PRELIMS AND MAINS 2026

GS PAPER – III

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. LAUNCH VEHICLES

2. CHANDRAYAAN 5 MISSION

3. 4D PRINTING

4. ROLE OF NANOTECHNOLOGY IN ENERGY CONSERVATION

5. SMALL MODULAR REACTORS

6. FOOD IRRADIATION

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 LAUNCH VEHICLES

• “Rockets are not just machines; they are the wings of human aspirations.”
• Launch vehicles are the backbone of any space programme, as they provide the
capability to place satellites, probes, and crewed modules into desired orbits. India’s
journey in launch vehicle development began with the Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV-3) in
the 1980s and gradually advanced through the Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle
(ASLV), Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV), and Geosynchronous Satellite Launch
Vehicle (GSLV) series.
• Today, India is not only enhancing existing systems but also pursuing next-generation
launch vehicles (NGLVs) with higher payload capacity, partial reusability, and green
propulsion technologies.
• Why india is in a need to upgrade its launch vehicles

Various initiatives
1. NGLV
• The Next-Generation Launch Vehicle (NGLV), officially named “Soorya”, has received
cabinet approval as of September 2024
• NGLV will have 3 times the present payload capability with 1.5 times the cost compared
to LVM3, and will also have reusability resulting in low-cost access to space and
modular green propulsion systems.
• The goals of the Indian space programme during the Amrit Kaal require a new
generation of human rated launch vehicles with high payload capability & reusability.
Hence, the development of the Next Generation Launch Vehicle (NGLV) is taken up
which is designed to have a maximum payload capability of 30 tonnes to Low Earth
Orbit, which also has a reusable first stage.
• NGLV will be demonstrated with three development flights (D1, D2 & D3) with a target of
96 months (8 years) for the completion of the development phase.
• This launch vehicle is Critical for constructing India’s planned Bharatiya Antariksh
Station (space station) by 2035.

2. Lunar Module Launch Vehicle (LMLV)

The new rocket would be capable of carrying about 27 tonnes to the Moon and 80 tonnes
to low Earth orbits
Objective
• To enable crewed lunar missions by 2040.
• To carry larger payloads to the Moon and support deep space exploration.
• To enhance India’s self-reliance in human spaceflight technology.

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3. Reusable Launch Vehicle – Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD)
• Reusable Launch Vehicle – Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD) is one of the most
technologically challenging endeavors of ISRO towards developing essential
technologies for a fully reusable launch vehicle to enable low cost access to space.
• The configuration of RLV-TD is similar to that of an aircraft and combines the complexity
of both launch vehicles and aircraft.
• The winged RLV-TD has been configured to act as a flying test bed to evaluate various
technologies, namely, hypersonic flight, autonomous landing and powered cruise flight
• “The holy grail of rocketry is reusability. It is the fundamental breakthrough needed to
revolutionize access to space.
• Launch vehicles are not merely rockets; they are instruments of strategic autonomy,
scientific discovery, and economic opportunity. India’s steady progression from SLV to
the upcoming Next Generation Launch Vehicle (NGLV) reflects a vision of self-reliance
coupled with global competitiveness. With reusable and heavy-lift technologies,
international collaborations, and private sector participation, India is poised to
transform its launch ecosystem into a driver of space diplomacy, commercial
innovation, and human exploration

CHANDRYAAN 5 MISSION

• Following the legacy of Chandrayaan-1, Chandrayaan-2 (orbiter-based lunar exploration),

Chandrayaan-3 (lander-rover based in-situ exploration) and the forthcoming
Chandrayaan-4 (India’s first lunar sample return mission), the Chandrayaan-5 / LUPEX
(LUnar Polar EXploration) mission will be the fifth mission in the Chandrayaan series of
lunar missions, in collaboration with JAXA, to study the lunar volatile materials, including
lunar water, in the vicinity of a Permanently Shadowed Region (PSR) in the lunar South
pole.
• The mission will be launched by JAXA onboard its H3-24L launch vehicle, carrying the
ISRO-made lunar lander, which will carry the MHI, Japan-made lunar rover.
• The scientific instruments for this mission would be contributed by ISRO, JAXA, ESA and
NASA, all thematically connected with the exploration and in-situ analysis of the volatiles
reserved in the lunar polar region.
• Mission Objectives:
✓ Mapping lunar water presence.
✓ Drilling lunar regolith to analyze water content, quality, and composition.
✓ Performing in-situ scientific observations using spectrometers and sensors.

Why so many moon missions?

1. The Moon is the closest celestial body, making it an ideal natural laboratory.
2. Studying lunar geology helps us understand the formation and evolution of Earth and the
solar system.

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3. The far side of the Moon is shielded from Earth’s radio noise → ideal for deep-space
astronomy.
4. Water ice at the lunar poles can be converted into drinking water, oxygen, and rocket fuel
(hydrogen + oxygen).
5. Presence of Helium-3, a potential fuel for future nuclear fusion, makes the Moon
strategically important.
6. Abundant rare-earth elements can support high-tech industries.

Significance of moon mission for india

1. exploring the lunar south pole, a region with permanently shadowed craters suspected to
contain water ice.
2. Understanding water distribution will aid knowledge of planetary evolution and potential
resources for future missions.
3. Positions India as a key player in the global lunar race, alongside USA, China, Japan, and
Europe.
4. Strengthens India–Japan strategic partnership in space, balancing global space
diplomacy.
Chandrayaan-5 is not just another lunar mission; it is a strategic leap that integrates science,
technology, and diplomacy. By probing the Moon’s south pole and working with Japan, India
is laying the foundation for resource utilization, crewed missions, and future space leadership.

4D PRINTING

• 4D printing is an advanced form of 3D printing where the printed object can change its
shape, properties, or functionality over time when exposed to external stimuli like heat,
light, moisture, magnetic fields, or pH.
• The “fourth dimension” refers to time — the ability of the object to transform after being
printed.
• It relies on smart materials (shape-memory polymers, hydrogels, nanomaterials) that
respond dynamically to the environment.

How it Works
1. A 3D printer fabricates an object using smart materials.
2. When exposed to a trigger (temperature, water, electricity, etc.), the material self-
assembles, folds, bends, or expands.
3. The object adapts to new conditions — making it useful for adaptive and self-healing
applications.

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Importance in the Healthcare Sector
1. Personalized Medical Devices:
• Development of self-adjusting stents, implants, and prosthetics that adapt to a
patient’s body conditions (e.g., temperature or pH).
2. Smart Drug Delivery Systems:
• Capsules or patches that release drugs at targeted locations or in response to triggers
like body temperature or infection markers, improving treatment precision.
3. Regenerative Medicine:
• Tissue scaffolds that change shape to promote cell growth and mimic natural tissue
development, aiding in organ regeneration.
4. Minimally Invasive Surgery:
• Deployable medical devices (e.g., stents, catheters) that expand or change shape after
insertion, reducing surgical risks.
5. Cost-Effective and Efficient Care:
• Reduces the need for multiple surgeries or device replacements by creating adaptive,
long-lasting medical solutions.
6. Minimally Invasive Surgery Tools
• Instruments or implants that fold into compact shapes for insertion and then expand at
the target site.
• Reduces surgical trauma and speeds recovery.
7. Smart Drug Delivery Systems
• 4D-printed capsules can release drugs at controlled rates based on body temperature,
pH, or specific enzymes.
• Enables personalized and targeted therapies
8. Artificial Organs and Soft Robotics
• Creation of organs or robotic devices that move and adapt like natural tissues for
surgical assistance or as organ substitutes.

Conclusion
4D printing, though still emerging, has the potential to revolutionize personalized medicine
by making treatments more adaptive, less invasive, and cost-efficient. As research advances,
it could significantly enhance healthcare delivery, especially in precision medicine and
regenerative therapies.

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 NANOTECHNOLOGY IN ENERGY CONSERVATION

Nanotechnology involves the manipulation of matter at the atomic and molecular scale (1–
100 nanometres), enabling materials with unique physical, chemical, and electrical
properties. Its applications in energy systems offer transformative possibilities for energy
efficiency, renewable generation, and sustainable resource use — key to achieving SDG-7
(Affordable and Clean Energy) and climate goals.

Body
Potential of Nanotechnology in Energy Conservation & Sustainability

1. Energy Generation
• Solar Cells: Nanomaterials like quantum dots, perovskite nanoparticles, and carbon
nanotubes can improve light absorption and efficiency in photovoltaics.
• Hydrogen Production: Nanocatalysts enhance water-splitting efficiency for green
hydrogen generation.
• Wind Turbines: Nanocoatings reduce wear and enhance aerodynamic efficiency.
2. Energy Storage
• Batteries: Nano-engineered electrodes (e.g., graphene anodes) increase lithium-ion
battery life, capacity, and charging speed.
• Supercapacitors: Nanoporous carbon materials offer rapid energy storage and
discharge capabilities.
• Thermal Storage: Nano-enhanced phase change materials improve heat retention in
solar thermal systems.
3. Energy Conservation in Use
• Nano-insulation Materials: Aerogels and nanofibers improve building insulation,
reducing heating/cooling demand.
• Lightweight Materials: Nano-composites in vehicles reduce weight, improving fuel
efficiency.
• Self-cleaning Coatings: TiO₂ nanoparticles on glass and solar panels reduce
maintenance and maintain efficiency.
4. Pollution Reduction & Resource Efficiency
• Catalysts in Fuel Cells: Platinum nanoparticles increase catalytic efficiency, lowering
fuel consumption.
• Water Purification: Nano-filtration systems use less energy compared to
conventional treatment methods.
• Industrial Efficiency: Nanolubricants reduce machinery wear, cutting energy losses.

Government & Global Initiatives

• India: Nano Mission by DST; R&D in solar nanotechnology under National Solar Mission.
• Global: EU’s Horizon Europe funds green nanotechnology; US DOE promotes nano-based
clean energy research.

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Conclusion
Nanotechnology offers a cross-cutting technological tool to advance energy conservation
and sustainable development by making energy systems more efficient, renewable, and
resource-light. If guided by robust safety standards and inclusive policies, it can become a
cornerstone of a green energy transition.

SMALL MODULAR REACTORS

Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) hold significant potential for enhancing India’s energy
security and supporting its climate goals.
• These are advanced nuclear reactors with power capacity of up to 300 MW(e) per unit
• Small: physically a fraction of the size of a conventional nuclear power reactor.
• Modular: making it possible for systems and components to be factory-assembled and
transported as a unit to a location for installation.
• Reactors: harnessing nuclear fission to generate heat to produce energy.

Significance for Energy Security and Climate Goals

1. Energy Diversification: India is heavily reliant on coal for electricity generation, which
poses challenges for energy security and contributes to pollution. SMRs can diversify the
energy mix by providing a stable and reliable source of low-carbon energy.

2. Climate Mitigation: As India aims to achieve net-zero emissions by 2070, SMRs can play a
critical role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Their deployment can help meet
growing energy demands while minimizing carbon footprints.

3. Grid Stability: SMRs can provide baseload power and help stabilize the grid, especially as
renewable energy sources like solar and wind, which are intermittent, expand in the energy
mix.

Potential Advantages

1. Modularity and Scalability: SMRs can be built in factories and transported to sites,
allowing for quicker construction and scalability. This modularity enables incremental
investments in nuclear power.

2. Safety Features: Modern SMR designs incorporate advanced safety features, reducing the
risks associated with nuclear power. They often have passive safety systems that require
minimal human intervention.

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3. Lower Capital Costs: Compared to traditional large reactors, SMRs typically require lower
initial capital investments, making them financially attractive for countries with limited
resources.

4. Localized Power Generation: SMRs can be deployed closer to demand centers, reducing
transmission losses and increasing energy accessibility in remote areas.

India’s small modular reactor

Bharat Small Reactors (BSRs) - In Budget 2024-25, government has announced to partner
with private sector to develop Bharat Small Reactors (BSRs).
BSRs are aligned with global trends where Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) are gaining
attention. • Unlike SMRs, BSRs are based on India's existing Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor
technology.

Challenges
1. Regulatory Framework: India’s nuclear regulatory framework may need significant
updates to accommodate SMR deployment, including safety assessments and licensing
processes.

2. Public Perception: There is often public apprehension regarding nuclear energy, driven by
safety concerns. Building public trust and support for SMRs is essential for their successful
deployment.

3. Investment and Financing: While SMRs have lower upfront costs, securing investment and
financing for development and construction can be challenging, especially given
competing energy investments.

4. Fuel Supply and Waste Management: The supply chain for nuclear fuel and the long-term
management of nuclear waste remain critical concerns. Developing reliable fuel sourcing
and waste disposal strategies will be necessary

Conclusion
Small Modular Reactors offer a viable path for India to enhance its energy security and
achieve climate goals. While they present numerous advantages, addressing regulatory,
public perception, financial, and logistical challenges will be crucial for successful
implementation. A strategic approach that includes stakeholder engagement and robust
planning can help maximize the potential benefits of SMRs in India’s energy landscape.

FOOD IRRADIATION

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Food irradiation is a process where food is exposed to controlled doses of ionizing radiation
such as gamma rays, electron beams, or X-rays to kill insects, molds, bacteria, and other
pathogens, thereby preserving the food, extending shelf life, and improving safety without
making the food radioactive or significantly altering its nutritional value, flavor, texture, or
appearance.

Body
Science behind food irradiation
• It damages the DNA of microorganisms, preventing reproduction or causing death.
• It helps control spoilage, delay ripening, and extend shelf life without altering nutritional
quality significantly.
• The process involves carefully exposing food to a measured amount of ionizing radiation in
a special processing room on a conveyor belt for a specified duration.
• The radiation sources could be gamma ray, electron beam or X-ray. The radiation doses
could be high, low or medium depending on the products to be irradiated and the target
organism to be eradicated.
• Irradiation technology has various applications including sprout inhibition in root and
tubers, disinfestation in cereals and pulses, reduction or elimination of food borne
pathogens in vegetables and animal products and delayed ripening of fruits.
• It is approved by international bodies such as WHO, FAO, and IAEA as safe for
consumption.

Benefits in the Indian Context:

Food Security:
• Reduces post-harvest losses (India loses ~30-40% of fruits and vegetables annually).
• Extends shelf life of perishables like onions, potatoes, mangoes, and spices.
Public Health:
• Reduces risk of food-borne illnesses (e.g., Salmonella, E. coli).
• Acts as an alternative to chemical preservatives.
Export Potential:
• Facilitates compliance with sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) standards in international
trade.
• Increases competitiveness of Indian agricultural exports by ensuring longer shelf life and
pest-free certification.

Limitations and Challenges:

• Low public awareness and misconceptions (e.g., food becoming radioactive).
• High initial investment in irradiation facilities and infrastructure.
• Lack of cold chain integration and proper supply chain management.
• Regulatory barriers and limited approval for certain food items under FSSAI.
• Resistance from sections of the food industry due to perceived cost concerns.

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Conclusion:
Food irradiation presents a scientifically sound and underutilized solution to enhance food
safety, reduce wastage, and boost exports. India must invest in awareness, infrastructure, and
policy reforms to realize its full potential in ensuring nutritional security and economic gains.

India’s initiatives
India faces 25–30% post-harvest losses in fruits, vegetables, and cereals due to pests,
microbes, and poor storage.

Spices & Dry Foods

• Irradiation eliminates Salmonella, E. coli, and insect infestations.
• India irradiates spices to meet US & EU import standards, boosting exports.

Fruits (Mangoes, Litchi, Pomegranate, etc.)

• Mango irradiation prevents fruit fly infestation and delays ripening.
• India uses it extensively for mango exports to the USA & Europe.

Onions & Potatoes

• Irradiation prevents sprouting and rotting, extending storage life.
• Reduces losses during transit and warehousing.

Grains & Pulses

• Controls storage pests (weevils, beetles, moths) without chemical fumigation.
• Enhances food security and reduces dependence on pesticides.

Institutions
1. Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) and Board of Radiation & Isotope Technology
(BRIT) have set up irradiation plants.
2. Facilities like KRUSHAK (Maharashtra) and Rashtriya Banana Research Centre (Tamil Nadu)
are used.
3. Regulated under the Atomic Energy Act (1962) and Food Safety & Standards Authority of
India (FSSAI)

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