For greater skews, it is likely The slight rise in soil pressure at the obtuse comers and the sig-
that rotation will be initiated unless guide bearings are provided at nificant drop in pressure at the acute comers of the structure will
both abutments to resist the forces inducing such movement. alter the pressure distributions within the backfill throughout the
Other observations can be made with respect to Equations 1 and width of the structure. This change in pressure distribution will be
3. Although Equation 1 indicates that some level of passive pres- accompanied by a lateral shift of the pressure resultant, identified as
sure must be generated to cause rotation, Equation 3 indicates that Pµ in Figure 5 (the designation Pµ is actually a misnomer because this
the skew angle at which rotation will be initiated is independent of pressure resultant is now intended to represent a summation of a
both passive pressure and bridge length and directly related to struc- whole spectrum of pressures from active pressure near the acute
tural backfill interface' friction. comers through various levels of passive pressure to a maximum
What would be the result of the restrained elongation of the passive pressure at the obtuse corners). This shift of the pressure re-
superstructure and differential movement at the structural backfill sultant will decrease the lateral distance between the resultants and
interface? Figure 5 and the speculative analysis described below are consequently the moment couple-inducing rotation will diminish.
offered as an answer for this question. Figure 4b illustrates the condition in which the force components
As before, it is assumed that sliding friction (Pµ tan o) will govern tending to induce sliding (Pµ tan 0) have diminished until they equal
the behavior at the structural backfill interface. Because the force the forces caused by frictional resistance (Pµtan o). Similarly, the
caused by sliding friction would not be sufficient to resist the lateral moment couple tending to induce movement (PµL sin 0) has dimin-
force component PPtan 0 for bridges with large skews, sliding ished to (Pµ)(L cos 0 tan o) and is in equilibrium with the force cou-
(rotation) of the superstructure toward the acute comers of the ple resisting rotation (Pµtan o)(L cos 0).
structure will be induced. It is presumed that the movements described were the result of a
single increase in the ambient temperature. Subsequently, a tem-
perature drop would be accompanied by a shortening of the super-
structure or a movement of the end of the structure away from the
backfill. In response to this movement, the backfill would expand
and soil pressure would drop to active pressure or less, depending
<D on the composition and state of consolidation of the backfill.
(/)
0
u Depending on the amount of backfill reconsolidation that would
cD occur while the superstructure was withdrawn, it is presumed that a
c
similar but more modest superstructure rotation would accompany
each cycle of superstructure elongation. Over time, the significant
number of thermal cycles that would take place suggests that the
superstructures of semi-integral bridges should continue to experi-
ence incremental and accumulative rotation until or unless such
Assumed pressure
distrib~tion Leese tan li rotation is terminated by the restraint provided by some other stable
~ L €os e 1·· ·. part of the structure.
The motions described will be prevented or moderated as a result
BRIDGE DECK PLAN
of approach slab-subbase friction and the shearing resistance of elas-
FIGURE 5 Elongation and rotation of semi-integral tomeric support bearings and by the compressive resistance of fillers
bridge superstructures after rotation. used in the movable joints between the superstructure and wing-
Burke 5

walls. Depending on the characteristics of the bridge seat joint seal, be made to ensure that integral bridges have a reasonable factor of
even this device may offer some resistance to horizontal rotation of safety against flotation. I-beam webs can be pierced near top flanges
the superstructure. When considering these supplemental resistance by holes 3 in. (76 mm) in diameter spaced uniformly throughout the
elements, it seems apparent that for some structures the most sus- beam length; the space between spread boxes can also be vented by
ceptible period for rotational movement would occur during con- placing horizontal vent ducts 3 in. (76 mm) minimum diameter near
struction when the superstructure would be exposed to "at-rest" the top flange of all beams. These ducts should pass completely
placement pressures before approach slabs have been placed. through the beams from one web to the other, and they should be
In an Ohio project planned for early construction, there is one site placed in concrete diaphragms or be completely encased in concrete
where twin semi-integral bridges with skews of 45 degrees are to be to prevent floodwaters from entering beam voids; counterweights
constructed. They are to be provided with removable guide bearings could be -used but their weight must be taken into account during
so that after their completion the guide bearings could be removed beam design. Uplift restraints could be provided at pier bearings, or
from one of the bridges. This would provide the opportunity to some piers can be integrally constructed with the superstructure to
observe the behavior of essentially similar bridges exposed to the add sufficient uplift restraint to counteract buoyancy.
same environmental effects with one bridge with guide bearings and In place of vent holes, added weight, uplift restraints, or integral
the other bridge without. The construction of these bridges and their pier construction, the use of the most buoyant structures should be
early performance under service conditions should provide some of restricted to those bridge sites where the highest floodwater levels
the experience needed to determine with greater certainty the effects are well below the superstructure.
of skew on the movement of semi-integral bridge superstructures.
In addition, more formal semi-integral bridge research is being
planned by the Ohio Department of Transportation-research that DESIGN ASPECTS
is intended to provide some of the factual background on which the
design and construction of future semi-integral bridges can be based. Movable Joints
Earth pressure measurements at the Forks Bridge of Forks,
Maine, appear to provide some support for the analysis described. As mentioned earlier, the semi-integral bridge with its attached
The Forks Bridge is a skewed long span steel rigid frame structure. approach slabs has eliminated bridge deck end joints. In their place,
According to the report (3, p. 2) it has incorporated two other joint types: a movable joint at the level
of the bridge bearings and one at the pavement end of the approach
Earth pressures were measured at 8 pressure cells on each abutment slab. Although it doubles their number, the design has minimized
with measurements on both sides of the abutment centerline and at their significance. Less-than-desirable performance for either of
different elevations .... The effect of skew was noticeable during the
these joints will not have the significantly adverse consequences
summer, although the average increase for all cells at El. 583 was
1,200 psf, the increase at the obtuse sides was 1,800 psf, while the that have come to be expected with the failure of bridge deck joints.
increase at the acute sides was 620 psf.... The bridge seat joint and cycle control joint are the two joints that
have been provided to accommodate the movement of semi-integral
Since pressure measurements at this structure are to continue, the bridges. In addition, one must mention that rigid approach pave-
final report for this project should provide valuable background for ments also must be provided with effective pressure relief joints to
subsequent pressure research on semi-integral bridges. guard semi-integral bridges from uncontrollable approach pave-
The magnitude of guide-bearing reactions is another indication ment growth.
of the potential for superstructure rotation. Because most of the
thermal movement of a superstructure will be parallel to the longi-
tudinal axis of a bridge, guide bearings should be placed parallel to Bridge Seat Joints
this axis. Then on the basis of the lateral force components shown
in Figure 4, the guide-bearing reaction, which would be normal to In the design shown in Figure 1, the troublesome bridge deck joint
this axis, is given by I;, tan 0 cos 0, or in a simpler form, J;,sin 0. On has been eliminated. However, in its place, a movable joint has been
the basis of this relationship, the required capacity of guide bearings introduced at the level of the bridge seat. Corrosion-resistant elas-
for a structure skewed 30 degrees is equal to 0.5J;,, or one-half of tomeric bearings are provided so that the superstructure can move
the total passive pressure. For a 45-degree skew, the required longitudinally almost independent of rigid abutments.
capacity equals more than 70 percent of the total passive pressure. The movable bridge seat joint must be provided with a durable
Consequently it is clearly evident that neither the frictional resis- elastomeric seal because it is buried in the backfill and consequently
tance (J;,tan 8) nor the shearing resistance (J;,tan <f>) of the backfill is not accessible for repair or replacement. Otherwise its most im-
can resist forces of this magnitude. Consequently, guide bearings portant characteristic is its ability to prevent backfill from being
should be provided for structures with large skews if a stable forced into the joint by compressed backfill. It would be desirable
superstructure and a fully functional bridge are to be provided. but not absolutely necessary for the seal to be watertight. It must
also permit unrestrained differential movement between the abut-
ment and superstructure, even for bridges with large skews, and it
Vertical Restraint must retain these characteristics for many years without the need for
repair or replacement.
Because of their jointless construction, many types of integral Although the bridge seat joint seal is an important aspect of the
bridges are buoyant when they become submerged. This is true for semi-integral bridge design, Ohio has yet to adopt a design that
many I-beam bridges and some spread-box beam bridges. appears to fulfill all necessary functional and durability characteris-
The weight of diaphragms and abutments provides some resis- tics. A number of trial designs have been developed and used.
tance to uplift. But generally, some positive design provisions must Initially, standard compression seals were used. Then it became
6 TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH RECORD 1460

apparent that a reinforced elastomeric sheet-type seal was more semi-integral bridge concept, every effort should be made to ensure
functionally suitable for square and skewed applications. The sheet that it is properly selected, constructed, and maintained.
seal now being used is nylon reinforced neoprene 3/32 in. (2.4 mm) Backfill should be selected and designed to have characteristics
thick. It is attached to the bridge by various means, including elas- suitable for superstructure-backfill interaction: it should be of a
tomeric anchor rods in formed recesses, steel clamp bars with composition that protects it from erosion and it should be protected
expansion anchors, washers and masonry nails, or bonding adhe- from above by full-roadway width approach slabs. For bridges with
sives. It remains to be seen which one or more of these attachment confined drainage (raised curbs, barriers, parapets, etc.) approach
methods will be adopted and perfected by Ohio for this critical joint. slabs must be provided with curbs with a height of at least 6 in. or
more to confine roadway drainage and conduct it along bridge
approaches and away from the backfill. Approach roadway curb in-
Cycle Control Joints
lets should be considered and provided if necessary to ensure
effective drainage control. An effective subdrainage system should
Semi-integral bridges with attached approach slabs lengthen and
also be provided in the backfill above impervious embankments to
shorten in response to temperature and moisture changes. Conse-
ensure that the retention of subsurface water is minimized.
quently, for such structures, the boundary between approach slabs
Provisions also should be made to intercept subsurface approach
and approach pavement should be provided with a cycle control
roadway drainage and discharge it away from the abutment backfill.
joint to facilitate such movement. Otherwise, longitudinal cycling
Granular subbases should be provided with efficient lateral drains to
of both structure and approach slabs can damage both flexible and
discharge subbase drainage laterally to embankment side slopes.
rigid approach pavements.
Roadway underdrains must be terminated beyond the bridge
At present, standard pavement expansion joints with compressive
approach slabs and provided with lateral drains to embankment side
fillers are being provided for shorter semi-integral bridges. Longer
slopes. Otherwise, underdrain accumulations should be conducted
bridges are being provided with pavement pressure relief joints
in closed conduits longitudinally through the backfill and abutments.
(wide joints filled with asphalt concrete).
Finally, bridge maintenance engineers should become familiar
Because of the restrained growth of approach pavement it is
with semi-integral bridge characteristics so that they can properly
imperative that semi-integral bridges built adjacent to rigid pave-
appreciate the importance of backfill superstructure interaction and
ment also be protected from pressures. Effective pressure relief
provide the corrective maintenance that such a structure must have
joints should be provided for all semi-integral bridges-even the
if they are to provide the service life that their design anticipated.
shortest bridges. Consequently, for bridges adjacent to rigid ap-
proach pavement, two types of pavement joints are required: one to
facilitate the cyclic movement of the bridge and the other to protect
CONSTRUCTION ASPECTS
the structure and cycle control joints from the effects of pavement
growth. Designs by four transportation departments were illustrated
Unlike their jointed bridge counterparts, the design peculiarities of
elsewhere (4); as noted, all designs in use have their limitations.
the semi-integral bridge concept have created concrete placement
For longer integral bridges, Ohio is using wide pressure relief
and curing problems that are unique to this type of design. These
joints to serve both purposes. Because integral bridges and semi-
problems have to do with the forming for and the placement and
integral bridges are such new conceptions, much additional devel-
curing of second- or subsequent-stage concrete elements of the
opment is needed if the approach pavement joints adjacent to such
bridge while attempting to bond them to the first-stage elements that
structures are to provide all of the necessary attributes that these
will be moving in response to ambient temperature changes.
joints must have to satisfy structural requirements without continu-
ous maintenance.
End Diaphragms
Backfill
The integral end diaphragm indicated in Figure 1 is part of the
Backfill for semi-integral bridges should not be considered a superstructure of semi-integral bridges; consequently it will move
nuisance that has to be contended with, as is the case with the fully both longitudinally and rotationally with the superstructure. How-
integral bridge on flexible abutments. Instead, backfill should be ever it is cast in forms that are usually fastened to and supported by
recognized as an integral and important part of the semi-integral rigid abutments. In fact, the abutment bridge seat covered by fillers
bridge concept. As in the case of a retaining wall supported by and elastomeric bearings usually serves as a rigid bottom form for
spread footings on subsoil, when properly designed the wall will the end diaphragm. So while ambient temperature changes during
interact compositely with the subsoil and be adequately supported and shortly after end-diaphragm concrete placement, superstructure
by the soil vertically and laterally. Similarly, the superstructure and stringers either will be elongating or shortening in response to those
backfill of semi-integral bridges form a partially composite interac- changes, resulting in differential movement_ between stringers and
tive structure. In this context, the backfill performs multiple func- the rigidly supported end-diaphragm forms. If these movements are
tions. Although rigid abutments provide vertical and lateral support appreciable, and occasionally they can be, they can damage freshly
for the superstructure, the backfill supplements this support by pro- placed end-diaphragm concrete. This problem is more acute for the
viding vertical support for approach slabs and both longitudinal and more thermally responsive steel stringers. It is magnified in longer
lateral support for the superstructure. The ultimate success or fail- bridges, and it can be compounded in geographical locations where
ure of the semi-integral bridge concept will depend to a great extent rapid and significant ambient temperature changes can occur during
on methods and procedures that are developed by the bridge engi- end-diaphragm concrete placement and setting.
neering profession to enhance the interaction between the super- Generally, it is not practicable to restrict concrete placement to
structure and backfill. Because backfill is such an integral part of a those days of the year with the smallest temperature range and
 Burke 7

consequently to those periods with the smallest potential for stage concrete placement and connection reinforcement from
large superstructure movements. But for the shorter, more usual movement-induced stresses.
moderate-length semi-integral bridges, it is practicable to limit
concrete placement to days when large and rapid temperature
changes are not expected and to periods during the day when su- Backfill
perstructure movement is smallest, generally shortly after the am-
bient temperature approaches, reaches, and departs from the day's Because superstructures of semi-integral bridges are restrained in
peak temperature. A plan note to provide such control and protec- place longitudinally by backfill at abutments and to some extent by
tion for freshly placed end-diaphragm concrete can be phrased the shearing resistance of elastomeric bearings, placement of this
somewhat as follows: backfill needs to be controlled to avoid unbalancing backfill pres-
sures and shifting the superstructure. Therefore, a backfill proce-
Concrete for end diaphragms shall be placed during days when sudden dure is necessary to ensure that backfill is placed simultaneously at
temperature changes are unlikely and be completed at least 4 hr before both abutments.
the concrete placement day's peak ambient temperature.
As mentioned earlier, it would be advantageous to place and con-
solidate backfill during low-temperature periods to improve con-
For longer structures where such placement controls may not be
finement of the superstructure. During hot weather, placing backfill
sufficient to protect fresh concrete, end diaphragms can be placed
at night should be considered.
in two separate placements. The first placement, up to but slightly
below the superstructure stringers, can be placed without concern
for superstructure movement. Then, after an appropriate cure time,
SUMMARY
the stringers and end-diaphragm forms can be attached to and sup-
ported by this first placement. Subsequently, this first placement,
The first bridge with semi-integral characteristics similar to those
the end-diaphragm forms, and stringers will move in unison so that
that have been described in this paper was constructed in 1978. This
the remainder of the end-diaphragm concrete can be placed at any
bridge services Ohio's Route 555 and spans the Muskingum River
convenient time without regard for ambient temperature changes.
at Zanesville, Ohio. It is an unskewed three-span girder structure
540-ft (164.6-m) long. It uses approach slabs and turn-back wing-
walls to engage or embrace the backfill. Since then a number of sim-
Approach Slabs
ilar shorter structures have been constructed. The concept has been
used most often to retrofit existing end-jointed bridges. A number
Construction of approach slabs is similar to that of the end
of other semi-integral bridges are being planned for both new and
diaphragms in that slab concrete must be placed on a rigid bottom
retrofit applications, some with significant skews. As of this writ-
form (the subbase) while the leading edge of the slab is connected
ing, skewed semi-integral bridges with guide bearings have not yet
to a moving superstructure. Consequently, similar placement con-
been constructed. The response of local maintenance engineers to
trols can be used for placement of approach slab concrete for the
these bridges has been good. It is primarily through their continual
moderate-length semi-integral bridges. A plan note similar to the
urging that many of these bridges were built.
following can be used:
For new structures, the main emphasis of the Ohio Department
of Transportation is on the construction of fully integral bridges
Approach slab concrete shall be placed toward the superstructure dur-
ing days when sudden temperature changes are unlikely and be com- with flexible abutments. However, for those applications where
pleted at least 4 hr before the concrete placement day's peak ambient rigid abutments are necessary, the semi-integral bridge concept is
temperature. now being adapted and used with increasing regularity. The actual
performance of these bridges throughout the next several years will
To protect approach slab-superstructure connections, an attempt influence its further development and ultimately its suitability for
should be made to reduce the force necessary to move the slabs. further applications.
This can be accomplished by requiring a smooth subbase surface to
serve as a bottom form for the approach slab.
For longer semi-integral bridges, it may be necessary to place REFERENCES
approach slabs in two placements. The first placement can extend
from the far end of the slab to a construction joint located within 1. Foundations and Earth Structures. Design Manual 7.2. Department of
3 ft (0.9 m) of the superstructure. Then after this first segment has the Navy, Naval Facilities Engineering Command, Alexandria, Va. 1982.
been placed and cured, it can be connected to the superstructure with 2. Wu, T. H. Soil Mechanics. Worthington, Ohio, 1982, pp. 276-280.
3. Elgaaly, M., T. C. Sandford, and C. B. Colby. Monitoring of the Forks
several longitudinal tie bars with mechanical connectors, and the· Bridge to June 6, 1990 (plus Report Supplement 1). University of Maine,
remaining portion of the slab can then be placed using a note simi- Aug. 1992.
lar to the one mentioned earlier to protect the freshly placed 4. Burke, M. P. Jr., Bridge Approach Pavements, Integral Bridges, and
concrete. If there is superstructure movement, ·the mechanically Cycle Control Joints. In Transportation Research Record 1113, TRB,
National Research Council, Washington, D.C. 1987.
connected tie bars should be sufficient to pull the approach slab
without stressing the fresh concrete. This will relieve the second- Publication of this paper sponsored by Committee on General Structures.