Search Wikipedia Search Donate Create account Log in

1. How often would you like to donate?

Once Monthly Annual

Wikipedia was just a dream.
October 3: Readers in the United States deserve an explanation.
2. Please select an amount (USD)
Please don't skip this 1-minute read. It's Friday, October 3, and we're running a short fundraiser to support Wikipedia. If you've lost The average donation in the Preferred
United States is around $13. Amount
count of how many times you've visited Wikipedia this year, we hope that means it's given you at least $2.75 of knowledge. Please
join the 2% of readers who give what they can to keep this valuable resource ad-free and available for all. $2.75 $15 $25

25 years ago Wikipedia was a dream. A wildly ambitious, probably impossible dream. A dream that came together piece by piece. $50 $100 $250
Now, 65 million articles. 260,000 volunteers across the entire world. Here's to 25 years of knowledge, humanity, and collaboration at
its best. $500 Other

Most readers donate because Wikipedia is useful to them, others because they realize knowledge needs humans. If you feel the 3. Please select a payment method
same, please donate $2.75 now—or consider a monthly gift to help all year. Thank you.
Online
Banking

Proud host of Wikipedia and its sister sites

Problems donating? | Frequently asked questions | Other ways to give | I already donated

We never sell your information. By submitting, you are agreeing to our donor privacy policy. The Wikimedia Foundation is a nonprofit, tax-exempt organization. If you
Continue
make a recurring donation, you will be debited by the Wikimedia Foundation until you notify us to stop. We’ll send you an email which will include a link to easy
cancellation instructions.
Maybe later

Death 173 languages

Contents hide Article Talk Read View source View history Tools Appearance hide

(Top) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Text

Diagnosis
For the figure sometimes referred to as Death, see Personifications of death. Small
Causes
"Dead" redirects here. For other uses, see Dead (disambiguation) and Death (disambiguation). Standard
Death before birth
"Deceased" redirects here. For the band, see Deceased (band).
Large
Senescence
Death is the end of life, the irreversible cessation of all biological
Life extension Width
functions that sustain a living organism.[2] Death eventually and
Location
inevitably occurs in all organisms. The remains of a former organism Standard
Psychology
normally begin to decompose shortly after death.[3] Some organisms,
Wide
Society and culture such as Turritopsis dohrnii, are biologically immortal; however, they can
Consciousness still die from means other than aging.[4] Death is generally applied to Color (beta)
In biology whole organisms; the equivalent for individual components of an
Automatic
Death of abiotic factors organism, such as cells or tissues, is necrosis.[5] Something that is not
Light
Religious views considered an organism can be physically destroyed but is not said to
die, as it is not considered alive in the first place. Dark
Language
See also
As of the early 21st century, 56 million people die per year. The most
References
common reason is aging,[6] followed by cardiovascular disease, which
Bibliography is a disease that affects the heart or blood vessels.[7] As of 2022, an
Further reading The human skull is used universally
estimated total of almost 110 billion humans have died, or roughly 94%
as a symbol of death.[1]
External links of all humans to have ever lived.[8] A substudy of gerontology known as
biogerontology seeks to eliminate death by natural aging in humans,
often through the application of natural processes found in certain organisms.[9] However, as humans do not
have the means to apply this to themselves, they have to use other ways to reach the maximum lifespan for a
human, often through lifestyle changes, such as calorie reduction, dieting, and exercise.[10] The idea of lifespan
extension is considered and studied as a way for people to live longer.

Determining when a person has definitively died has proven difficult. Initially, death was defined as occurring
when breathing and the heartbeat ceased, a status still known as clinical death.[11] However, the development
of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) meant that such a state was no longer strictly irreversible.[12] Brain
death was then considered a more fitting option, but several definitions exist for this. Some people believe that
all brain functions must cease. Others believe that even if the brainstem is still alive, the personality and
identity are irretrievably lost, so therefore, the person should be considered entirely dead.[13] Brain death is
sometimes used as a legal definition of death.[14] For all organisms with a brain, death can instead be focused
on this organ.[15][16] The cause of death is usually considered important, and an autopsy can be done to
determine it. There are many causes, from accidents to diseases.

Many cultures and religions have a concept of an afterlife. There are also different customs for honoring the
body, such as a funeral, cremation, or sky burial.[17] After a death, an obituary may be posted in a newspaper,
and the "survived by" kin and friends usually go through the grieving process.

Diagnosis

Definition
Main article: Medical definition of death

There are many scientific approaches and various

interpretations of the concept. Additionally, the advent of
life-sustaining therapy and the numerous criteria for
defining death from both a medical and legal standpoint
World Health Organization estimated number of
have made it difficult to create a single unifying deaths per million persons in 2012
definition.[18] 1.054–4.598 7.917–8.728
4.599–5.516 8.729–9.404
5.517–6.289 9.405–10.433
Defining life to define death
6.290–6.835 10.434–12.233
One of the challenges in defining death is in 6.836–7.916 12.234–17.141

distinguishing it from life. As a point in time, death seems

to refer to the moment when life ends. Determining when death has occurred is difficult, as cessation of life
functions is often not simultaneous across organ systems.[19] Such determination, therefore, requires drawing
precise conceptual boundaries between life and death. This is difficult due to there being little consensus on
how to define life.

It is possible to define life in terms of consciousness. When

consciousness ceases, an organism can be said to have died. One of
the flaws in this approach is that there are many organisms that are
alive but probably not conscious.[21] Another problem is in defining
consciousness, which has many different definitions given by modern
scientists, psychologists and philosophers.[22] Additionally, many
religious traditions, including Abrahamic and Dharmic traditions, hold
that death does not (or may not) entail the end of consciousness. In
A flower, a skull, and an hourglass certain cultures, death is more of a process than a single event. It
symbolize life, death, and time in this
implies a slow shift from one spiritual state to another.[23]
17th-century painting by Philippe de
Champaigne.[20]
Other definitions for death focus on the character of cessation of
organismic functioning and human death, which refers to irreversible
loss of personhood. More specifically, death occurs when a living entity experiences irreversible cessation of all
functioning.[24] As it pertains to human life, death is an irreversible process where someone loses their
existence as a person.[24]

Definition of death by heartbeat and breath

Historically, attempts to define the exact moment of a human's death have been subjective or imprecise. Death
was defined as the cessation of heartbeat (cardiac arrest) and breathing,[11] but the development of CPR and
prompt defibrillation have rendered that definition inadequate because breathing and heartbeat can sometimes
be restarted.[12] This type of death where circulatory and respiratory arrest happens is known as the circulatory
definition of death (CDD). Proponents of the CDD believe this definition is reasonable because a person with
permanent loss of circulatory and respiratory function should be considered dead.[25] Critics of this definition
state that while cessation of these functions may be permanent, it does not mean the situation is irreversible
because if CPR is applied fast enough, the person could be revived.[25] Thus, the arguments for and against
the CDD boil down to defining the actual words "permanent" and "irreversible," which further complicates the
challenge of defining death. Furthermore, events causally linked to death in the past no longer kill in all
circumstances; without a functioning heart or lungs, life can sometimes be sustained with a combination of life
support devices, organ transplants, and artificial pacemakers.

Brain death
Main article: Brain death

Today, where a definition of the moment of death is required, doctors and coroners usually turn to "brain death"
or "biological death" to define a person as being dead;[26] people are considered dead when the electrical
activity in their brain ceases.[27] It is presumed that an end of electrical activity indicates the end of
consciousness.[28] Suspension of consciousness must be permanent and not transient, as occurs during
certain sleep stages, and especially a coma.[29] In the case of sleep, electroencephalograms (EEGs) are used
to tell the difference.[30]

The category of "brain death" is seen as problematic by some scholars. For instance, Dr. Franklin Miller, a
senior faculty member at the Department of Bioethics, National Institutes of Health, notes: "By the late 1990s...
the equation of brain death with death of the human being was increasingly challenged by scholars, based on
evidence regarding the array of biological functioning displayed by patients correctly diagnosed as having this
condition who were maintained on mechanical ventilation for substantial periods of time. These patients
maintained the ability to sustain circulation and respiration, control temperature, excrete wastes, heal wounds,
fight infections and, most dramatically, to gestate fetuses (in the case of pregnant "brain-dead" women)."[31]

While "brain death" is viewed as problematic by some scholars, there

are proponents of it[who?] that believe this definition of death is the most
reasonable for distinguishing life from death. The reasoning behind the
support for this definition is that brain death has a set of criteria that is
reliable and reproducible. Also, the brain is crucial in determining our
identity or who we are as human beings. The distinction should be
made that "brain death" cannot be equated with one in a vegetative
state or coma, in that the former situation describes a state that is
beyond recovery.[33]

EEGs can detect spurious electrical impulses, while certain drugs,

hypoglycemia, hypoxia, or hypothermia can suppress or even stop
brain activity temporarily;[34] because of this, hospitals have protocols
for determining brain death involving EEGs at widely separated French 16th-/17th-century ivory
pendant, Monk and Death, recalling
intervals under defined conditions.[35]
mortality and the certainty of death
(Walters Art Museum)[32]
Neocortical brain death

One view is that the neocortex of the brain is necessary for consciousness, and that therefore only electrical
activity of the neocortex should be considered when defining death. Eventually, the criterion for death may be
the permanent and irreversible loss of cognitive function, as evidenced by the death of the cerebral cortex. All
hope of recovering human thought and personality is then gone, given current and foreseeable medical
technology.[13] Even by whole-brain criteria, the determination of brain death can be complicated.

Total brain death

At present, in most places, the more conservative definition of death (irreversible cessation of electrical activity
in the whole brain, as opposed to just in the neo-cortex) has been adopted. One example is the Uniform
Determination Of Death Act in the United States.[36] In the past, the adoption of this whole-brain definition was
a conclusion of the President's Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and
Behavioral Research in 1980.[37] They concluded that this approach to defining death sufficed in reaching a
uniform definition nationwide. A multitude of reasons was presented to support this definition, including
uniformity of standards in law for establishing death, consumption of a family's fiscal resources for artificial life
support, and legal establishment for equating brain death with death to proceed with organ donation.[38]

Problems in medical practice

Aside from the issue of support of or dispute against brain death, there is another inherent problem in this
categorical definition: the variability of its application in medical practice. In 1995, the American Academy of
Neurology (AAN) established the criteria that became the medical standard for diagnosing neurologic death. At
that time, three clinical features had to be satisfied to determine "irreversible cessation" of the total brain,
including coma with clear etiology, cessation of breathing, and lack of brainstem reflexes.[39] These criteria
were updated again, most recently in 2010, but substantial discrepancies remain across hospitals and medical
specialties.[39]

Donations

The problem of defining death is especially imperative as it pertains to the dead donor rule, which could be
understood as one of the following interpretations of the rule: there must be an official declaration of death in a
person before starting organ procurement, or that organ procurement cannot result in the death of the
donor.[25] A great deal of controversy has surrounded the definition of death and the dead donor rule.
Advocates of the rule believe that the rule is legitimate in protecting organ donors while also countering any
moral or legal objection to organ procurement. Critics, on the other hand, believe that the rule does not uphold
the best interests of the donors and that the rule does not effectively promote organ donation.[25]

Signs
Main article: Stages of death

Signs of death or strong indications that a warm-blooded animal is no longer alive are:[40]

Respiratory arrest (no breathing)

Cardiac arrest (no pulse)
Brain death (no neuronal activity)

The stages that follow after death are:[41]

Pallor mortis, paleness which happens in 15–120 minutes after death

Livor mortis, a settling of the blood in the lower (dependent) portion of the body
Algor mortis, the reduction in body temperature following death. This is generally a steady decline until
matching ambient temperature
Rigor mortis, the limbs of the corpse become stiff (Latin rigor) and difficult to move or manipulate
Putrefaction, the beginning signs of decomposition
Decomposition, the reduction into simpler forms of matter, accompanied by a strong, unpleasant odor.
Skeletonization, the end of decomposition, where all soft tissues have decomposed, leaving only the
skeleton.
Fossilization, the natural preservation of the skeletal remains formed over a very long period

Timeline of postmortem changes (stages of death)

Legal
See also: Legal death

The death of a person has legal consequences that may vary between jurisdictions. Most countries follow the
whole-brain death criteria, where all functions of the brain must have completely ceased. However, in other
jurisdictions, some follow the brainstem version of brain death.[39] Afterward, a death certificate is issued in
most jurisdictions, either by a doctor or by an administrative office, upon presentation of a doctor's declaration
of death.[42]

Misdiagnosis
See also: Premature burial

There are many anecdotal references to people being declared

dead by physicians and then "coming back to life," sometimes
days later in their coffin or when embalming procedures are
about to begin. From the mid-18th century onwards, there was
an upsurge in the public's fear of being mistakenly buried
alive[43] and much debate about the uncertainty of the signs of
death. Various suggestions were made to test for signs of life
before burial, ranging from pouring vinegar and pepper into the
corpse's mouth to applying red hot pokers to the feet or into the
The Premature Burial by Antoine Wiertz,
rectum.[44] Writing in 1895, the physician J.C. Ouseley claimed 1854
that as many as 2,700 people were buried prematurely each
year in England and Wales, although some estimates peg the
figure to be closer to 800.[45]

In cases of electric shock, cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) for an hour or longer can allow stunned nerves
to recover, allowing an apparently dead person to survive. People found unconscious under icy water may
survive if their faces are kept continuously cold until they arrive at an emergency room.[46] This "diving
response," in which metabolic activity and oxygen requirements are minimal, is something humans share with
cetaceans called the mammalian diving reflex.[46]

As medical technologies advance, ideas about when death occurs may have to be reevaluated in light of the
ability to restore a person to vitality after longer periods of apparent death (as happened when CPR and
defibrillation showed that cessation of heartbeat is inadequate as a decisive indicator of death). The lack of
electrical brain activity may not be enough to consider someone scientifically dead. Therefore, the concept of
information-theoretic death has been suggested as a better means of defining when true death occurs, though
the concept has few practical applications outside the field of cryonics.[47]

Causes
See also: List of causes of death by rate and Preventable causes of death

The leading cause of human death in developing countries is infectious disease. The leading causes in
developed countries are atherosclerosis (heart disease and stroke), cancer, and other diseases related to
obesity and aging. By an extremely wide margin, the largest unifying cause of death in the developed world is
biological aging,[48] leading to various complications known as aging-associated diseases. These conditions
cause loss of homeostasis, leading to cardiac arrest, causing loss of oxygen and nutrient supply, causing
irreversible deterioration of the brain and other tissues. Of the roughly 150,000 people who die each day
across the globe, about two thirds die of age-related causes.[48] In industrialized nations, the proportion is
much higher, approaching 90%.[48] With improved medical capability, dying has become a condition to be
managed.

In developing nations, inferior sanitary conditions and lack of access to modern medical technology make
death from infectious diseases more common than in developed countries. One such disease is tuberculosis, a
bacterial disease that killed 1.8 million people in 2015.[49] In 2004, malaria caused about 2.7 million deaths
annually.[50] The AIDS death toll in Africa may reach 90–100 million by 2025.[51][52]

According to Jean Ziegler, the United Nations Special Reporter on the Right to Food, 2000 – Mar 2008,
mortality due to malnutrition accounted for 58% of the total mortality rate in 2006. Ziegler says worldwide,
approximately 62 million people died from all causes and of those deaths, more than 36 million died of hunger
or diseases due to deficiencies in micronutrients.[53]

Tobacco smoking killed 100 million people worldwide in the 20th

century and could kill 1 billion people worldwide in the 21st century, a
World Health Organization report warned.[54]

Many leading developed world causes of death can be postponed by

diet and physical activity, but the accelerating incidence of disease with
age still imposes limits on human longevity. The evolutionary cause of
aging is, at best, only beginning to be understood. It has been
suggested that direct intervention in the aging process may now be the
American children smoking in 1910.
most effective intervention against major causes of death.[55]
Tobacco smoking caused an estimated
100 million deaths in the 20th
Selye proposed a unified non-specific approach to many causes of
century.[54]
death. He demonstrated that stress decreases the adaptability of an
organism and proposed to describe adaptability as a special resource,
adaptation energy. The animal dies when this resource is exhausted.[56] Selye assumed that adaptability is a
finite supply presented at birth. Later, Goldstone proposed the concept of production or income of adaptation
energy which may be stored (up to a limit) as a capital reserve of adaptation.[57] In recent works, adaptation
energy is considered an internal coordinate on the "dominant path" in the model of adaptation. It is
demonstrated that oscillations of well-being appear when the reserve of adaptability is almost exhausted.[58]

In 2012, suicide overtook car crashes as the leading cause of human

injury deaths in the U.S., followed by poisoning, falls, and murder.[59]

Accidents and disasters, from nuclear disasters to structural collapses,

also claim lives. One of the deadliest incidents of all time is the 1975
Banqiao Dam Failure, with varying estimates, up to 240,000 dead.[60]
Other incidents with high death tolls are the Wanggongchang explosion
(when a gunpowder factory ended up with 20,000 deaths),[61] a
collapse of a wall of Circus Maximus that killed 13,000 people,[62] and
Le Suicidé by Édouard Manet the Chernobyl disaster that killed between 95 and 4,000 people.[63][64]

Natural disasters kill around 45,000 people annually, although this

number can vary from thousands to millions on a per-decade basis. Some of the deadliest natural disasters are
the 1931 China floods, which killed an estimated 4 million people, although estimates widely vary;[65] the 1887
Yellow River flood, which killed an estimated 2 million people in China;[66] and the 1970 Bhola cyclone, which
killed as many as 500,000 people in East Pakistan (present-day Bangladesh).[67] If naturally occurring famines
are considered natural disasters, the Chinese famine of 1906–1907, which killed 15–20 million people, can be
considered the deadliest natural disaster in recorded history.

In animals, predation can be a common cause of death. Livestock have a 6% death rate from predation.
However, younger animals are more susceptible to predation. For example, 50% of young foxes die to birds,
bobcats, coyotes, and other foxes as well. Young bear cubs in the Yellowstone National Park only have a 40%
chance to survive to adulthood from other bears and predators.[68]

Autopsy
Main article: Autopsy

An autopsy, also known as a postmortem examination or an obduction,

is a medical procedure that consists of a thorough examination of a
human corpse to determine the cause and manner of a person's death
and to evaluate any disease or injury that may be present. It is usually
performed by a specialized medical doctor called a pathologist.[69]

Autopsies are either performed for legal or medical purposes.[69] A

forensic autopsy is carried out when the cause of death may be a
criminal matter, while a clinical or academic autopsy is performed to The Anatomy Lesson of Dr.
find the medical cause of death and is used in cases of unknown or Nicolaes Tulp by Rembrandt

uncertain death, or for research purposes.[70] Autopsies can be further

classified into cases where external examination suffices, and those where the body is dissected and an
internal examination is conducted.[71] Permission from next of kin may be required for internal autopsy in some
cases.[72] Once an internal autopsy is complete the body is generally reconstituted by sewing it back
together.[41]

A necropsy, which is not always a medical procedure, was a term previously used to describe an unregulated
postmortem examination. In modern times, this term is more commonly associated with the corpses of
animals.[73]

Death before birth

Death before birth can happen in several ways: stillbirth, when the fetus dies before or during the delivery
process; miscarriage, when the embryo dies before independent survival; and abortion, the artificial termination
of the pregnancy. Stillbirth and miscarriage can happen for various reasons, while abortion is carried out
purposely.

Stillbirth
Main article: Stillbirth

Stillbirth can happen right before or after the delivery of a fetus. It can result from defects of the fetus or risk
factors present in the mother. Reductions of these factors, caesarean sections when risks are present, and
early detection of birth defects have lowered the rate of stillbirth. However, 1% of births in the United States
end in a stillbirth.[74]

Miscarriage
Main article: Miscarriage

A miscarriage is defined by the World Health Organization as, "The expulsion or extraction from its mother of
an embryo or fetus weighing 500g or less." Miscarriage is one of the most frequent problems in pregnancy, and
is reported in around 12–15% of all clinical pregnancies; however, by including pregnancy losses during
menstruation, it could be up to 17–22% of all pregnancies. There are many risk-factors involved in miscarriage;
consumption of caffeine, tobacco, alcohol, drugs, having a previous miscarriage, and the use of abortion can
increase the chances of having a miscarriage.[75]

Abortion
Main article: Abortion

An abortion may be performed for many reasons, such as pregnancy from rape, financial constraints of having
a child, teenage pregnancy, and the lack of support from a significant other.[76] There are two forms of abortion:
a medical abortion and an in-clinic abortion or sometimes referred to as a surgical abortion. A medical abortion
involves taking a pill that will terminate the pregnancy no more than 11 weeks past the last period, and an in-
clinic abortion involves a medical procedure using suction to empty the uterus; this is possible after 12 weeks,
but it may be more difficult to find an operating doctor who will go through with the procedure.[77]

Senescence
Main article: Senescence

Senescence refers to a scenario when a living being can survive all

calamities but eventually dies due to causes relating to old age.
Conversely, premature death can refer to a death that occurs before
old age arrives, for example, human death before a person reaches the
age of 75.[78] Animal and plant cells normally reproduce and function
during the whole period of natural existence, but the aging process
derives from the deterioration of cellular activity and the ruination of
regular functioning. The aptitude of cells for gradual deterioration and Dead camel thorn tree within
Sossusvlei
mortality means that cells are naturally sentenced to stable and long-
term loss of living capacities, even despite continuing metabolic
reactions and viability. In the United Kingdom, for example, nine out of ten of all the deaths that occur daily
relates to senescence, while around the world, it accounts for two-thirds of 150,000 deaths that take place
daily.[79]

Almost all animals who survive external hazards to their biological functioning eventually die from biological
aging, known in life sciences as "senescence." Some organisms experience negligible senescence, even
exhibiting biological immortality. These include the jellyfish Turritopsis dohrnii,[80] the hydra, and the planarian.
Unnatural causes of death include suicide and predation. Of all causes, roughly 150,000 people die around the
world each day.[48] Of these, two-thirds die directly or indirectly due to senescence, but in industrialized
countries – such as the United States, the United Kingdom, and Germany – the rate approaches 90% (i.e.,
nearly nine out of ten of all deaths are related to senescence).[48]

Physiological death is now seen as a process, more than an event: conditions once considered indicative of
death are now reversible.[81] Where in the process, a dividing line is drawn between life and death depends on
factors beyond the presence or absence of vital signs. In general, clinical death is neither necessary nor
sufficient for a determination of legal death. A patient with working heart and lungs determined to be brain dead
can be pronounced legally dead without clinical death occurring.[82]

Life extension
Main article: Life extension

Life extension refers to an increase in maximum or average lifespan, especially in humans, by slowing or
reversing aging processes through anti-aging measures. Aging is the most common cause of death worldwide.
Aging is seen as inevitable, so according to Aubrey de Grey little is spent on research into anti-aging therapies,
a phenomenon known as pro-aging trance.[48]

The average lifespan is determined by vulnerability to accidents and age or lifestyle-related afflictions such as
cancer or cardiovascular disease. Extension of lifespan can be achieved by good diet, exercise, and avoidance
of hazards such as smoking. Maximum lifespan is determined by the rate of aging for a species inherent in its
genes. A recognized method of extending maximum lifespan is calorie restriction.[10] Theoretically, the
extension of the maximum lifespan can be achieved by reducing the rate of aging damage, by periodic
replacement of damaged tissues, molecular repair, or rejuvenation of deteriorated cells and tissues.[83]

A United States poll found religious and irreligious people, as well as men and women and people of different
economic classes, have similar rates of support for life extension, while Africans and Hispanics have higher
rates of support than white people. 38% said they would desire to have their aging process cured.[84]

Researchers of life extension can be known as "biomedical gerontologists." They try to understand aging, and
develop treatments to reverse aging processes, or at least slow them for the improvement of health and
maintenance of youthfulness.[9] Those who use life extension findings and apply them to themselves are called
"life extensionists" or "longevists." The primary life extension strategy currently is to apply anti-aging methods
to attempt to live long enough to benefit from a cure for aging.[85]

Cryonics
Main article: Cryonics

Cryonics (from Greek κρύος 'kryos-' meaning 'icy cold') is the low-
temperature preservation of animals, including humans, who cannot be
sustained by contemporary medicine, with the hope that healing and
resuscitation may be possible in the future.[86][87]

Cryopreservation of people and other large animals is not reversible

with current technology. The stated rationale for cryonics is that people
who are considered dead by current legal or medical definitions, may
not necessarily be dead according to the more stringent 'information-
Technicians prepare a body for
theoretic' definition of death.[47][88] cryopreservation in 1985.

Some scientific literature is claimed to support the feasibility of

cryonics.[89] Medical science and cryobiologists generally regard cryonics with skepticism.[90]

Location
Around 1930, most people in Western countries died in their
own homes, surrounded by family, and comforted by clergy,
neighbors, and doctors making house calls.[93] By the mid-20th
century, half of all Americans died in a hospital.[94] By the start
of the 21st century, only about 20 to 25% of people in
developed countries died outside of a medical
institution.[94][95][96] The shift from dying at home towards dying
in a professional medical environment has been termed the
Kyösti Kallio (middle), the fourth President
"Invisible Death."[94] This shift occurred gradually over the years of the Republic of Finland, had a fatal heart
until most deaths now occur outside the home.[97] attack a few seconds after this photograph was
taken by Hugo Sundström on 19 December
1940, at Helsinki railway station in Helsinki,
Psychology Finland.[91][92]

See also: Death anxiety

Death studies is a field within psychology.[98] To varying degrees people inherently fear death, both the process
and the eventuality; it is hard wired and part of the 'survival instinct' of all animals.[99] Discussing, thinking
about, or planning for their deaths causes them discomfort. This fear may cause them to put off financial
planning, preparing a will and testament, or requesting help from a hospice organization.

Mortality salience is the awareness that death is inevitable. However, self-esteem and culture are ways to
reduce the anxiety this effect can cause.[100] The awareness of someone's own death can cause a deepened
bond in their in-group as a defense mechanism. This can also cause the person to become very judging. In a
study, two groups were formed; one group was asked to reflect upon their mortality, the other was not,
afterwards, the groups were told to set a bond for a prostitute. The group that did not reflect on death had an
average of $50, the group who was reminded about their death had an average of $455.[101]

Different people have different responses to the idea of their deaths. Philosopher Galen Strawson writes that
the death that many people wish for is an instant, painless, unexperienced annihilation.[102] In this unlikely
scenario, the person dies without realizing it and without being able to fear it. One moment the person is
walking, eating, or sleeping, and the next moment, the person is dead. Strawson reasons that this type of
death would not take anything away from the person, as he believes a person cannot have a legitimate claim to
ownership in the future.[102][103]

Society and culture

Main articles: Death and culture and Human skull symbolism

In society, the nature of death and humanity's awareness of its

mortality has, for millennia, been a concern of the world's religious
traditions and philosophical inquiry. Including belief in resurrection or
an afterlife (associated with Abrahamic religions), reincarnation or
rebirth (associated with Dharmic religions), or that consciousness
permanently ceases to exist, known as eternal oblivion (associated
with secular humanism).[104]

Commemoration ceremonies after death may include various

mourning, funeral practices, and ceremonies of honoring the The regent Duke Charles (later King
deceased.[105][106] The physical remains of a person, commonly known Charles IX of Sweden) insulting the
corpse of Klaus Fleming. Albert
as a corpse or body, are usually interred whole or cremated, though
Edelfelt, 1878
among the world's cultures, there are a variety of other methods of
mortuary disposal.[17] In the English language, blessings directed
towards a dead person include rest in peace (originally the Latin,
requiescat in pace) or its initialism RIP.

Death is the center of many traditions and organizations; customs

relating to death are a feature of every culture around the world. Much
of this revolves around the care of the dead, as well as the afterlife and
the disposal of bodies upon the onset of death. The disposal of human
corpses does, in general, begin with the last offices before significant
Dead bodies can be mummified
time has passed, and ritualistic ceremonies often occur, most either naturally, as this one from
commonly interment or cremation. This is not a unified practice; in Guanajuato, or by intention, as those
in ancient Egypt.
Tibet, for instance, the body is given a sky burial and left on a mountain
top. Proper preparation for death and techniques and ceremonies for
producing the ability to transfer one's spiritual attainments into another body (reincarnation) are subjects of
detailed study in Tibet.[107] Mummification or embalming is also prevalent in some cultures to retard the rate of
decay.[108] The rise of secularism resulted in material mementos of death declining.[109]

Some parts of death in culture are legally based, having laws for when death occurs, such as the receiving of a
death certificate, the settlement of the deceased estate, and the issues of inheritance and, in some countries,
inheritance taxation.[110]

Capital punishment is also a culturally divisive aspect of death. In most jurisdictions where capital punishment
is carried out today, the death penalty is reserved for premeditated murder, espionage, treason, or as part of
military justice. In some countries, sexual crimes, such as adultery and sodomy, carry the death penalty, as do
religious crimes, such as apostasy, the formal renunciation of one's religion. In many retentionist countries,
drug trafficking is also a capital offense. In China, human trafficking and serious cases of corruption are also
punished by the death penalty. In militaries around the world, courts-martial have imposed death sentences for
offenses such as cowardice, desertion, insubordination, and mutiny.[111] Mutiny is punishable by death in the
United States.[112]

Death in warfare and suicide attacks also have cultural links, and the ideas of dulce et decorum est pro patria
mori, which translates to "It is sweet and proper to die for one's country", is a concept that dates to
antiquity.[112] Additionally, grieving relatives of dead soldiers and death notification are embedded in many
cultures.[113] Recently in the Western world—with the increase in terrorism following the September 11 attacks
but also further back in time with suicide bombings, kamikaze missions in World War II, and suicide missions in
a host of other conflicts in history—death for a cause by way of suicide attack, including martyrdom, have had
significant cultural impacts.[114]

Suicide, in general, and particularly euthanasia, are also points of cultural debate. Both acts are understood
very differently in different cultures.[115] In Japan, for example, ending a life with honor by seppuku was
considered a desirable death,[116] whereas according to traditional Christian and Islamic cultures, suicide is
viewed as a sin.

Death is personified in many cultures, with such symbolic representations as

the Grim Reaper, Azrael, the Hindu god Yama, and Father Time. In western
cultures, the Grim Reaper, or figures similar to it, is the most popular depiction
of death.[118]

In Brazil, death is counted officially when it is registered by existing family

members at a cartório, a government-authorized registry. Before being able to
file for an official death, the deceased must have been registered for an official
birth at the cartório. Though a Public Registry Law guarantees all Brazilian
citizens the right to register deaths, regardless of their financial means of their
family members (often children), the Brazilian government has not taken away
the burden, the hidden costs, and fees of filing for a death. For many Santa Muerte, the
personification of death in
impoverished families, the indirect costs and burden of filing for a death lead to
Mexican tradition[117]
a more appealing, unofficial, local, and cultural burial, which, in turn, raises the
debate about inaccurate mortality rates.[119]

Talking about death and witnessing it is a difficult issue in most cultures. Western societies may like to treat the
dead with the utmost material respect, with an official embalmer and associated rites.[108] Eastern societies
(like India) may be more open to accepting it as a fait accompli, with a funeral procession of the dead body
ending in an open-air burning-to-ashes.[120]

Origins of death
Main article: Origin of death

The origin of death is a theme or myth of how death came to be. It is present in nearly all cultures across the
world, as death is a universal happening.[121] This makes it an origin myth, a myth that describes how a feature
of the natural or social world appeared.[122][123] There can be some similarities between myths and cultures. In
North American mythology, the theme of a man who wants to be immortal and a man who wants to die can be
seen across many Indigenous people.[124] In Christianity, death is the result of the fall of man after eating the
fruit from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil.[121] In Greek mythology, the opening of Pandora's box
releases death upon the world.[125]

Consciousness
Main article: Consciousness after death

Much interest and debate surround the question of what happens to one's consciousness as one's body dies.
The belief in the permanent loss of consciousness after death is often called eternal oblivion. The belief that the
stream of consciousness is preserved after physical death is described by the term afterlife.

Near-death experiences (NDEs) describe the subjective experiences associated with impending death. Some
survivors of such experiences report it as "seeing the afterlife while they were dying". Seeing a being of light
and talking with it, life flashing before the eyes, and the confirmation of cultural beliefs of the afterlife are
common themes in NDEs.[126]

In biology
Death plays a role in extinction, which is generally considered to be the death of
Stages of death
the last individual of a species.[127] After death, the remains of a former organism
1. Pallor mortis
become part of the biogeochemical cycle, during which animals may be 2. Livor mortis
consumed by a predator or a scavenger.[128] Organic material may then be 3. Algor mortis
further decomposed by detritivores, organisms that recycle detritus, returning it to 4. Rigor mortis
the environment for reuse in the food chain, where these chemicals may 5. Putrefaction
6. Decomposition
eventually end up being consumed and assimilated into the cells of an
7. Skeletonization
organism.[129] Examples of detritivores include earthworms, woodlice, and 8. Fossilization
millipedes.[130] · ·

Microorganisms also play a vital role, raising the temperature of the

decomposing matter as they break it down into yet simpler
molecules.[131] Not all materials need to be fully decomposed. Coal, a
fossil fuel formed over vast tracts of time in swamp ecosystems, is one
example.[132]

Natural selection
Main articles: Competition (biology) and Natural selection Earthworms are soil-dwelling
detritivores, which can contribute to the
The contemporary evolutionary theory sees death as an important part decomposition of organic material.
of the process of natural selection. It is considered that organisms less
adapted to their environment are more likely to die, having produced
fewer offspring, thereby reducing their contribution to the gene pool.
Their genes are thus eventually bred out of a population, leading at
worst to extinction and, more positively, making the process possible,
referred to as speciation. Frequency of reproduction plays an equally
important role in determining species survival: an organism that dies
young but leaves numerous offspring displays, according to Darwinian
criteria, much greater fitness than a long-lived organism leaving only
one.[133][134]

Death also has a role in competition, where if a species out-competes

another, there is a risk of death for the population, especially in the
case where they are directly fighting over resources.[135]

Evolution of aging and mortality Dead Scrub blackbird in Lima, Perú

Main article: Evolution of ageing

Inquiry into the evolution of aging aims to explain why so many living things and the vast majority of animals
weaken and die with age. However, there are exceptions, such as Hydra and the jellyfish Turritopsis dohrnii,
which research shows to be biologically immortal.[136]

Organisms showing only asexual reproduction, such as bacteria, some protists, like the euglenoids and many
amoebozoans, and unicellular organisms with sexual reproduction, colonial or not, like the volvocine algae
Pandorina and Chlamydomonas, are "immortal" at some extent, dying only due to external hazards, like being
eaten or meeting with a fatal accident. In multicellular organisms and also in multinucleate ciliates[137] with a
Weismannist development, that is, with a division of labor between mortal somatic (body) cells and "immortal"
germ (reproductive) cells, death becomes an essential part of life, at least for the somatic line.[138]

The Volvox algae are among the simplest organisms to exhibit that division of labor between two completely
different cell types, and as a consequence, include the death of somatic line as a regular, genetically regulated
part of its life history.[138][139]

Grief in animals
Animals have sometimes shown grief for their partners or "friends". When two chimpanzees form a bond
together, sexual or not, and one of them dies, the surviving chimpanzee will show signs of grief, ripping out
their hair in anger and starting to cry; if the body is removed, they will resist, they will eventually go quiet when
the body is gone, but upon seeing the body again, the chimp will return to a violent state.[140]

Furthermore, anthropologist Barbara J. King has suggested that one way to evaluate the expression of grief in
animals is to look for altered behaviors such as social withdrawal, disrupted eating or sleeping, expression of
affect, or increased stress reactions in response to the death of a family member, mate, or friend.[141] These
criteria do not assume the ability to anticipate death, understand its finality, or experience emotions equivalent
to those of humans, but at the same time do not rule out the possibility of those abilities existing in some
animals or that different kinds of emotional experiences might constitute grief.[142] Based on these criteria, King
gives examples of observed potential mourning behaviors in animals such as cetaceans, apes and monkeys,
elephants, domesticated animals (including dogs, cats, rabbits, horses, and farmed animals), giraffes,
peccaries, donkeys, prairie voles, and some species of birds.[141][143]

Cell death
This section is an excerpt from Cell death. [ edit ]

Cell death is the event of a biological cell ceasing to

carry out its functions. This may be the result of the
natural process of old cells dying and being replaced by
new ones, as in programmed cell death, or may result
from factors such as diseases, localized injury, or the
death of the organism of which the cells are part.
Apoptosis or Type I cell-death, and autophagy or Type II
cell-death are both forms of programmed cell death,
while necrosis is a non-physiological process that occurs
as a result of infection or injury.[144]

The term "cell necrobiology" has been used to describe Overview of signal transduction pathways involved
in apoptosis
the life processes associated with morphological,
biochemical, and molecular changes which predispose,
precede, and accompany cell death, as well as the consequences and tissue response to cell death.[145] The
word is derived from the Greek νεκρό meaning "death", βìο meaning "life", and λόγος meaning "the study of".
The term was initially coined to broadly define investigations of the changes that accompany cell death,
detected and measured by multiparameter flow- and laser scanning- cytometry.[146] It has been used to
describe the real-time changes during cell death, detected by flow cytometry.[147]

Death of abiotic factors

Some non-living things things can be described as "dead" when they stop functioning or undergo destruction.
For example, volcanoes, batteries, electrical components, and stars are often said to "die" once they reach the
end of their active state.

A volcano, a break in the earth's crust that allows lava, ash, and gases
to escape, has three states that it may be in, active, dormant, and
extinct. An active volcano has recently or is currently erupting; in a
dormant volcano, it has not erupted for a significant amount of time, but
it may erupt again; in an extinct volcano, it may be cut off from the
supply of its lava and will never be expected to erupt again, so the
volcano can be considered to be dead.[citation needed]

A battery can be considered dead after the charge is fully used up.
Electrical components are similar in this fashion, in the case that it may
not be able to be used again, such as after a spill of water on the
Kepler's Supernova, after the death
components,[149] the component can be considered dead. of what could have been a white
dwarf.[148]
Stars also have a life-span and, therefore, can die. After it starts to run
out of fuel, it starts to expand, this can be analogous to the star aging.
After it exhausts all fuel, it may explode in a supernova,[150] collapse into a black hole, or turn into a neutron
star.[151]

Religious views

Buddhism
See also: Anussati § The ten recollections

In Buddhist doctrine and practice, death plays an important role. Awareness of death motivated Prince
Siddhartha to strive to find the "deathless" and finally attain enlightenment. In Buddhist doctrine, death
functions as a reminder of the value of having been born as a human being. Rebirth as a human being is
considered the only state in which one can attain enlightenment. Therefore, death helps remind oneself that
one should not take life for granted. The belief in rebirth among Buddhists does not necessarily remove death
anxiety since all existence in the cycle of rebirth is considered filled with suffering, and being reborn many
times does not necessarily mean that one progresses.[152]

Death is part of several key Buddhist tenets, such as the Four Noble Truths and dependent origination.[152]

Christianity

This section may contain unsourced predictions, speculative material,

or accounts of events that might not occur. Information must be
verifiable and based on reliable published sources. Please help improve it
by removing unsourced speculative content. (September 2025) (Learn how
and when to remove this message)

See also: Soul in the Bible, Second death, and Resurrection of the dead § Christianity

While there are different sects of Christianity with different branches of

belief, the overarching ideology on death grows from the knowledge of
the afterlife. After death, the individual will undergo a separation from
mortality to immortality; their soul leaves the body, entering a realm of
spirits. Following this separation of body and spirit (death), resurrection
will occur.[153] Representing the same transformation Jesus Christ
embodied after his body was placed in the tomb for three days, each
person's body will be resurrected, reuniting the spirit and body in a
perfect form. This process allows the individual's soul to withstand
death and transform into life after death.[154]

Hinduism In Dante's Paradiso, Dante is with

Beatrice, staring at the highest
See also: Reincarnation § Hinduism, Naraka (Hinduism), and Yama heavens.
(Hinduism)

In Hindu texts, death is described as the individual eternal spiritual jiva-

atma (soul or conscious self) exiting the current temporary material body. The
soul exits this body when the body can no longer sustain the conscious self
(life), which may be due to mental or physical reasons or, more accurately, the
inability to act on one's kama (material desires).[155] During conception, the
soul enters a compatible new body based on the remaining merits and
demerits of one's karma (good/bad material activities based on dharma) and
the state of one's mind (impressions or last thoughts) at the time of death.[156]

Usually, the process of reincarnation makes one forget all memories of one's
previous life. Because nothing really dies and the temporary material body is
always changing, both in this life and the next, death means forgetfulness of
one's previous experiences.[157] Illustration depicting Hindu
beliefs about reincarnation

Islam
See also: Islamic view of death

The Islamic view is that death is the separation of the soul from the body as well as the beginning of the
afterlife.[158] The afterlife, or akhirah, is one of the six main beliefs in Islam. Rather than seeing death as the
end of life, Muslims consider death as a continuation of life in another form.[159] In Islam, life on earth right now
is a short, temporary life and a testing period for every soul. True life begins with the Day of Judgement when
all people will be divided into two groups. The righteous believers will be welcomed to janna (heaven), and the
disbelievers and evildoers will be punished in jahannam (hellfire).[160]

Muslims believe death to be wholly natural and predetermined by God. Only God knows the exact time of a
person's death.[161] The Quran emphasizes that death is inevitable, no matter how much people try to escape
death, it will reach everyone. (Q50:16) Life on earth is the one and only chance for people to prepare
themselves for the life to come and choose to either believe or not believe in God, and death is the end of that
learning opportunity.[162]

Judaism
See also: Bereavement in Judaism

There are a variety of beliefs about the afterlife within Judaism, but none of them contradict the preference for
life over death. This is partially because death puts a cessation to the possibility of fulfilling any
commandments.[163]

Language
The word "death" comes from Old English dēaþ, which in turn comes from Proto-Germanic *dauþuz
(reconstructed by etymological analysis). This comes from the Proto-Indo-European stem *dheu- meaning the
"process, act, condition of dying."[164]

The concept and symptoms of death, and varying degrees of delicacy used in discussion in public forums,
have generated numerous scientific, legal, and socially acceptable terms or euphemisms. When a person has
died, it is also said they have "passed away", "passed on", "expired", or "gone", among other socially accepted,
religiously specific, slang, and irreverent terms.

As a formal reference to a dead person, it has become common practice to use the participle form of
"decease", as in "the deceased"; another noun form is "decedent".

Bereft of life, the dead person is a "corpse", "cadaver", "body", "set of remains", or when all flesh is gone, a
"skeleton". The terms "carrion" and "carcass" are also used, usually for dead non-human animals. The ashes
left after a cremation are lately called "cremains".

See also
Deathbed Karōshi
Death drive Last rites
Death row List of expressions related to death
Death trajectory Spiritual death
Dying declaration Stages of death
End-of-life care Survivalism (life after death)
Eschatology Taboo on the dead
Faked death Thanatology

References
1. ^ Glennys Howarth, Oliver Leaman (2003). Encyclopedia of Death and Dying . Routledge. p. 416. ISBN 978-1-
136-91360-0.
2. ^ "death" . [Link] Unabridged (Online). n.d. Retrieved 27 February 2021.
3. ^ Hayman J, Oxenham M (2016). Human body decomposition. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-12-803713-3.
OCLC 945734521 .
4. ^ Masamoto Y, Piraino S, Miglietta MP (December 2019). "Transcriptome Characterization of Reverse Development
in Turritopsis dohrnii (Hydrozoa, Cnidaria)" . G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics. 9 (12): 4127–4138.
doi:10.1534/g3.119.400487 . PMC 6893190 . PMID 31619459 .
5. ^ Proskuryakov SY, Konoplyannikov AG, Gabai VL (February 2003). "Necrosis: a specific form of programmed cell
death?". Experimental Cell Research. 283 (1): 1–16. doi:10.1016/s0014-4827(02)00027-7 . PMID 12565815 .
6. ^ Li R, Cheng X, Yang Y, C Schwebel D, Ning P, Li L, Rao Z, Cheng P, Zhao M, Hu G (2023). "Global Deaths
Associated with Population Aging — 1990–2019" . China CDC Weekly. 5 (51): 1150–1154.
doi:10.46234/ccdcw2023.216 . PMC 10750162 . PMID 38152634 .
7. ^ Richtie H, Spooner F, Roser M (February 2018). "Causes of death" . Our World in Data. Archived from the
original on 20 May 2018. Retrieved 14 February 2023.
8. ^ Routley N (25 March 2022). "How Many Humans Have Ever Lived?" . Visual Capitalist. Archived from the
original on 28 March 2022. Retrieved 3 October 2023.
9. ^ a b Stambler I (1 October 2017). "Recognizing Degenerative Aging as a Treatable Medical Condition: Methodology
and Policy" . Aging and Disease. 8 (5): 583–589. doi:10.14336/AD.2017.0130 . PMC 5614323 .
PMID 28966803 .
10. ^ a b Fontana L, Partridge L, Longo VL (16 April 2010). "Extending Healthy Life Span—From Yeast to Humans" .
Science. 328 (5976): 321–326. Bibcode:2010Sci...328..321F . doi:10.1126/science.1172539 . PMC 3607354 .
PMID 20395504 .
11. ^ a b United States. President's Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and
Behavioral Research (1981). Defining Death: A Report on the Medical, Legal and Ethical Issues in the
Determination of Death · Part 34 . The Commission. p. 63. Archived from the original on 17 August 2023.
Retrieved 19 March 2023.
12. ^ a b United States Department of the Army (1999). Leadership Education and Training (LET 1) . United States
Department of the Army. p. 188. Archived from the original on 17 August 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
13. ^ a b Zaner RM (2011). Death: Beyond Whole-Brain Criteria (1st ed.). Springer. pp. 77, 125. ISBN 978-94-010-7720-
0.
14. ^ "brain death" . [Link] Unabridged (Online). n.d. Retrieved 27 February 2021.
15. ^ DeGrazia D (2021). "The Definition of Death" . In Zalta EN (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Summer 2021 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 23 July 2022.
Retrieved 23 July 2022.
16. ^ Parent B, Turi A (December 2020). "Death's Troubled Relationship With the Law" . AMA Journal of Ethics. 22
(12): E1055–1061. doi:10.1001/amajethics.2020.1055 . PMID 33419507 .
17. ^ a b Newcomb T (17 October 2019). "7 Unique Burial Rituals Across the World" . Encyclopedia Britannica.
Archived from the original on 1 April 2020. Retrieved 16 February 2023.
18. ^ Veatch RM, Ross LF (2016). Defining Death: The Case for Choice. Georgetown University Press. ISBN 978-1-
62616-356-0.
19. ^ Henig, Robin Marantz (April 2016). "Crossing Over: How Science Is Redefining Life and Death" . National
Geographic. Archived from the original on 1 November 2017. Retrieved 23 October 2017.
20. ^ Muzdakis M (12 February 2022). "Vanitas: Paintings by the Dutch Old Masters Inspired by Life and Death" . My
Modern Met.
21. ^ Animal Ethics (2023). "What beings are not conscious" . Animal Ethics. Archived from the original on 8
November 2014. Retrieved 14 February 2023.
22. ^ Antony M (February 2001). "Is 'consciousness' ambiguous?" . Journal of Consciousness Studies. 8 (2): 19–44.
23. ^ Metcalf P, Huntington R (1991). Celebrations of Death: The Anthropology of Mortuary Ritual. New York:
Cambridge Press.[page needed]
24. ^ a b DeGrazia D (2017). "The Definition of Death" . In Zalta EN (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Spring 2017 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 18 March 2019.
Retrieved 19 February 2019.
25. ^ a b c d Bernat JL (2018). "Conceptual Issues in DCDD Donor Death Determination" . Hastings Center Report. 48
(S4): S26 – S28. doi:10.1002/hast.948 . PMID 30584853 .
26. ^ Belkin GS (2014). Death Before Dying: History, Medicine, and Brain Death. Oxford University Press. p. 220.
ISBN 978-0-19-989817-6.
27. ^ New York State Department of Health (2011). "Guidelines for Determining Brain Death" . New York State.
Archived from the original on 24 January 2012. Retrieved 15 February 2023.
28. ^ National Health Service of the UK (8 September 2022). "Overview: Brain death" . National Health Service.
Archived from the original on 12 November 2008. Retrieved 15 February 2023.
29. ^ Nitkin K (11 September 2017). "The Challenges of Defining and Diagnosing Brain Death" . Johns Hopkins
Medicine. Archived from the original on 10 October 2019. Retrieved 15 February 2023.
30. ^ Chernecky CC, Berger BJ (2013). Laboratory Tests and Diagnostic Procedures (6th ed.). Saunders. ISBN 978-1-
4557-0694-5.
31. ^ Miller F (October 2009). "Death and organ donation: back to the future" (PDF). Journal of Medical Ethics. 35
(10): 616–620. doi:10.1136/jme.2009.030627 . PMID 19793942 .
32. ^ "Pendant with a Monk and Death" . The Walters Art Museum. Walters Art Museum. Retrieved 8 June 2025.
33. ^ Magnus DC, Wilfond BS, Caplan AL (6 March 2014). "Accepting Brain Death". New England Journal of Medicine.
370 (10): 891–894. doi:10.1056/NEJMp1400930 . PMID 24499177 .
34. ^ Nicol AU, Morton AJ (11 June 2020). "Characteristic patterns of EEG oscillations in sheep (Ovis aries) induced by
ketamine may explain the psychotropic effects seen in humans" . Scientific Reports. 10 (1): 9440.
Bibcode:2020NatSR..10.9440N . doi:10.1038/s41598-020-66023-8 . PMC 7289807 . PMID 32528071 .
35. ^ New York Department of Health (5 December 2011). "Guidelines for Determining Brain Death" . New York State.
Archived from the original on 24 January 2012. Retrieved 15 February 2023.
36. ^ National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws, American Bar Association, American Medical
Association (1981). Uniform Determination of Death Act (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 March
2023. Retrieved 15 February 2023.
37. ^ Lewis A, Cahn-Fuller K, Caplan A (2017). "Shouldn't Dead Be Dead?: The Search for a Uniform Definition of
Death". Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics. 45 (1): 112–128. doi:10.1177/1073110517703105 . PMID 28661278 .
38. ^ Sarbey B (1 December 2016). "Definitions of death: brain death and what matters in a person" . Journal of Law
and the Biosciences. 3 (3): 743–752. doi:10.1093/jlb/lsw054 . PMC 5570697 . PMID 28852554 .
39. ^ a b c Bernat JL (March 2013). "Controversies in defining and determining death in critical care". Nature Reviews
Neurology. 9 (3): 164–173. doi:10.1038/nrneurol.2013.12 . PMID 23419370 .
40. ^ Australian Department of Health and Aged Care (June 2021). "The physical process of dying" . Health Direct.
Archived from the original on 1 March 2020. Retrieved 15 February 2023.
41. ^ a b Dolinak D, Matshes E, Lew EO (2005). Forensic Pathology: Principles and Practice. Elsevier Academic Press.
p. 526. ISBN 978-0-08-047066-5.
42. ^ Medical certification of cause of death : instructions for physicians on use of international form of medical
certificate of cause of death. World Health Organization. 1979. hdl:10665/40557 . ISBN 978-92-4-156062-7.
[page needed]

43. ^ Bondeson 2001, p. 77

44. ^ Bondeson 2001, pp. 56, 71.
45. ^ Bondeson 2001, p. 239
46. ^ a b Limmer, Dan, O'Keefe, Michael F., Bergeron, J. David, Grant, Harvey, Murray, Bob, Dickinson, Ed (21
December 2006). Brady Emergency Care AHA (10th Updated ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-159390-9.
47. ^ a b Merkle R. "Information-Theoretic Death" . [Link]. Archived from the original on 9 August 2016.
Retrieved 4 June 2016. "A person is dead according to the information-theoretic criterion if the structures that
encode memory and personality have been so disrupted that it is no longer possible in principle to recover them. If
inference of the state of memory and personality are feasible in principle, and therefore restoration to an appropriate
functional state is likewise feasible in principle, then the person is not dead."
48. ^ a b c d e f de Grey AD (21 January 2007). "Life Span Extension Research and Public Debate: Societal
Considerations". Studies in Ethics, Law, and Technology. 1 (1). doi:10.2202/1941-6008.1011 . "roughly 150,000
deaths that occur each day across the globe"
49. ^ "Tuberculosis Fact sheet N°104 – Global and regional incidence" . WHO. March 2006. Archived from the
original on 30 December 2013. Retrieved 6 October 2006.
50. ^ Chris Thomas, Global Health/Health Infectious Diseases and Nutrition (2 June 2009). "USAID's Malaria
Programs" . USAID. Archived from the original on 26 January 2004. Retrieved 19 September 2016.
51. ^ "Aids could kill 90 million Africans, says UN" . The Guardian. London. 4 March 2005. Archived from the original
on 29 August 2013. Retrieved 23 May 2010.
52. ^ Leonard T (4 June 2006). "AIDS Toll May Reach 100 Million in Africa" . The Washington Post. Archived from
the original on 17 December 2013. Retrieved 26 December 2013.
53. ^ Jean Ziegler, L'Empire de la honte, Fayard, 2007 ISBN 978-2-253-12115-2 p. 130. [clarification needed]
54. ^ a b "WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic, 2008" (PDF). WHO. 2008. Archived from the original
(PDF) on 8 March 2008. Retrieved 26 December 2013.
55. ^ Olshansky SJ, Perry D, Miller RA, Butler RN (March 2006). "In pursuit of the longevity dividend: what should we
be doing to prepare for the unprecedented aging of humanity?". The Scientist. 20 (3): 28–37. Gale A143579030 .
56. ^ Selye H (31 August 1938). "Experimental Evidence Supporting the Conception of 'Adaptation Energy' ". American
Journal of Physiology. Legacy Content. 123 (3): 758–765. doi:10.1152/ajplegacy.1938.123.3.758 .
57. ^ Goldstone B (1952). "The general practitioner and the general adaptation syndrome". South African Medical
Journal. 26 (6): 106–109. hdl:10520/AJA20785135_26742 . PMID 14913266 .
58. ^ Gorban AN, Tyukina TA, Smirnova EV, Pokidysheva LI (September 2016). "Evolution of adaptation mechanisms:
Adaptation energy, stress, and oscillating death". Journal of Theoretical Biology. 405: 127–139. arXiv:1512.03949 .
Bibcode:2016JThBi.405..127G . doi:10.1016/[Link].2015.12.017 . PMID 26801872 .
59. ^ Reinberg S (20 September 2012). "Suicide now kills more Americans than car crashes: study" . Medical
Express. Archived from the original on 6 October 2012. Retrieved 15 October 2012.
60. ^ Mufson S (22 February 1995). "RIGHTS GROUP WARNS CHINA ON DAM PROJECT" . The Washington Post.
Archived from the original on 6 March 2023. Retrieved 17 February 2023.
61. ^ Liang G, Deng L (29 April 2013). "Solving a Mystery of 400 Years-An Explanation to the "explosion" in Downtown
Beijing in the Year of 1626" . AllBestEssays. Archived from the original on 20 February 2020. Retrieved
17 February 2023.
62. ^ Humphrey JH (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. pp. 80, 102,
126–129. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5.
63. ^ Sovacool BK (May 2008). "The costs of failure: A preliminary assessment of major energy accidents, 1907–2007".
Energy Policy. 36 (5): 1802–1820. Bibcode:2008EnPol..36.1802S . doi:10.1016/[Link].2008.01.040 .
64. ^ Sovacool BK (August 2010). "A Critical Evaluation of Nuclear Power and Renewable Electricity in Asia". Journal of
Contemporary Asia. 40 (3): 369–400. doi:10.1080/00472331003798350 .
65. ^ "The World's Worst Natural Disasters: Calamities of the 20th and 21st centuries" . Canadian Broadcasting
Corporation. 30 August 2010. Archived from the original on 19 January 2011. Retrieved 17 February 2023.
66. ^ Means T, Pappas S (3 March 2022). "10 of the deadliest natural disasters in history" . LiveScience. Archived
from the original on 2 July 2013. Retrieved 17 February 2023.
67. ^ " "The 16 deadliest storms of the last century" " . Business Insider India. 13 September 2017. Archived from the
original on 7 January 2022. Retrieved 17 February 2023.
68. ^ Dohner JV (2017). The encyclopedia of animal predators: learn about each predator's traits and behaviors: identify
the tracks and signs of more than 50 predators: protect your livestock, poultry, and pets. North Adams,
Massachusetts: Storey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-61212-705-7. OCLC 970604110 .[page needed]
69. ^ a b Johns Hopkins Medical (19 November 2019). "Autopsy" . Johns Hopkins Medical. Archived from the
original on 26 June 2020. Retrieved 15 February 2023.
70. ^ Maryland Department of Health. "Forensic Autopsy" . Maryland Department of Health. Archived from the
original on 4 October 2018. Retrieved 15 February 2023.
71. ^ Madea B, Rothschild M (1 June 2010). "The Post Mortem External Examination" . Deutsches Ärzteblatt
International (in German). 103 (33): 575–586, quiz 587–588. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2010.0575 . PMC 2936051 .
PMID 20830284 . Archived from the original on 6 March 2023. Retrieved 16 February 2023.
72. ^ Duke University School of Medicine. "Autopsy Pathology" . Duke Department of Pathology. Archived from the
original on 28 June 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2023.
73. ^ Fadden M, Peaslee J (19 March 2019). "What's a Necropsy? The Science Behind this Valuable Diagnostic
Tool" . Cornell University. Archived from the original on 4 June 2019. Retrieved 15 February 2023.
74. ^ Goldenberg R, Kirby R, Culhane J (August 2004). "Stillbirth: a review". The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal
Medicine. 16 (2): 79–94. doi:10.1080/jmf.[Link] .
75. ^ García-Enguídanos A, Calle M, Valero J, Luna S, Domínguez-Rojas V (10 May 2002). "Risk factors in miscarriage:
a review". European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology. 102 (2): 111–119.
doi:10.1016/S0301-2115(01)00613-3 . PMID 11950476 .
76. ^ Lawrence B, Finer LF, Frohwirth L, Dauphinee A, Singh S, Moore AM (September 2005). "Reasons U.S. Women
Have Abortions: Quantitative and Qualitative Perspectives". Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health. 37
(3): 110–118. doi:10.1111/j.1931-2393.2005.tb00045.x . PMID 16150658 .
77. ^ Attia (21 November 2019). "What are the different types of abortion?" . Planned Parenthood. Archived from the
original on 3 May 2022. Retrieved 21 February 2023.
78. ^ "The top five causes of premature death" . [Link]. Archived from the original on 21
September 2021. Retrieved 15 August 2023.
79. ^ Hayflick L, Moody HR (2003). Has Anyone Ever Died of Old Age? . International Longevity Center–USA.
Archived from the original on 6 March 2023. Retrieved 16 February 2023.
80. ^ "Turritopsis nutricula (Immortal jellyfish)" . [Link]. Archived from the original on 13 October 2016.
Retrieved 18 January 2014.
81. ^ Crippen D. "Brain Failure and Brain Death" . Scientific American Surgery, Critical Care, April 2005. Archived from
the original on 24 June 2006. Retrieved 9 January 2007.
82. ^ Burkle CM, Sharp RR, Wijdicks EF (14 October 2014). "Why brain death is considered death and why there
should be no confusion" . Neurology. 83 (16): 1464–1469. doi:10.1212/WNL.0000000000000883 .
PMC 4206160 . PMID 25217058 .
83. ^ Blagosklonny MV (1 December 2021). "No limit to maximal lifespan in humans: how to beat a 122-year-old
record" . Oncoscience. 2021 (8): 110–119. doi:10.18632/oncoscience.547 . PMC 8636159 . PMID 34869788 .
84. ^ "Living to 120 and Beyond: Americans' Views on Aging, Medical Advances and Radical Life Extension" . Pew
Research Center. Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 6 August 2013. Archived from the
original on 18 September 2016. Retrieved 19 September 2016.
85. ^ Moshakis A (23 June 2019). "How to live forever: meet the extreme life-extensionists" . The Guardian.
Archived from the original on 23 June 2019. Retrieved 16 February 2023.
86. ^ McKie R (13 July 2002). "Cold facts about cryonics" . The Guardian. Archived from the original on 8 July 2017.
Retrieved 1 December 2013. "Cryonics, which began in the Fifties, is the freezing – usually in liquid nitrogen – of
human beings who have been legally declared dead. The aim of this process is to keep such individuals in a state of
refrigerated limbo so that it may become possible in the future to resuscitate them, cure them of the condition that
killed them, and then restore them to functioning life in an era when medical science has triumphed over the
activities of the Banana Reaper"
87. ^ "What is Cryonics?" . Alcor Foundation. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved
2 December 2013. "Cryonics is an effort to save lives by using temperatures so cold that a person beyond help by
today's medicine might be preserved for decades or centuries until a future medical technology can restore that
person to full health."
88. ^ Whetstine L, Streat S, Darwin M, Crippen D (2005). "Pro/con ethics debate: When is dead really dead?" . Critical
Care. 9 (6): 538–42. doi:10.1186/cc3894 . PMC 1414041 . PMID 16356234 .
89. ^ Best B (2008). "Scientific justification of cryonics practice" . Rejuvenation Research. 11 (2): 493–503.
doi:10.1089/rej.2008.0661 . PMC 4733321 . PMID 18321197 .
90. ^ Lovgren S (18 March 2005). "Corpses Frozen for Future Rebirth by Arizona Company" . National Geographic.
Archived from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 15 March 2014. "Many cryobiologists, however, scoff at the
idea..."
91. ^ Paasonen A (1974). Marsalkan tiedustelupäällikkönä ja hallituksen asiamiehenä [Marshall's chief of intelligence
and Government's official] (in Finnish). Weilin & Göös. ISBN 978-951-35-1173-9.[page needed]
92. ^ Hokkanen K. "Kallio, Kyösti (1873–1940) President of Finland" . Biografiakeskus, Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden
Seura. Archived from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 10 January 2013.
93. ^ Ariès P (1974). Western attitudes toward death: from the Middle Ages to the present . Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
University Press. pp. 87–89 . ISBN 978-0-8018-1762-5.
94. ^ a b c Nuland SB (1994). How we die: Reflections on life's final chapter . New York: A.A. Knopf. pp. 254–255 .
ISBN 978-0-679-41461-2.
95. ^ Ahmad S, O'Mahony M (December 2005). "Where older people die: a retrospective population-based study" .
QJM. 98 (12): 865–870. doi:10.1093/qjmed/hci138 . PMID 16299059 .
96. ^ Cassel CK, Demel B (September 2001). "Remembering death: public policy in the USA" . J R Soc Med. 94 (9):
433–436. doi:10.1177/014107680109400905 . PMC 1282180 . PMID 11535743 .
97. ^ Ariès P (1981). "Invisible Death". The Wilson Quarterly. 5 (1): 105–115. JSTOR 40256048 . PMID 11624731 .
98. ^ Solomon S, Piven JS (2014). "Death and Dying". Oxford Bibliographies Online. doi:10.1093/obo/9780199828340-
0144 .
99. ^ Jong J, Ross R, Philip T, Chang SH, Simons N, Halberstadt J (2 January 2018). "The religious correlates of death
anxiety: a systematic review and meta-analysis" (PDF). Religion, Brain & Behavior. 8 (1): 4–20.
doi:10.1080/2153599X.2016.1238844 . See also "Study into who is least afraid of death" (Press release).
University of Oxford. 24 March 2017.
100. ^ Harmon-Jones E, Simon L, Greenberg J, Pyszczynski T, Solomon S, McGregor H (1997). "Terror management
theory and self-esteem: Evidence that increased self-esteem reduced mortality salience effects". Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology. 72 (1): 24–36. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.72.1.24 . PMID 9008372 .
101. ^ Pyszczynski TA (2003). In the wake of 9/11: the psychology of terror. Jeff Greenberg, Sheldon Solomon.
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. ISBN 1-55798-954-0. OCLC 49719188 .[page needed]
102. ^ a b Strawson G (2018). Things that Bother Me: Death, Freedom, the Self, Etc . New York Review of Books.
pp. 72–73. ISBN 978-1-68137-220-4. Archived from the original on 30 July 2020. Retrieved 2 July 2019.
103. ^ Strawson G (2017). " 'We live beyond…any tale that we happen to enact' ". The Subject of Experience. pp. 106–
122. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198777885.003.0006 . ISBN 978-0-19-877788-5.
104. ^ Heath PR, Klimo J (2010). Handbook to the Afterlife . North Atlantic Books. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-55643-869-1.
Archived from the original on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 12 April 2012.
105. ^ Seremetakis CN. The Last Word: Women, Death, and Divination in Inner Mani . Chicago, IL: University of
Chicago Press.
106. ^ Williams V (2016). Celebrating Life Customs Around the World: From Baby Showers to Funerals [3 Volumes].
ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-4408-3659-6.
107. ^ Mullin 1998[page needed]
108. ^ a b Brenner E (18 January 2014). "Human body preservation – old and new techniques" . Journal of Anatomy.
224 (3): 316–344. doi:10.1111/joa.12160 . PMC 3931544 . PMID 24438435 .
109. ^ Lutz D (2011). "The Dead Still Among Us: Victorian Secular Relics, Hair Jewelry, and Death Culture". Victorian
Literature and Culture. 39 (1): 127–142. doi:10.1017/S1060150310000306 . JSTOR 41307854 .
110. ^ Dimond B (2008). Legal Aspects of Death (6th ed.). Quay Books. ISBN 978-1-85642-333-5.
111. ^ "Shot at Dawn, campaign for pardons for British and Commonwealth soldiers executed in World War I" . Shot at
Dawn Pardons Campaign. Archived from the original on 4 October 2006. Retrieved 20 July 2006.
112. ^ a b United States Department of the Army (1982). Military Judges' Benchbook: Part 1 . United States Department
of the Army. Archived from the original on 17 August 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
113. ^ Hassankhani H, Haririan H, Porter JE, Heaston S (July 2018). "Cultural aspects of death notification following
cardiopulmonary resuscitation". Journal of Advanced Nursing. 74 (7): 1564–1572. doi:10.1111/jan.13558 .
PMID 29495080 .
114. ^ Carducci BJ (2009). The Psychology of Personality: Viewpoints, Research, and Applications (2nd ed.). Wiley-
Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-3635-8.[page needed]
115. ^ Math SB, Chaturvedi SK (December 2012). "Euthanasia: Right to life vs right to die" . Indian Journal of Medical
Research. 136 (6): 899–902. PMC 3612319 . PMID 23391785 .
116. ^ Masataka K (March 2005). "The Showa Era (1926–1989)". Daedalus. 119 (3): 24–27.
doi:10.1162/[Link]-2 . JSTOR 20025315 .
117. ^ Chesnut RA (2012). "Introduction: Blue CandleInsight and Concentration". Devoted to Death: Santa Muerte, the
Skeleton Saint. pp. 3–26. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199764662.003.0000 . ISBN 978-0-19-976466-2.
118. ^ McKenna A (17 August 2016). "Where Does the Concept of a "Grim Reaper" Come From?" . Britannica.
Archived from the original on 18 August 2016. Retrieved 16 February 2023.
119. ^ Nations MK, Amaral ML (September 1999). "Flesh, Blood, Souls, and Households: Cultural Validity in Mortality
Inquiry". Medical Anthropology Quarterly. 5 (3): 204–220. doi:10.1525/maq.1991.5.3.02a00020 .
120. ^ Denise Cush, Catherine A. Robinson, Michael York, eds. (2008). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. London: Routledge.
ISBN 978-0-7007-1267-0. OCLC 62133001 .
121. ^ a b Green JW (2008). Beyond the good death: the anthropology of modern dying. Philadelphia: University of
Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-0207-6. OCLC 835765644 .
122. ^ Dundes A, ed. (1984). Sacred narrative, readings in the theory of myth. Berkeley: University of California Press.
ISBN 0-520-05156-4. OCLC 9944508 .
123. ^ Patton LL, Doniger W, eds. (1996). Myth and method. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia. ISBN 0-8139-
1656-9. OCLC 34516050 .
124. ^ Boas F (October 1917). "The Origin of Death". The Journal of American Folklore. 30 (118): 486–491.
doi:10.2307/534498 . JSTOR 534498 .
125. ^ Lang A (2007). Modern mythology. Middlesex: Echo Library. ISBN 978-1-4068-1672-3. OCLC 269027849 .
126. ^ Greyson B, James D, Holden JM (2009). The Handbook of Near-Death Experiences: Thirty Years of Investigation.
ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-313-35865-4.
127. ^ Purvis A, Jones KE, Mace GM (10 November 2000). "Extinction". BioEssays. 22 (12): 1123–1133.
doi:10.1002/1521-1878(200012)22:12<1123::AID-BIES10>[Link];2-C . PMID 11084628 .
128. ^ Falkowski PG (2001). "Biogeochemical Cycles". Encyclopedia of Biodiversity. pp. 437–453. doi:10.1016/b0-12-
226865-2/00032-8 . ISBN 978-0-12-226865-6.
129. ^ Wetzel R (2001). Limnology: Lake and River Ecosystems (3rd ed.). Elsevierda. p. 700. ISBN 978-0-12-744760-5.
130. ^ Lindsey-Robbins J, Vázquez-Ortega A, McCluney K, Pelini S (13 December 2019). "Effects of Detritivores on
Nutrient Dynamics and Corn Biomass in Mesocosms" . Insects. 10 (12): 453. doi:10.3390/insects10120453 .
PMC 6955738 . PMID 31847249 .
131. ^ Rousk J, Bengston P (14 March 2014). "Microbial regulation of global biogeochemical cycles" . Frontiers in
Microbiology. 5: 103. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2014.00103 . PMC 3954078 . PMID 24672519 .
132. ^ George M (2018). Carboniferous Giants and Mass Extinction: The Late Paleozoic Ice Age World. Columbia
University Press. pp. 98–102. ISBN 978-0-231-18097-9.
133. ^ Gregory TR (June 2009). "Understanding Natural Selection: Essential Concepts and Common Misconceptions" .
Evolution: Education and Outreach. 2 (2): 156–175. doi:10.1007/s12052-009-0128-1 .
134. ^ Haldane JB (December 1957). "The cost of natural selection". Journal of Genetics. 55 (3): 511–524.
doi:10.1007/BF02984069 .
135. ^ Case TJ, Gilpin ME (1 August 1974). "Interference Competition and Niche Theory" . Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 71 (8): 3073–3077. Bibcode:1974PNAS...71.3073C .
doi:10.1073/pnas.71.8.3073 . PMC 388623 . PMID 4528606 .
136. ^ National Institute on Aging (2020). "The National Institute on Aging: Strategic Directions for Research, 2020–
2025" . National Institute on Aging. Archived from the original on 4 June 2020. Retrieved 16 February 2023.
137. ^ Beukeboom LW, Perrin N (2014). "The diversity of sexual cycles". The Evolution of Sex Determination. pp. 18–36.
doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199657148.003.0002 . ISBN 978-0-19-965714-8.
138. ^ a b Gilbert S (2003). Developmental biology (7th ed.). Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Associates. pp. 34–35.
ISBN 978-0-87893-258-0.
139. ^ Hallmann A (June 2011). "Evolution of reproductive development in the volvocine algae" . Sexual Plant
Reproduction. 24 (2): 97–112. doi:10.1007/s00497-010-0158-4 . PMC 3098969 . PMID 21174128 .
140. ^ Brown AE (March 1879). "Grief in the Chimpanzee". The American Naturalist. 13 (3): 173–175.
Bibcode:1879ANat...13..173B . doi:10.1086/272298 . JSTOR 2448772 .
141. ^ a b King BJ (2014). How Animals Grieve. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-15520-3.[page needed]
142. ^ King BJ (2016). "Animal mourning: Précis of How animals grieve (King 2013)" . Animal Sentience. 1 (4).
doi:10.51291/2377-7478.1010 .
143. ^ King BJ (2019). "The ORCA'S SORROW". Scientific American. 320 (3): 30–35.
doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0319-30 . JSTOR 27265108 . PMID 39010370 .
144. ^ Kierszenbaum A (2012). Histology and Cell Biology – An Introduction to Pathology. Philadelphia: Elsevier
Saunders.
145. ^ Nirmala JG, Lopus M (April 2020). "Cell death mechanisms in eukaryotes". Cell Biology and Toxicology. 36 (2):
145–164. doi:10.1007/s10565-019-09496-2 . PMID 31820165 .
146. ^ Darzynkiewicz Z, Juan G, Li X, Gorczyca W, Murakami T, Traganos F (January 1997). "Cytometry in cell
necrobiology: analysis of apoptosis and accidental cell death (necrosis)" . Cytometry. 27 (1): 1–20.
doi:10.1002/(sici)1097-0320(19970101)27:1<1::aid-cyto2>[Link];2-l . PMID 9000580 .
147. ^ Warnes G, Martins S (March 2011). "Real-time flow cytometry for the kinetic analysis of oncosis" . Cytometry.
Part A. 79 (3): 181–191. doi:10.1002/cyto.a.21022 . PMID 21254392 . S2CID 11691981 .
148. ^ "Chandra X-Ray Observatory" . Kepler's Supernova Remnant: A Star's Death Comes to Life. Retrieved
16 January 2006.
149. ^ Baylakoğlu İ, Fortier A, Kyeong S, Ambat R, Conseil-Gudla H, Azarian MH, Pecht MG (28 October 2021). "The
detrimental effects of water on electronic devices" . E-Prime – Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and
Energy. 1 (10): 1016. doi:10.1016/[Link].2021.100016 .
150. ^ Croswell K (21 January 2020). "A massive star dies without a bang, revealing the sensitive nature of
supernovae" . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 117 (3): 1240–1242.
doi:10.1073/pnas.1920319116 . PMC 6983415 . PMID 31964780 .
151. ^ Heger A, Fryer CL, Woosley SE, Langer N, Hartmann DH (July 2003). "How Massive Single Stars End Their Life".
The Astrophysical Journal. 591 (1): 288–300. arXiv:astro-ph/0212469 . Bibcode:2003ApJ...591..288H .
doi:10.1086/375341 .
152. ^ a b Blum ML (2004). "Death" (PDF). In Buswell RE (ed.). Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Vol. 1. New York:
Macmillan Reference, Thomson Gale. p. 203. ISBN 978-0-02-865720-2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29
June 2018. Retrieved 15 February 2018.
153. ^ "A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Second Epistle of St. Paul to the Corinthians. Alfred Plummer". The
Biblical World. 46 (3): 192. September 1915. doi:10.1086/475371 .
154. ^ "Resurrection – Resurrection of Christ". Sacramentum Mundi Online. doi:10.1163/2468-
483x_smuo_com_003831 .
155. ^ The Hindu Kama Shastra Society (1925). The Kama Sutra of Vatsyayana . University of Toronto Archives. pp. 8–
11, 172.
156. ^ Yadav R (2018). "Rebirth (Hinduism)". Hinduism and Tribal Religions. Encyclopedia of Indian Religions. pp. 1–4.
doi:10.1007/978-94-024-1036-5_316-1 . ISBN 978-94-024-1036-5.
157. ^ Sharma A (March 1996). "THE ISSUE OF MEMORY AS A PRAMĀṆA AND ITS IMPLICATION FOR THE
CONFIRMATION OF REINCARNATION IN HINDUISM". Journal of Indian Philosophy. 24 (1). Springer: 21–36.
doi:10.1007/BF00219274 . JSTOR 23447913 .
158. ^ Smith JI, Haddad YY (12 December 2002). "From Death to Resurrection: Classical Islam". The Islamic
Understanding of Death and Resurrection. Oxford University PressNew York. pp. 31–62.
doi:10.1093/0195156498.003.0002 . ISBN 0-19-515649-8.
159. ^ Puchalski CM, O'Donnell E (July 2005). "Religious and spiritual beliefs in end of life care: how major religions view
death and dying". Techniques in Regional Anesthesia and Pain Management. 9 (3): 114–121.
doi:10.1053/[Link].2005.06.003 .
160. ^ Oliver Leaman, ed. (2006). The Qurʼan: an encyclopedia. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-203-17644-8.
OCLC 68963889 .
161. ^ Tayeb MA, Al-Zamel E, Fareed MM, Abouellail HA (May 2010). "A 'good death': perspectives of Muslim patients
and health care providers" . Annals of Saudi Medicine. 30 (3): 215–221. doi:10.4103/0256-4947.62836 .
PMC 2886872 . PMID 20427938 .
162. ^ Campo JE (2009). Encyclopedia of Islam. New York: Facts On File. ISBN 978-0-8160-5454-1.
OCLC 191882169 .
163. ^ Raphael SP (May 2021). Jewish Views of the Afterlife (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 June
2023. Retrieved 17 February 2023.
164. ^ "Death" . Online Etymology Dictionary. Archived from the original on 13 October 2016. Retrieved 5 November
2013.

Bibliography
Bondeson J (2001). Buried Alive: the Terrifying History of our Most Primal Fear . W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-
0-393-04906-0.
Mullin GH (2008) [1998]. Living in the Face of Death: The Tibetan Tradition. Ithaca, New York: Snow Lion Publications.
ISBN 978-1-55939-310-2.

Further reading
Cochem Mo (1899). "On Death" . The four last things: death, judgment, hell, heaven. Benziger Brothers.
Daughters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul. (1856). "Considerations on Death" . St. Vincent's Manual.
John Murphy & Co.
Liguori, Alphonsus (1868). Preparation for Death . Rivingtons.
Marques SM (2015). Now and At the Hour of Our Death. Translated by Sanches J. And Other Stories.
ISBN 978-1-908276-62-9.
Massillon JB (1879). "On Death" . Sermons by John-Baptist Massillon. Thomas Tegg & Sons.
Rosenberg D (17 August 2014). "How One Photographer Overcame His Fear of Death by Photographing It
(Walter Schels' Life Before Death)" . Slate.
Sachs, Jessica Snyder (2001). Corpse: Nature, Forensics, and the Struggle to Pinpoint Time of Death
(270 pages). Perseus Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7382-0336-2.
Warraich H (2017). Modern Death: How Medicine Changed the End of Life. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-1-
250-10458-8.

External links
"Death" Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Death
"Death" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 898– at Wikipedia's sister projects
900.
Best, Ben. "Causes of Death" . [Link]. Retrieved 10 June Definitions from Wiktionary

2016. Media from Commons

"Death" (video; 10:18) by Timothy Ferris, producer of the Voyager Quotations from Wikiquote
Golden Record for NASA. 2021
Wald, George. "The Origin of Death" . A biologist explains life and
death in different kinds of organisms, in relation to evolution.
U.S. Census. "Causes of Death 1916" . Archived from the original on 18 September 2004. How the
medical profession categorized causes of death.
Schels, Walter, Lakotta, Beate. "Before and After Death" . [Link]. Archived from the original
on 11 October 2014. Interviews with people dying in hospices, and portraits of them before and shortly
after, death.

· · Development of the human body [show]

· · Death [show]

Authority control databases [show]

Categories: Death Senescence

This page was last edited on 20 September 2025, at 09:51 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view