CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND

PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES
Classification of Elements: With the discovery of a large number of elements, it became difficult to
study the elements individually, so classification of elements was done to make the study easier.
Earlier Attempts to Classify Elements:
Dobereiner’s Triads (1829):
• Dobereiner classified the elements into groups of three elements with similar properties in
such a manner so that the atomic weight of the middle element was the arithmetic mean of
the other two, e.g.,
Element Li Na K
Atomic weight 7 23 39
Mean of atomic masses = (7 + 39) / 2 = 23
Similarly Cl, Br, I; Ca, Sr, Ba are two more examples of such triads.
Limitations:
• Dobereiner could not arrange all the elements known at that time into triads. He could
identify only three such triads that have been mentioned.
Newland’s Octaves (1864) (Law of Octaves):
• Newland states that when elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic masses, every
eighth element has properties similar to the first just like in the musical note [Every eighth
musical note is the same as the first mentioned note]. This can be illustrated as given below
sa re ga ma pa dha ni
Li Be B C N O F
Na Mg AI Si P S CI
Limitations
• This classification was successful up to the element calcium.
• When noble gas elements were discovered at a later stage, their inclusion in these octaves
disturbed the entire arrangement.
Mendeleev’s Periodic Table:
• Mendeleev’s Periodic Table is based upon Mendeleev’s periodic law which states ‘The
physical and chemical properties of the elements are a periodic function of their atomic
masses.”
• At the time of Mendeleev, only 63 elements were known.
• This Periodic table is divided into seven horizontal rows (periods) and eight vertical columns
(groups). Zero group was added later on in the modified Mendeleev’s Periodic Table.
Importance of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
• Systematic study of the elements.
• Prediction of new elements and their properties. He left space for the elements yet to be
discovered. e.g., he left spaces for Ga and Ge and named these elements as Eka-aluminium
(Ga) and Eka-silicon (Ge) respectively
• Atomic mass correction of doubtful elements on the basis of their expected positions and
properties.
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Defects in the Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
• Position of hydrogen: Hydrogen has been placed in group IA (alkali metals), but it also
resembles with halogens of group VIlA. Thus its position in the Mendeleev’s Periodic table is
controversial.
• Position of isotopes: As Mendeleev’s classification is based on atomic weight, isotopes
would have to be placed in different positions due to their different atomic weights,
e.g., 1H1, 2H1, 3H1 would occupy different positions.
• Anomalous positions of some elements: Without any proper justification, in some cases the
element with higher atomic mass precedes the element with lower atomic mass. For example,
Al (atomic weight = 39.9) precedes K (atomic weight = 39.1) and similarly Co (atomic
weight. = 58.9) has been placed ahead of Ni (atomic weight = 58.7).
• Position of Lanthanoids and actinoids: Lanthanoids and actinoids were not placed in the
main Periodic Table.
Modern Periodic Table (1913)
• Moseley modified Mendeleev’s periodic law.
• He stated “Physical and chemical properties of elements are the periodic function of their
atomic numbers.” It is known as modern periodic law and considered as the basis of Modern
Periodic Table.
• When the elements were arranged in increasing order of atomic numbers, it was observed that
the properties of elements were repeated after certain regular intervals.
Structural Features of Long Form of Periodic Table
1. There are 18 groups and seven periods in this Periodic Table
2. The horizontal rows are called periods.
• First period (1H – 2He) contains 2 elements. It is the shortest period
• Second period (3Li – 10Ne) and third period (11 Na – 18Ar) contain 8 elements each. These
are short periods.
• Fourth period (19K – 36Kr) and fifth period (37Rb – 54Xe) contain 18 elements each. These
are long periods.
• Sixth period (55Cs – 86 Rn) consists of 32 elements and is the longest period.
• Seventh period starting with 87Fr and consists of 32 elements.
3. The 18 vertical columns are known as groups.
• Elements of group 1 are called alkali metals.
• Elements of group 2 are called alkaline earth metals.
• Elements of group 16 are called chalcogens
• Elements of group 17 are called halogens.
• Elements of group 18 are called noble gases.
4. The Periodic Table is divided into four main blocks (s, p, d and f depending upon the subshell to
which the valence electron enters into).
(a) s-block elements:
• 1st and 2nd group elements belong to this block and the last electron enters in s-subshell.
• General electronic configuration : ns1 – 2
(b) p-block elements :
• Group 13th to 18th belong to this block in which last electron enters in p-orbital.
• General electronic configuration : ns2 np1 – 6

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 • This is the only block which contains metal, non-metal and metalloids.
• The elements of s-and p-block elements are collectively called representative elements.
(c) d-block elements :
• Group 3rd to 12th belong to this block, in which last electron enters in d-orbit.
• Also known as transition elements.
• General electronic configuration : ns0 – 2 (n – 1)d1 – 10
• d-block elements are generally coloured, paramagnetic and exhibit variable valency.
(d) f-block elements:
• They constitute two series 4f (lanthanoids) and 5f (actinoids) in which last electron is in 4f
and 5f subshell respectively.
• General electronic configuration : (n – 2) f1 – 14 (n – 1) d 0 – 1 ns2
• The f-block elements are also called as inner-transition elements.
• Elements with atomic number greater than 92 (U92) are called the trans uranium elements. All
these elements are man-made through artificial nuclear reactions.
Limitations of Long Form of Periodic Table
• The position of hydrogen still remains uncertain.
• The inner-transition elements do not find a place in the main body of the table. They are
placed separately.
Predicting the Position of an Element in the Periodic Table
• Write the complete electronic configuration.
• The principle quantum number of the valence shell represents the period of the element.
• The subshell in which the last electron is filled corresponds to the block of the element.
• Group of the element is predicted from the electrons present in the outermost (n) or
penultimate (n -1) shell as follows:
• For s-block elements; group number = number of ns-electrons
• For p-block elements; group number = 10 + number of ns and np electrons
• For d-block elements; group number = the sum of the number of (n -1) d and ns electrons.
• For f-block elements; group number is 3.
IUPAC Nomenclature of Elements With Z > 100
The names are derived directly from the atomic numbers using numerical roots for 0 and numbers
from 1-9 and adding the suffix ium.

Eg: Name of the element with atomic number 120: Unbinilium(Ubm)

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1)Atomic Radius
• It is the distance from the centre of the nucleus to the outermost shell of electrons.
• Atomic radius of individual atoms cannot be determined. So it is expressed in any of the
following methods:
a) Covalent radius: It is half of the inter nuclear distance between two covalently
bonded (single bonded) atoms. It is used to express the atomic radius of non-metal
atoms.
b) van der Waals’ Radius: It is defined as one-half of the distance between the nuclei
of two non – bonded isolated atoms or two adjacent atoms belonging to two
neighbouring molecules of an element in the solid state.
c) Metallic Radius: It is define as one-half of the distance between the centres of nuclei
of the two adjacent atoms in the metallic crystal.
• The order of radii is: covalent radius < metallic radius < van der Waals’ radius
Variation of atomic radius along a group and period
• The atomic size decreases from left to right in a period. This is because in a period, the
electrons are added to the same valence shell. Thus the number of shells remains same, but
the effective nuclear charge increases. So the atomic radius decreases.
• In a given period, alkali metals (group 1) have the maximum size and halogens (group 17)
have the minimum size.
• Down a group, the atomic radius increases from top to bottom. This is because of the increase
in no. of shells and shielding effect. (in atoms with higher atomic number, the inner electrons
partially shield the attractive force of the nucleus. So the outer electrons do not experience the
full attraction of the nucleus and this is known as shielding effect or screening effect).
• Atomic radius of noble gases is larger than that of halogens. This is because noble gases are
monoatomic . So van der Waal’s radius is used to express the atomic radius which is greater
than covalent radius or metallic radius.
2)Ionic Radius:
• It is defined as the half of the inter nuclear distance between cations and anions of an ionic
crystal.
• The variation of ionic radius is same as that of atomic radius.
• An atom can be changed to a cation by loss of electrons and to an anion by gain of electrons.
• Generally a cation is smaller than its parent atom. e.g. Na+ is smaller than Na atom. This is
because a cation has fewer electrons, but its nuclear charge remains the same as that of the
parent atom, ie, effective nuclear charge increases .
• An anion is larger than its parent atom .e.g. Cl- is larger than Cl atom. This is because the
addition of one or more electrons would result in an increased electronic repulsion and a
decrease in effective nuclear charge.
• Isoelectronic species: Atoms and ions having the same number of electrons are called
isoelectronic species.
E.g. O2-, F- , Ne, Na+ , Mg2+ , Al3+ etc. (All these contain 10 electrons)
• In case of isoelectronic species, the higher the nuclear charge smaller is the size.
e.g., Al3+ < Mg2+ < Na+ < F– < O2- < N3-

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3)Ionisation Enthalpy (IE)
• It is the amount of energy required to remove the loosely bound electron from an isolated
gaseous atom.
X(g) + ∆iH → X+ (g) + e–
• Its unit is kJ/mol or J/mol.
• The energy required to remove the first electron from the outer most shell of a neutral atom is
called first ionisation enthalpy (∆iH1)
X(g) + ∆iH1 → X+ (g) + e–
• Second Ionisation enthalpy (∆iH2) is the amount of energy required to remove an electron
from a unipositive ion.
X + (g) + ∆iH2 → X2+(g) + e–
• Energy is always required to remove an electron from an atom or ion. So ∆iH is always
positive.
• The second ionisation enthalpy is always higher than first ionization enthalpy. This is
because it is more difficult to remove an electron from a positive charged ion than from a
neutral atom.
• Similarly third ionisation enthalpy is higher than second ionisation enthalpy and so on.
i.e. ∆iH1 < ∆iH2 < ∆iH3…………
• As the ease of removal of electron increases, the ionisation enthalpy decreases.
Factors affecting ionisation enthalpy
The important factors which affect ionisation enthalpy are:
• Atomic size: Greater the atomic size (atomic radius), smaller will be the ionisation enthalpy.
• Nuclear charge: The value of ionisation enthalpy increases with nuclear charge.
• Shielding effect: As the shielding effect increases, the electrons can easily be removed and so
the ionisation enthalpy decreases.
• Presence of half filled or completely filled orbitals increases ionisation enthalpy.
Variation of ∆iH along a period and a group
• Along a period, ionisation enthalpy increases from left to right. This is because of the
decrease in atomic radius and increase in nuclear charge. Thus alkali metals have the least
∆iH and noble gases have the most.
• Down a group, ∆iH decreases due to increase in atomic radius and shielding effect. Thus
among alkali metals, lithium has the most ∆iH and francium has the least.
• In the second period of modern periodic table, the first ionisation enthalpy of Boron is
slightly less than that of Beryllium. This is because of the completely filled orbitals in Be (1s 2
2s2 ).
• Similarly the first ionisation enthalpy of N is greater than that of Oxygen. This is because N
has half filled electronic configuration (1s2 2s2 2p3 ), which is more stable and so more
energy is required to remove an electron.
4)Electron gain enthalpy (∆egH)
• It is the heat change (enthalpy change) when an electron is added to the outer most shell of
an isolated gaseous atom. It can be represented as
X(g) + e– → X- (g)
• Its unit is kJ/mol.

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 • It may be positive or negative depending on the nature of the element.
• For most of the elements, energy is released when electron is added to their atoms. So ∆egH
is negative.
• First electron gain enthalpy is negative while the other successive electron gain enthalpy will
be positive due to repulsion between the electrons already present in the anion and the
electron being added.

• Noble gases have large positive electron gain enthalpy because of their completely filled
(stable) electronic configuration. The electron has to enter the next higher energy level
leading to unstable electronic configuration.
Factors affecting electron gain enthalpy:
Electron gain enthalpy also depends on atomic size, nuclear charge, shielding effect etc.
• As the atomic size increases ∆egH decreases.
• When nuclear charge increases, electron gain enthalpy increases and become more negative.
• Shielding effect decreases ∆egH.
• Presence of half filled or completely filled orbitals makes ∆egH less negative.
Periodic variation of ∆egH
• From left to right across a period, ∆egH become more negative. This is because of decrease
in atomic radius and increase in nuclear charge. So the ease of addition of electron increases
and hence the ∆egH.
• Down a group, ∆egH becomes less negative. This is due to increase in atomic radius and
shielding effect.
• Electron gain enthalpy of fluorine is less negative than chlorine. This is because, when an
electron is added to F, it enters into the smaller 2nd shell. Due to the smaller size, the electron
suffers more repulsion from the other electrons. But for Cl, the incoming electron goes to the
larger 3rd shell. So the electronic repulsion is low and hence Cl adds electron more easily
than F.
• Due to the same reason ∆egH of Oxygen is less negative than S.
• In modern periodic table, alkali metals have the least –ve ∆egH and halogens have the most –
ve ∆egH.
• Among halogens, the negative ∆egH decreases as follows. Cl> F > Br > I
• The negative electron gain enthalpy is also called electron affinity.
5)Electronegativity
• Electronegativity of an atom in a compound is the ability of the atom to attract shared pair of
electron.
• It is not a measurable quantity and so it has no unit.
• There are different scales for measuring the Electronegativity of elements.
• The most commonly used is the Pauling Electronegativity scale developed by Linus Pauling.
• Electronegativity depends on atomic size and nuclear charge.
• As the atomic radius increases, electronegativity decreases.

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 • Greater the nuclear charge, greater will be the electronegativity.
• Generally electronegativity increases across a period and decreases along a group.
• In modern periodic table, F has the maximum electronegativity and Fr has the minimum
electronegativity.
• In Pauling Scale, electronegativity of F is 4.0 and that of Oxygen is 3.5.
• The electronegativity of an element is not constant. It varies depending on the element to
which it is bound.
• It is directly related to the non-metallic character of elements.
• An increase in electronegativity across a period indicates an increase in non-metallic
character and decrease in metallic character.
6)Electropositivity or Metallic Character
• The tendency of an atom to lose valence electrons and form positive ion is called
electropositivity.
• Greater the electropositive character, greater is the metallic character.
• It depends on atomic size and nuclear charge.
• Electropositive character decreases on moving across the period and increases on moving
down the group.
• Alkali metals are the most electropositive and halogens are the least electropositive element
in their respective period.
• Francium is the most electropositive element and fluorine is the least electropositive element.
Periodic trends in chemical properties
1. Valency
• It is defined as the combining capacity of the element.
• The valency of an element is related to the electronic configuration of its atom and usually
determined by electrons present in the valence shell,
• On moving along a period from left to right, valency increases from 1 to 4 and then decreases
to zero (for noble gases) while on moving down a group the valency remains the same.
• Transition metals exhibit variable valency because they can use electron from outer as well as
penultimate shell.
• Valency is numerically equal to oxidation number of the element.
• The difference is that oxidation number has a positive or negative sign but the valency
doesn’t.
2.Anomalous behaviour of the first element of a group:
• The first element of a group differs considerably from the rest of the elements of its group.
• This is due to (i) small size (ii) high electronegativity and (iii) non availability of d·orbitals
for bonding.
• Anomalous behaviour is observed among the second period elements (i.e., Li to F).
Diagonal Relationship
Certain elements of 2nd period show similarity in properties with their diagonal elements in the 3rd
period as shown below:

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Thus, Li resembles Mg, Be resembles Al and B resembles Si. This is called diagonal relationship and
is due to the reason that these pairs of elements have almost identical ionic radii and polarizing
power (i.e., charge/size ratio).
Periodic trends in Chemical Reactivity Chemical Reactivity
• Reactivity of metal increases with decrease in IE, electronegativity and increase in atomic
size as well as electropositive character.
• Reactivity of non-metals increases with increase in electronegativity as well as electron gain
enthalpy and decrease in atomic radii.
• Chemical reactivity is highest at the extreme of a period and is lowest in the centre.
• Elements on two extreme of a period easily combine with oxygen to form oxides.
• The oxide formed by the element on extreme left is the most basic (Na2O) whereas that
formed by the element on extreme right is the most acidic ( Cl2O7 ).
• Oxides of elements in the centre are amphoteric (Al2O3) or neutral(CO).Amphoteric oxide
behave as acidic with bases and as basic with acids, whereas neutral oxides have no acidic or
basic properties.