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 i

SOCIAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF
FUNERARY REMAINS
11
SOCIAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF
FUNERARY REMAINS

Edited by
Rebecca Gowland and Christopher Knüsel

Oxbow Books
 Published by
Oxbow Books, Oxford, UK

© Oxbow Books, Rebecca Gowland, Christopher Knüsel

and the individual authors, 2006
Reprinted 2009 and 2012

ISBN 978-1-84217-365-7

A CIP record of this book is available from the British Library

This book is available direct from

Oxbow Books, Oxford, UK

(Phone: 01865-241249; Fax: 01865-794449)

and

The David Brown Book Company

PO Box 511, Oakville, CT 06779, USA
(Phone: 860-945-9329; Fax: 860-945-9468)

or from our website

www.oxbowbooks.com

Cover image: X-Ray, French Vogue, Paris 1994

© The Helmut Newton Estate/TDR

Printed in Great Britain by

Short Run Press
Exeter
 v

Contents

List of contributors ............................................................................................................................................................... vii

Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................................................................. viii

Introduction
Rebecca Gowland and Christopher J. Knüsel .............................................................................................................................. ix

1. The intrinsic pattern of preservation of human skeletons and its influence on the interpretation of
funerary behaviours
Silvia Bello and Peter Andrews ......................................................................................................................................... 1

2. Pattern in human burial practice

Peter Andrews and Silvia Bello ...................................................................................................................................... 14

3. L’archéothanatologie ou l’archéologie de la mort (Archaeoethnoanatology or the Archaeology of

Death)
Henri Duday .................................................................................................................................................................. 30

4. Neolithic burial taphonomy, ritual, and interpretation in Britain and Ireland: a review
Jessica Beckett and John Robb ....................................................................................................................................... 57

5. Cremation ... the cheap option?

Jacqueline I. McKinley .................................................................................................................................................... 81

6. Companions in death: the roles of animals in Anglo-Saxon and Viking cremation rituals in Britain
Julie M. Bond and Fay L. Worley ................................................................................................................................. 89

7. La Tène dietary variation in Central Europe: a stable isotope study of human skeletal remains
from Bohemia
John D. Le Huray, Holger Schutkowski and Michael P. Richards .............................................................................. 99

8. Immigrants on the Isle of Lewis – combining traditional funerary and modern isotope evidence to
investigate social differentiation, migration and dietary change in the Outer Hebrides of Scotland
Janet Montgomery and Jane A. Evans ......................................................................................................................... 122

9. Ageing the past: examining age identity from funerary evidence

Rebecca Gowland .......................................................................................................................................................... 143

10. Gender, bioarchaeology and human ontogeny

Joanna R. Sofaer ........................................................................................................................................................... 155
vi Contents

11. The gendered skeleton: anthropological interpretations of the bony pelvis

Pamela K. Stone and Dana Walrath ........................................................................................................................... 168

12. The osteology of monasticism in Medieval England

Simon Mays .................................................................................................................................................................. 179

13. Text, space and the evidence of human remains in English Late Medieval and Tudor disease culture:
some problems and possibilities
Isla Fay ........................................................................................................................................................................ 190

14. ‘Of no more use to men than in ages before?’: the Investiture Contest as a model for funerary
interpretation
Christopher J. Knüsel ................................................................................................................................................... 209

15. Skeletal evidence and contexts of violence in the European Mesolithic and Neolithic
Rick Schulting .............................................................................................................................................................. 224

16. Beneath the façade: A skeletal model of domestic violence

Shannon A. Novak ...................................................................................................................................................... 238

17. Fragmentation of the body: comestibles, compost, or customary rite?

Christopher J. Knüsel and Alan K. Outram ............................................................................................................... 253

18. Altering identities: body modifications and the pre-Columbian Maya

Pamela L. Geller .......................................................................................................................................................... 279

19. The living dead and the dead living: burials, figurines and social performance in the European
Mid Upper Palaeolithic
Paul B. Pettitt .............................................................................................................................................................. 292

Index ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 309

 vii

List of Contributors

PETER ANDREWS, Department of Palaeontology, The JACQUELINE I. MCKINLEY, Wessex Archaeology, Portway
Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London, SW7 House, Old Sarum Park, Salisbury, Wiltshire, SP4 6EB,
5BD, UK UK
JESSICA BECKETT, Department of Archaeology, University J ANET M ONTGOMERY, Department of Archaeological
of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3DZ, Sciences, University of Bradford, Bradford, West
UK Yorkshire, BD7 1DP, UK
SILVIA BELLO, Department of Palaeontology, The Natural SHANNON NOVAK, Department of Anthropology, Campus
History Museum, Cromwell Road, London, SW7 5BD, Box 8005, Idaho State University, Pocatello, Idaho,
UK 84105, USA
JULIE BOND, Department of Archaeological Sciences, ALAN K. OUTRAM, Department of Archaeology, School
University of Bradford, Bradford, West Yorkshire, BD7 of Geography, Archaeology, and Earth Resources,
1DP, UK University of Exeter, Laver Building, North Park Road,
Exeter, EX4 4QE, UK
HENRI DUDAY, Directeur de Recherche au CNRS et
Directeur d’Etudes à l’EPHE, UMR 5199, Laboratoire PAUL. B. PETTITT, Department of Archaeology, University
d’Anthropologie des Populations du Passé, Université of Sheffield, Northgate House, West Street, Sheffield, S1
Bordeaux 1, Avenue des Facultés, 33405 – TALENCE 4ET, UK
CEDEX, France
MIKE RICHARDS, Department of Human Evolution, Max
JANE EVANS, NERC Isotope Geosciences Laboratory, Plank Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology,
BGS, Keyworth, Nottingham, United Kingdom, NG12 Deutscher Platz 604103, Leipzig, Germany
5GG, UK
JOHN ROBB, Department of Archaeology, University of
ISLA FAY, School of History, University of East Anglia, Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3DZ, UK
Norwich, Norfolk, NR4 7TJ, UK
RICK SCHULTING, School of Geography, Archaeology and
PAMELA GELLER, Department of Anthropology, American Palaeoecology, Queen’s University, Belfast, Northern
University, Battelle-Tompkins, Room T21, 4400 Ireland, BT7 1NN, UK
Massachusetts Ave., NW Washington, DC 20016-8003,
HOLGER SCHUTKOWSKI, Biological Anthropology Research
USA
Centre (BARC), Department of Archaeological Sciences,
REBECCA GOWLAND, St John’s College, Cambridge, CB2 University of Bradford, Bradford, West Yorkshire, BD7
1TP, UK 1DP, UK
C HRISTOPHER J. K NÜSEL , Biological Anthropology J OANNA R. S OFAER , Department of Archaeology,
Research Centre (BARC), Department of Archaeological University of Southampton, Avenue Campus, Highfield,
Sciences, University of Bradford, Bradford, West Southampton, SO17 1BF, UK
Yorkshire, BD7 1DP, UK
PAMELA K. STONE, School of Natural Science, Hampshire
JOHATHAN D. LE HURAY, Department of Archaeological College, Amherst, MA 01002, USA
Sciences, University of Bradford, Bradford, West
DANA WALRATH, University of Vermont, Department of
Yorkshire, BD7 1DP, UK
Medicine, 371 Pearl Street, Burlington, VT 05401, USA
S IMON M AYS , Senior Scientific Officer, Ancient
FAY WORLEY, Department of Archaeological Sciences,
Monuments Laboratory, English Heritage Centre for
University of Bradford, Bradford, West Yorkshire, BD7
Archaeology, Fort Cumberland, Eastney, Portsmouth,
1DP, UK
PO4 9LD, UK
viii

Acknowledgements

We thank the following reviewers for their efforts on State University), Terry O’Connor (Department of
behalf of those contributing to this volume. Although Archaeology, University of York), Carol Palmer (Depart-
they are not responsible for the final form of the con- ment of Archaeology, University of Sheffield), Carole
tributions, each gave their time and expertise to making Rawcliffe (School of History, University of East Anglia),
this volume better. John Robb (Department of Archaeology, University of
Anthea Boylston (Biological Anthropology Research Cambridge), Rick Schulting (School of Geography,
Centre, Department of Archaeological Sciences, Archaeology and Palaeoecology, Queen’s University,
University of Bradford), Megan Brickley (Institute of Belfast), Holger Schutkowski (Biological Anthropology
Archaeology and Antiquity, University of Birmingham), Research Centre, Department of Archaeological Sciences,
Andrew Chamberlain (Department of Archaeology, University of Bradford), James Steele (Department of
University of Sheffield), Elizabeth DeMarrais (Depart- Archaeology, University of Southampton), Robert Tague
ment of Archaeology, University of Cambridge), Clive (Department of Geography and Anthropology, Louisiana
Gamble (Department of Geography, Royal Holloway, State University), Tim Taylor (Department of Archaeo-
University of London), Roberta Gilchrist (Department logical Sciences, University of Bradford), Tim Thompson
of Archaeology, University of Reading), Dawn Hadley (Unit of Anatomy and Forensic Anthropology, School of
(Department of Archaeology, University of Sheffield), Life Sciences Research Biocentre, University of Dundee),
Anthony Harding (Department of Archaeology, Univer- John W. Verano (Department of Anthropology, Tulane
sity of Exeter), Catherine Hills (Department of University), Alasdair Whittle (School of History and
Archaeology, University of Cambridge), Mary Lewis Archaeology, Cardiff University), Lori Wright (Depart-
(Department of Archaeology, University of Reading), Sam ment of Anthropology, Texas A & M University)
Lucy (Cambridge Archaeological Unit, Department of We also acknowledge the discussions during and after
Archaeology, University of Cambridge), Simon Mays a session entitled, “The Social Archaeology of Funerary
(English Heritage, Portsmouth), Andrew Millard (Depart- Remains”, co-organised by the editors and Lola Bonnabel
ment of Archaeology, Durham University), Jacqueline (Institut National de Recherches Archéologiques
McKinley (Trust for Wessex Archaeology), John Préventives (Inrap), France) and Liv Nilsson Stutz
Moreland (Department of Archaeology, University of (Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, Lund
Sheffield), Janet Montgomery (Department of Archaeo- University) for the European Association of Archaeo-
logical Sciences, University of Bradford), Gundula Mülder logists meeting in Lyon, France (8–9 September 2004),
(Department of Archaeology, University of Reading), where early versions of some of the papers in this volume
Shannon Novak (Department of Anthropology, Idaho were aired.
 ix

Introduction
Rebecca Gowland and Christopher J. Knüsel

Human bones are the most tangible and direct form of difficult or impossible and the data presented in formats
evidence for understanding how people lived in the past, incompatible with those from other cemeteries.
who they were, and where they came from. The human As a consequence of this, there continues to be a
skeleton is not a universal, static entity; it is a unique distinct lack of a synthetic treatment of human remains
repository for social information concerning the lifestyles and their burial context, even today, with unprecedented
and lifeways of past peoples, shedding light on, amongst numbers of trained osteologists in the field. Human
other things, craft and occupational activities, diet, living skeletal analysis is still not fully incorporated into social
conditions and health, migration and mobility, and social archaeology – the dominant theme of much of
inter-actions. As a result, human skeletal remains must archaeological research today. For example, we frequently
rank as one of the (if not the) most information-rich sources find comments such as these: “In spite of several analyses
of archaeological evidence. On a micro-level, skeletal of human osteological material from the area of the
remains can often provide intimate information concerning Danube Gorges, there has been little integration of the
individuals (e.g. they smoked a clay pipe) that simply cannot results from physical anthropology and the archaeological
be accessed by any other archaeological means, but, equally, context of the burials” (Borić and Stefanović, 2004). Later,
one can ‘zoom out’ and discover answers to population in the same treatment, these authors note that: “Although
level questions (e.g. impact of changing subsistence isotopic measurements were analysed for ten children
strategies on population health). Few forms of archaeo- from Lepenski Vir and 7 from Vlasac… it is not possible
logical evidence have this investigational versatility. to relate palaeodietary results to particular individuals as
Given their evident importance, it is surprising that, information on what skeletons were analysed was not
for many years, the potential of skeletal material for published in the… report” (p.527). This type of oversight
answering important archaeological questions was is not as uncommon as one might hope and attempting to
overlooked. Human skeletal remains only began to play a link burial cuts with individuals, burial inclusions and
part in archaeological interpretation from the 1960s; prior position within a particular site, let alone a description of
to this they were only deemed relevant for answering the burial position, perhaps accompanied with an in situ
specific questions concerning ‘race’, or when medical photograph are labours of some difficulty when dealing
curiosity was peaked by the unearthing of a particularly with many published reports.
abnormal specimen. Even during the theoretical Larsen (1997), in his introduction to Bioarchaeology, also
developments of New Archaeology and Processualism, laments the fact that many archaeologists in the United
when archaeology was given a scientific make-over, States (generally believed to be a few steps ahead of the
studies of human skeletal material remained on the UK when it comes to the integration of skeletal analysis)
periphery. Quite why this was so, when environmental are actually unaware of the potentials and limitations of
evidence, such as animal bones, carbonised plant remains osteological evidence for contributing to debates
and pollen, were at the forefront of these developments is concerning aspects of social organisation and identity.
unclear. Why should this be when these are the remains of the
Key initiators in the field of human skeletal analysis, people who inhabited the past, who farmed the animals,
Calvin Wells and Don Brothwell in the UK and Lawrence made the pots, built the houses, etc., and whose very lives
Angel in the US, continued to highlight the social we are trying to access?
relevance of the skeleton in their publications. However,
despite these efforts, studies of human remains continued
to be marginalised, usually confined to cemetery reports,
Science/theory divide
often in the appendices or microfiche (which invariably Human skeletal analysis has been conceptualised as a
went missing). Osteological data in cemetery reports still purely scientific undertaking, contributing to the arsenal
tend to be reduced to a series of summary tables of of archaeological evidence, but not fundamental to social
demographic and palaeopathological statistics. Often analysis. This perception appears to be derived from the
linking this information to individual skeletons can be insidious belief that the skeleton is a universal, fixed
x Introduction

biological entity. This is untenable: the skeleton is more and Robb (this volume) point out, in many respects this is
than a series of biological facts; it is the remains of an a two-way street, with osteologists also guilty of failing to
individual who interacted within a social as well as physical fully engage with the broader social and theoretical
environment in a dynamic way. Where people lived, what implications of their findings.
they ate, their experiences, all affected their bodies in a One of the key aims of this book is to stress that context
particular way. Even adverse psychological experiences can is of paramount importance to skeletal analysis.
leave their mark on the developing skeleton in the form Information derived from the skeleton is highly culturally
of dental enamel defects. In turn, the (culture-laden) contingent and may have variable meanings through time
physical appearance of an individual will also have affected and space depending on social context. A thorough
the way in which they were perceived within a particular knowledge of the archaeological context not only informs
society. As Michael Sims (2003, 4) observed: ‘Through the skeletal analysis, but also ensures that the information
your body the world touches you’ and vice versa. There is a gained from the skeleton can feed back and aid the
dialectic between the physical and the social body, and it interpretation of the site. The paper by Knüsel and
becomes very difficult to tease one apart from the other Outram (this volume) on cannibalism highlights this, in
(see Sofaer, this volume). particular. They demonstrate the way in which subtle
There is, however, a strong divide in archaeology differences in depositional context, in addition to the
between those engaged in the scientific aspects of enquiry appearance of the bone, helps to establish the presence of
and those involved in what Jones’ (2002) refers to as cannibalistic activity, while this skeletal information, in
interpretive archaeologies. For many years, since the turn, provides a better understanding of the nature/usage
inception of post-processual archaeology, archaeological of the archaeological site.
research falling under the umbrella of ‘science’ was
considered decidedly untrendy and empiricist – human
remains analysis included. The emphasis was instead very
Preservation and taphonomy
much on the subjective and relativist nature of Archaeological research occurs at many scales, be they
archaeological interpretation; the past, in some respects, site specific, regional, or global, as well as many temporal
became a more intangible, less ‘knowable’ and even scales from the single event to long-term sequences. The
‘foreign’ place. While much of this research was very resolution of these scalar qualities is influenced by the
important for the way in which archaeologists approached quality of the research design and its completeness, the
the past, an unfortunate initial side-effect was that intensity of research at a site or in a region, and by the
concepts associated with scientific archaeological relative resilience of material to taphonomic and decay
techniques (e.g. objectivity, immutability, etc.) became processes. Hodder (2000, 21) observes: ‘From many
antithetical to this new theoretical framework and the periods and areas, few sites survive or few have been
divide between science and social theory further excavated with modern scientific techniques. Thus, there
compounded. is little choice but to talk of the large scale, the generalised,
This situation has recently been addressed by Jones the gross patterning’. Archaeological research designs
(2002) who, quoting C.P. Snow, refers to the divisive have all too often left out or underplayed the importance
effect that these ‘two cultures’ have on archaeological of human remains and thus contributed to their often
interpretation. There has, at times, been an almost inadequate recovery and disassociation from their
antagonistic lack of communication across this science/ archaeological context.
social theory divide, resulting in the bewildering situation Because they appear and ossify at different rates, the
whereby researchers in one ‘camp’ were actually answering number of bones in the human body rises from the
some of the questions posed in the other without either roughly 270 of the neonate, to about 940 due to the
fully realising their mutual and complementary interest. appearance of secondary centres (epiphyses) of
This lack of communication has also meant that there has ossification in children, to the adult total of 206, when the
been a misuse/abuse of osteological evidence by those epiphyses fuse. Unless these and the place of burial are
that do not fully understand its limitations. For example, excavated with appropriate procedure and expertise, a
Tyrrell (2000) discusses this position with regard to the wealth of information is lost. The presence of trained
pervasive use of non-metric traits, particularly in studies people in the field is vital to ensure that the maximum
of Anglo-Saxon cemeteries, observing that: ‘Many studies amount of contextual information is available for later
have treated trait frequencies as if they were an analysis and interpretation. As Duday emphasises in his
archaeological typology, using a mix and match approach contribution to this volume the relationship of the
to determine if skeletons in a cemetery belonged to related skeleton to the grave and its inclusions has much to
individuals, or to determine the ‘ethnic’ group to which contribute to a fuller and more refined appreciation of
an individual skeleton belonged. This is unacceptable since mortuary variability, especially with regard to the once
not only does it lead to misleading conclusions, but also organic features of burials. Many of the sites currently
promises to access information which morphological being investigated have developed important new
studies cannot at present ascertain’. However, as Beckett strategies to deal with co-mingled and fragmented remains
 Introduction xi

and, building on techniques like those used for forensic the modern adoption of this funerary rite. Staying with
contexts, make it likely that even these remains can be the theme of cremation, Bond and Worley look at the
used to address research questions that have, at their core, evidence for animal remains burnt alongside or simply
the understanding of how the material came to be included afterwards in the burials of cremated individuals
deposited (see, for example, Knüsel and Outram 2004, from Anglo-Saxon and Viking England. They highlight
Sutherland 2000, McKinley 1997, Bond 1996). Insights the significance of different species of animals, finding
gained from the study of funerary remains also have the that not all inclusions were the result of feasting, some
potential to feed back into not only archaeological studies species having a totemic symbolism, whilst others may
but also those related to medico-legal interests, especially have been companions during life. This paper leads on to
where ethical constraints prevent experimentation, a the following section, which focuses on the interpretations
pertinent point made by Henri Duday in this volume. of skeletal remains within the grave, moving away from
With this in mind, the opening papers of this book the previous emphasis on objects and towards a
seek to elucidate and characterise the social and contextualisation of the anthropology of the deceased.
taphonomic factors governing the survival of human
bone; this is essential for subsequent interpretations of
skeletal assemblages. Bello and Andrews observe that
The skeleton in the grave
while detailed taphonomic studies of animal bones Much research in the funerary domain has centred on the
abound, very few studies have examined the variables relationship between skeletons and objects (usually within
governing the survival of human bone. They analyse the a grave). Although various methods of analysis have been
differential survival of skeletal elements and the championed, most have seen the relationship between the
differences in patterns of preservation between different body of the deceased and the grave and its contents as
age and sex classes. Importantly, they also discuss the separate sets of data, created by separate sets of
repercussions of their findings for subsequent social researchers, using separate and unrelated recording
interpretations of the burial assemblage. The following systems, one in the field and a second, in the laboratory.
paper by Andrews and Bello also focuses on taphonomy, As discussed previously, this results in an unsynthesised
this time characterising the different patterns of skeletal archive that more often than not reveals that these
element survival associated with particular burial practices separate groups do not address themselves to the same
(e.g. primary, secondary, disturbance, etc.). By looking at questions and any synthesis that is attempted is rather
the way in which particular funerary rites differentially inadequate, superficial at best, or at its worst, leaves the
affect the skeletal element composition of an assemblage, reader wondering at the motivations for excavation in the
they have produced criteria that can be used to aid in the first place.
identification of specific types of cultural activity within Furthermore, there has been a long tradition in
the funerary domain. funerary archaeology of overlooking the skeletal evidence
Beckett and Robb’s study of Neolithic monuments in and privileging the objects as the focus of analysis. Up
Ireland also focuses on taphonomy as well as the effects until very recently, for example, cemetery reports either
of cultural activity on assemblages of human remains. relied on objects entirely for establishing aspects of
They highlight the lack of research on osteological identity such as sex, or, when skeletal and artefactual
assemblages from these mortuary contexts and contrast evidence were apparently ‘contradictory’ (e.g. female
this with the abundance of theoretical interpretations weapon burial), more often than not the skeletal data was
mooted concerning the ideology of the burial population. disregarded. Over more recent years, despite theoretical
Once again, this provides a clear example of archaeologists developments that have seen a rise in the importance of
trying to reconstruct past societies and yet overlooking the ‘body’ as an integral part of social identity (Shilling
the remains of the people that constituted them. Beckett 1997, 65), skeletal remains continue to be marginalised.
and Robb argue that this situation stems from a lack of Shilling (1993, 1997) argues that social constructionism,
dialogue between osteologists and archaeologists con- whereby aspects of social identity are perceived not to be
cerned with social theory. Their paper goes on to develop biologically determined, but subject to culturally specific
an innovative simulation model in order to analyse the interpretation, has led to an increased marginalisation of
effects of both cultural burial practices and natural the physical body. As Duday notes in this volume one
processes on the bone assemblages over time. These often gets the impression that the deceased was placed as
findings have important implications for current an offering to a ceramic vessel, rather than the other way
interpretations of social practice from skeletal assemblages around. The large numbers of human remains that have
from Neolithic tombs. not been analysed or received inadequate treatment are a
One could argue that the ultimate form of bodily grim reminder of the consequence of an object-centred
modification in the funerary context is the practice of approach.
cremation. McKinley reviews the social context for The current theoretical climate within the social
cremation in the UK and dispels the myth that it was sciences now questions the existing dichotomy between
practiced as a ‘cheap option’, as one might anticipate from science and social theory. The primary strength of many
xii Introduction

of the papers in this book is that they connect the principle is implicit in the ordering of the contributions.
biological aspects of the human remains more strongly Progressing on from the earlier papers that have dealt
and thoroughly with their burial context. There are a primarily with taphonomic aspects of the burial domain
number of practical and heuristic, as well as social reasons, are two papers (Le Huray and Montgomery and co-
for adopting such a body-centred approach. With specific authors) that examine stable isotope evidence and seek to
reference to funerary remains, Byrd and Monahan (1995, address important social questions, including ‘ethnic’
257–260) note, “Archaeology frequently suffers from the identities and ‘sensory’ experiences of the people buried.
lack of a standardized, consistent body of terminology.” Stable isotope studies are currently making pivotal
One of the most nagging problems to affect archaeology contributions to archaeological debates concerning diet
is the rather cavalier use of terminology that it often and the movement of peoples. Le Huray and colleagues’
borrows from other disciplines. Funerary studies are analysis of carbon and nitrogen isotopes in skeletons dating
especially adversely affected by an incomplete to the La Tène period in Bohemia illustrates not only
understanding of the specific meaning of anatomical practical aspects of the diet (e.g. millet cultivation), but
terms. In order to standardise the use of anatomical terms also, intriguingly, dietary differences based on grave good
and orientations, the position of skeletal elements with associations; those buried with weapons exhibit a
respect to each other, researchers should use standard distinctive isotopic signature. These findings have some
anatomical position for the body. Although this standard parallels with dietary isotope work carried out by Privat
did not exist until comparatively recently and does not and O’Connell (2002) on the Anglo-Saxon site of
necessarily reflect emic understandings of the body of Berinsfield, Oxfordshire, where some dietary differences
past peoples, it relies on the fact that the body and its were, again, noted among the weapon burial group.
constituent parts have not changed their basic Montgomery and Evans’ paper examines strontium and
organisation for at least the past five million years since lead isotopes in combination with funerary evidence from
the advent of bipedal australopithecines. sites in the Outer Hebrides in relation to social
In archaeological contexts, the human body can thus differentiation and movement of peoples over time.
act as a datum point due to its standard anatomical Research such as this is proving extremely important for
description that does not change with changes in body examining and often challenging previously held
position. In fact, since the body occasioned the deposition perceptions concerning population movement. When used
and proportions of the burial feature, it should act as the in conjunction with grave good analysis, these studies
reference for all other features of burial. In other words, frequently indicate that the straightforward associations
the body’s standard anatomy could be used to avoid between ‘ethnicity’ and grave goods usually made by
referents for objects that are interpretative identifiers, archaeologists are misleading, and instead a much more
such as, for example, calling objects ‘ear-rings’, even if complex pattern emerges concerning both the ‘ethnicity’
they do not occur anywhere near the temporal bone of of these people and the dynamics of group identity.
the interred individual but simply because they resemble Indeed, the complexity of patterns of grave good
more recent objects. Here, one might invoke the deposition are also discussed in the following paper by
confusion caused by the metal weaving battens or the Gowland which focuses on age as an aspect of social
numerous, but differently shaped objects referred to as identity in Anglo-Saxon England. Gowland examines how
‘keys’ or ‘cosmetic brush cases’ in post-Roman burials the ageing body was understood culturally in fifth to sixth
(Knüsel and Ripley 2000) or ‘mirrors’ in Iron Age ones, century England, demonstrating the fluid and dynamic
which confuses or disguises symbolic and ceremonial way in which age interacts with other social facets such as
importance or ascribes to them a potentially anachronistic gender and status, throughout the life course. Sofaer also
function. Such objects may resemble Roman keys but that touches upon age in her discussion of the plasticity of the
does not necessarily mean they retained this function or, human body as it develops, the extent to which it may be
furthermore, explain why such objects were placed in affected and moulded by cultural activities and the
burials. The positioning of objects with respect to the implications for studies of sex and gender in bio-
body reveals behaviours that took place at death, after archaeology. This distinction between sex and gender has
death and during burial and should not be confused with been the subject of considerable discussion over the last
the identification of how the items functioned. few decades and Sofaer’s paper provides an osteological
As discussed above, the impetus for this book was a perspective to this debate and highlights some of the
desire to marry these cultural aspects of burial with the tensions in the way that such terms are applied to the
anthropology of the deceased so as to include a funerary domain. Gender is the focus of the following
comprehensive perspective on the human, faunal, and paper by Stone and Walrath who critique the emphasis
artefactual aspects of burial of past societies, their practices, placed on ‘obstetrical hazard’ as an explanation for female
beliefs, and social organisation. The over-arching guide mortality in the past. They argue that, instead, skeletal
here is one that encourages researchers to control for the and biocultural information must be linked for a more
taphonomic and biological manifestations of the funerary systematic and less cavalier understanding of female
record before invoking the social and cultural, and this morbidity and mortality in the past.
 Introduction xiii

Health in the past is also the focus of the two following The following paper by Geller also deals with trauma,
papers, both concentrating on medieval England and both but of a different sort – bodily modification. Geller
integrating historical evidence. The first paper by Mays examines dental modification in an assemblage of
questions the relationship between gluttonous monks and archaeological human remains from northwestern Belize,
DISH, a condition that has been used to support this Late contextualising this with both material and ethnohistoric
Medieval literary equation (cf. Geoffrey Chaucer’s monk). evidence and noting that frequently such analyses fail to
In this instance the biological data may suggest that this adequately consider social context. She discusses this type
image of the corpulent monastic was as much a political of bodily alteration as a means of imprinting the body,
ploy to exploit the wealth controlled by the monasteries, producing, as it were, an ‘embodied text’ towards the
a situation that eventually presaged the Dissolution. The construction of particular social identities. Geller also
second paper, by Fay, looks at the burial treatment focuses on the significance of the ‘performative’ aspect of
accorded individuals in Medieval Norwich with dis- this rite within a ritual setting. Continuing with the theme
figuring infectious diseases (e.g. leprosy, treponemal of bodily decoration, the final paper in this volume, by
disease), with the aim of understanding the social Pettitt, examines embodiment in Upper Palaeolithic
implications of these diseases for the sufferers. Historical Europe. Pettitt’s chapter suggests that ochre found
evidence indicates that diseases such as these were thought covering skeletal remains likely came from decorated
to reflect a moral and spiritual, as opposed to simply a objects, such as masks, or from body coverings using this
physical, contagion and one would expect their burial rites red pigment. This contrasts with a recent paper by Wadley
to reflect this stigma. et al. (2004, 661) on residue analysis for the use of ochre
Knüsel’s paper also integrates historical evidence, using in hafting of stone projectiles where we read: ‘There is,
the Investiture Contest as a model for interpreting however, no way of testing whether ancient people in
funerary rites at those times when succession to leadership Africa practised body painting’. Pettitt’s paper also
was uncertain and power more likely to be contested. This highlights some fascinating parallels between the
model is well illustrated by the contrasting burials of the presentation of the bodies in the graves of the Upper
Merovingian leaders Childéric and his eldest son and Palaeolithic and the Venus figurines, linking the use of
successor, Clovis. Knüsel notes that, unfortunately, while the body through ornamentation to the emerging social
the skeletal remains of the former are said to be well- complexity during this time.
preserved, almost no information about them is available; In summary, the papers in this book take an incomplete
again the objects prevail over the individual who actually funerary analysis that is a major part of the focus of
occasioned their presence. standard archaeological enquiry, recombines it with the
Continuing with the subject of power and the contesting skeletal report that is often a separate and incompletely
thereof, the following three papers examine trauma in the synthesised addendum, and replaces people (the dead) as
past; the first two of these look at inter-personal violence a focus rather than as an adjunct to the material remains
(Schulting and Novak). Schulting discusses the range of of their lives and activities. In doing so, they reveal not
skeletal evidence for interpersonal violence and the various only the interpretative strength of such an approach but
social contexts of violence dating to the Mesolithic/ also, importantly, the thought processes that researchers
Neolithic transition in Europe. The archaeological study adopt to link what have been two separate realms of
of violence has become a key topic of study over recent concern. The skeleton is not simply a clothes-horse for
years and the integration of human skeletal evidence of cultural symbolism and, as these papers demonstrate, the
trauma should be central to such research, providing as it skeleton and its context need to be fully integrated as part
does the most direct verification. Novak’s study of inter- of a more holistic and meaningful component of
personal violence specifically relates to that occurring archaeological and anthropological research.
within the domestic context. Drawing upon a large sample
of hospital medical records, Novak compares the types of
trauma associated with accidental injury with those
References
occurring as a result of domestic violence, applying her Bond, J. M. (1996) Burnt offerings: animal bone in Anglo-Saxon
findings to the patterns of trauma observed in an cremations. World Archaeology 28(1), 76–88.
archaeological sample from the prehistoric Great Basin. Borić , D. and Stefanović , S. (2004) Birth and death: infant burials
Finally, Knüsel and Outram look at another type of trauma from Vlasac and Lepenski Vir. Antiquity 78, 526–546.
Byrd, B. F. and Monahan, C. M. (1995) Death, ritual, and Natufian
altogether – the identification of cannibalistic activities
social structure. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 14, 251–
through the presence of peri- and post-mortem cut marks
287.
and bone modification. The authors bring together an Hodder, I. (2000) Agency and individuals in long-term processes.
immense and disparate body of evidence to com- In M.-A. Dobres and J. E. Robb (eds.) Agency in Archaeology, 21–
prehensively review and identify the evidence for 33. London and New York, Routledge.
cannibalism stemming from a variety of different social Jones, A. (2002) Archaeological Theory and Scientific Practice. Cambridge,
contexts and motivations behind the act itself (e.g. funerary Cambridge University Press.
ritual, exerting power over enemies, survival). Knüsel, C. J. and Outram, A. K. (2004) Fragmentation: the zonation
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method applied to fragmented human remains from Shilling, C. (1997) The body and difference. In K. Woodward (ed.)
archaeological and forensic contexts. Environmental Archaeology: Identity and Difference, 63–120. London, Sage.
The Journal of Human Palaeoecology 9(1), 85–97. Sims, M. (2003) Adam’s Navel: A Natural and Cultural History of the
Knüsel, C. J. and Ripley, K. M. (2000) The Man-Woman or Human Body. London, Penguin.
‘Berdache’ in Anglo-Saxon England and Post-Roman Europe. Sutherland, T. (2000) Recording the grave. In V. Fiorato, A.
In W. Frazer and A. Tyrrell (eds.) Social Identity in Early Medieval Boylston, and C. J. Knüsel (eds.) Blood Red Roses: the archaeology of
Britain, 157–191. Leicester, Leicester University Press. a mass grave from Towton, A.D. 1461, 36–44. Oxford, Oxbow
Larsen, C. S. (1997) Bioarchaeology: Interpreting Human Behavior from the Books.
Human Skeleton. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Tyrrell, A. (2000) Skeletal non-metric traits and the assessment of
McKinley, J. I. (1997) Bronze Age ‘Barrows’ and Funerary Rites inter- and intra-population diversity: past problems and future
and Rituals of Cremation. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 63, potential. In M. Cox and S. Mays (eds.) Human Osteology in
129–145. Archaeological and Forensic Science, 289–306. London, Greenwich
Privat, K. L. and O’Connell, T. C. (2002) Stable isotope analysis of Medical Media.
human and faunal remains from the Anglo-Saxon cemetery at Wadley, L., Williamson, B., and Lombard, M. (2004) Ochre in
Berinsfield, Oxfordshire: dietary and social implications. Journal hafting in Middle Stone Age southern Africa: a practical role.
of Archaeological Science 29, 779–790. Antiquity 78, 661–675.
1. The Intrinsic Pattern of Preservation of Human
Skeletons and its Influence on the Interpretation of
Funerary Behaviours
Silvia Bello and Peter Andrews

Introduction Binford 1981). At present, the notion of human

taphonomy finds a new dimension in forensic anthro-
From at least Upper Palaeolithic times, we may suppose pology, where the term refers to the use of taphonomic
that the main agents responsible for assemblages of models, approaches and analyses in forensic contexts, to
human bones are humans themselves. But, how did estimate the time since death, reconstruct the circum-
humans treat their dead? From an archaeological point of stances before and after deposition, and discriminate the
view, this question corresponds to understanding if an products of human behaviour from those created by
unequal representation of bones or individual subgroups earth’s biological, physical, chemical and geological
in the human assemblage is the manifestation of human subsystems (Haglund and Sorg eds. 1997; Haglund and
behaviour or the result of natural/taphonomic process. Sorg eds. 2002).
In order to optimise information on health and environ- Since at least the middle of the twentieth century,
mental conditions gained from the bones of historic and archaeologists have been trying to perfect methods to
prehistoric skeletal populations, it is necessary to increase explain why some portions of animal carcasses are
the understanding of processes affecting their preser- abundant and other portions are rare at sites (Lyman
vation. 1996). In a palaeoanthropological context, variation in
In recent years there has been much research on the frequencies of animal skeletal parts has been associated
factors modifying bones in the process of becoming with variable strategies in human use of food sources
fossilised. This is the science of taphonomy, defined as all (e.g. Shipman et al. 1984; Potts 1986; Bunn 1981;
those processes affecting bones in the transition from the Blumenschine 1986). In funerary archaeology, the absence
biosphere to the lithosphere (Efremov 1940). While in of specific human remains from a burial site (single bones,
the strictest sense of the word, taphonomy is devoted to individuals or specific subgroup of individual according
the analysis of post-mortem processes affecting organic to their biological or social status) has been ascribed to
remains, it has often been used in palaeoecological and cultural and/or social practices (e.g. Duday and Masset
palaeobiogeographical contexts (Gifford 1981). Taphon- eds. 1987; Crubézy et al. eds. 1990; Crubézy et al. eds.
omic processes and artificial human modifications related 2000).
to funerary practices, grave typologies, excavation and When considering frequencies of human skeletal parts
storage techniques may determine a differential state of in burials and of human categories according to age and
preservation and representation of osseous remains. Since sex criteria, it is important to distinguish between the
1950, the tendency has been to focus on the fossil record secondary effects of the funerary ritual and the
in terms of how well it reflects the actual palaeoecology of preservation patterns linked to the anatomical structure
the biotic community (Clark and Kietzke 1967), and on of the bones. Thus, absence or under-representation of
the selective processes that determine the constitution of specific human remains from funerary sites may be
a fossil assemblage (Johnson 1960). Even in palaeo- ascribed to cultural and/or social behaviour, but it could
anthropological studies the palaeoecological focus takes also reflect characteristic preservation patterns of the
the lead, and research on hominids as taphonomic agents skeleton due to inherent structural properties of the bone.
has aimed to uncover bio-cultural activity in past What would be the consequences for research if a
populations (Dart 1949, 1956, 1960; Behrensmeyer 1975; differential state of preservation of bony remains is due
2 Silvia Bello and Peter Andrews

to taphonomic processes dependant on anatomical, age patterns of preservation: St. Estève Le Pont, Hauture, St.
and/or sex features? Maximin, Fédons, Observance and Spitalfields. The
This work aims to increase understanding of the burial preservation pattern according to individual sex and age
domain by identifying preservation patterns of specific has been evaluated on the Spitalfields sample where legible
bones and sex and age categories. Improving our coffin plates give details of name, age, and date of death
recognition of the combined effects of burial practices for 369 individuals (Table 1.1).
and anatomical/individual characteristics on the state of This sample of over nine hundred skeletons from the
preservation of human remains will enhance the six osteological series has been analysed using an
information that can be gained from key osteological “Anatomical Preservation Index” (API) and the “Bone
collections. Representation Index” (BRI). The Anatomical Preser-
vation Index (API) is a preservation score assessing the
quantity of osseous material present. It is an elaboration
Material and methods of a previous index proposed by Dutour (1989) and
Three medieval and three post-medieval collections were expresses the ratio between the score of preservation (i.e.
analysed in order to determine specific anatomical the percentage of bone preserved) for each single bone

SITE PERIOD LOCATION NOTES NO. INDIVIDUALS REFERENCES

St. Estève Le 8th Berre L’Etang, cemetery 84 individuals: Bello et al., 1999;
Pont century Bouches-du- 32 subadults Thomann et al., 1999;
Rhône, France. 52 adults Bello et al., 2000;
20 males, Thomann et al., in2005
press.
29 females
3 sex-undetermined
Hauture 11th–12th Fos-sur-Mer, cemetery 112 individuals: Signoli et al., in press a
centuries Bouches-du- 1 fœtus,
Rhône, France. 53 subadults
58 adults
17 males,
15 females
26 sex undetermined
St. Maximin 12th–13th St. Maximin, cemetery 68 individuals Signoli et al., 1999;
centuries Var, France 3 foeti Signoli et al., in press b.
33 subadults
32 adults
14 females,
12 males
6 sex undetermined
Fédons 1590 Lambesc, bubonic 133 individuals Reynaud, 1996;
Bouches-du- plague 72 subadults, Castex, 1996;
Rhône, France. cemetery 61 adults 2005
Bizot et al., eds. in press.
29 males
32 females
Observance 1722 Marseilles, bubonic 179 individuals: Dutour et al., 1994;
Bouches-du- plague mass 51 subadults Signoli et al., 1997
Rhône, France grave 128 adult Signoli et al., 1998
59 males,
58 females
11 sex-undetermined
Spitalfields 1729–1857 London, UK. crypt 369 individuals: Reeve and Adams, 1993;
87 subadults Molleson and Cox, 1993.
48 males,
37 females
2 sex-undetermined
282 adult
139 males,
139 females
4 sex-undetermined

Table 1.1. Details of the three medieval and three post-medieval Christian cemeteries coming from the South of the France (Bouches-du-Rhône).
 The Intrinsic Pattern of Preservation of Human Skeletons 3

and the skeleton’s total anatomical number of bones. The We defined well-represented bones (WRB) as those
preservation scores were arranged in six classes: being present in the sample at more than 50%, and well
– class 1, bone not preserved (0% of bone preserved); represented skeletons (WRS) as those having more than
– class 2, 1–24 % of bone preserved; 50% of their bones present (Bello et al. 2006).
– class 3, 25–49% of bone preserved;
– class 4, 50–74% of bone preserved; Results
– class 5, 75–99% of bone preserved;
– class 6, bone completely preserved (100% of bone Anatomical preservation
preserved). The BRI values were evaluated for the adult and subadult
We defined well-preserved bones (WPB) as those individuals of the three medieval (St. Estève le Pont,
having a preservation score of more than 50% (classes 4, Hauture and St. Maximin) and the three post-medieval
5 and 6), and well-preserved skeletons (WPS) as those (Fédons, Observance and Spitalfields) cemeteries. Figure
having more than 50% of their bones well preserved (Bello 1.1 and Table 1.2 show the differing preservation patterns
et al. 2006). of skeletal elements at these six sites. The joining of the
Intra-observer and inter-observer errors were tested BRI values by lines has no mathematical significance, but
using the t-test for paired observations. The scores of it allows a better visual comprehension. The relative
preservation were estimated by one of the authors and a abundance of the teeth in the Hauture and St. Maximin
different researcher on 34 osseous remains of a single collections and the mandibles in the case of the Fédons
skeleton. Both the intra- and the interobserver errors collection has not been evaluated since these pieces were
produced a t-score very closed to 1, meaning that there partially or completely unavailable at the time of
were neither significant errors between two measurements observation.
taken at both times by the same observer, nor between The cranium is generally well represented in the six
the measurements taken on the same example by two collections, with BRI values largely greater than 50%. In
different observers. the five studied collections, lower values were generally
The “Bone Representation Index” (BRI; Dodson and evaluated for facial bones. The state of preservation of
Wexlar 1979) expresses the frequency of each bone in a the frontal bone was often related to that of the facial
sample. It is the ratio between the actual number of bones bones, especially in the area of the supra-orbital margin,
excavated (Number of observed bones, No. obs.) and the which could explain the poorer state of preservation of
number of bones that should have been present according the frontal compared to the other bones of the cranium.
to the Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI) of the Parietal bones were generally well represented. The good
sample (Theoretical total number of bones, No. Theor.): state of preservation of these bones is probably related to
BRI = 100 x S (No. obs. / No. theor.). The Minimum their relatively high bone density (Boaz and Behrensmeyer
Number of Individuals has been defined on the basis of 1976). However, due to high fragmentation, parietal
the most common bone in the assemblage for subadult bones become difficult to identify and include in the
and adult individuals (Bökönyi 1970). evaluation of the Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI;

St. Estève le Pont Hauture St. Maximin

Fédons Observance Spitalfields
100

80

60
BRI

40

20

0
femora
crania

mandibulae

ossa coxae
claviculae

scapulae

ulnae

patellae

fibulae
humeri

radii

Sacrum
sternum

tibiae

Figure 1.1. BRI values observed for the whole sample (subadult and adult individuals) of St. Estève le Pont, Hauture, St. Maximin, Fédons,
Observance and Spitalfields sites.
4 Silvia Bello and Peter Andrews

St. Maximin St. Estève Hauture Fédons Observance Spitalfields

Crania 78.8 91.7 73.2 88.8 86.6 95.4
Mandibulae 59.1 90.5 57.1 82.7 85.6
claviculae 60.6 78.6 46.0 88.7 75.7 67.9
scapulae 62.1 69.0 44.6 80.1 80.7 75.3
humeri 74.2 85.7 62.1 92.9 86.9 82.2
radii 67.4 81.5 55.4 85.7 81.8 78.6
ulnae 69.7 79.8 55.4 83.8 81.6 76.4
sterna 34.2 35.7 25.9 60.9 44.1 62.9
Sacrum 33.3 64.3 46.4 52.6 73.7 75.3
ossa coxae 69.7 79.2 46.4 78.9 84.6 91.6
femora 65.9 88.1 61.2 88.7 85.8 90.0
patellae 16.7 33.3 10.7 45.1 39.9 48.9
tibiae 62.1 83.3 45.5 82.7 84.4 87.8
fibulae 52.3 72.0 42.0 69.5 78.2 73.2

Table 1.2. BRI values observed for the whole sample of St. Maximin, St. Estève le Pont, Hauture, Fedons, Observance and Spitalfields sites.

Russell 1987). Temporal bones were also generally being better preserved than distal elements. Thus, humeri
abundant elements of the cranium. The mastoid process, were better represented than radii and ulnae, and femora
the petrous portion, the temporal portion of the zygo- were better represented than tibiae and fibulae. The
matic process and the upper portion of the external poorer state of preservation of the fibula is often due to
auditory meatus were all generally well-preserved and severe fragmentation, perhaps because of its far greater
abundant in the six osteological samples observed. The length than width. Even when long bones were frag-
occipital bone was also present in high frequencies: the mented, the diaphysis was the best preserved portion.
internal occipital protuberance, the occipital condyles and This preservation pattern is consistent with the bone
the posterior border of the foramen magnum were density: higher density is found in the midshaft of the
particularly well preserved and easy to recognise (Bello diaphysis, while lower density may be seen in the proximal
2001). and distal epiphyses (Galloway et al. 1997; Willey et al.
The mandible was one of the better preserved ele- 1997).
ments of the skeleton in the six osteoarchaeological Patellae were often under-represented in the observed
samples observed. This observation has previously been osteological samples, but they were almost complete when
made both for archaeozoological and for human bones present. This under-representation could be the result of
assemblages (e.g. Bouchud 1977; Badgley 1986; Grayson excavation bias, but since the patella can easily be removed
1989; Klein 1989; Kreutzer 1992; Lyman 1996; Tattersall from its articulation during body decomposition its under-
1995). In the six observed samples, the body of the representation can also depend on animal scavenging
mandible, especially in the area between the two mental activities.
foramina, was generally better preserved than the rami. The sacrum, was often fragmented and poorly
The better preservation of this portion of the mandible preserved in the observed collections. The portions most
has also been attested at other sites where it was used in resistant to taphonomic processes were the median sacral
the MNI evaluations (Brézillon 1963). crest and the promontory of the first sacral vertebra. The
Moving to the post-cranial skeleton, claviculae were poor preservation of this element is associated with its
reasonably abundant in all the samples observed, low bone density and high proportion of cancellous bone
especially the middle portion of the diaphysis. The (Boaz and Behrensmeyer, 1976).
scapula has been generally considered a poorly preserved The sternum was also often fragmented in the six
bone because of the fragility of the sub-scapular fossa observed collections, again due to its low bone density.
(Russell 1987). Nevertheless, five of the six collections The manubrium was better preserved and more abundant
observed show BRI values higher than 50%, comparable than the body, as seen at other sites (Brézillon 1963;
to those of the clavicle. This relative abundance of Waldron 1987).
scapulae is mainly due to the good preservation of the In the case of the ossa coxae, five of the six collections
acromion process, the coracoid process and the lateral observed show BRI values higher than 50%, despite the
border by the infraglenoid tubercle, all of which have high strong fragmentation of this element. The acetabulum
bone density. and the sciatic notch were the best represented element.
In the six collections observed, the BRI of long bones The detailed analyses of the representation of single
appeared to be related either to their size, such that the teeth and ribs have not been obtained for this work.
bigger the long bone, the greater the abundance in the The vertebral column is generally abundant in
sample, or to their position, with proximal limb elements osteological collections. The detailed evaluation of the
 The Intrinsic Pattern of Preservation of Human Skeletons 5

mean BRI values for each vertebra of adult individuals at le Pont and Observance collections showed different
St. Estève le Pont, Hauture, St. Maximin, Fédons and relative abundances according to the shape and dimen-
Observance collections showed a generally better rep- sions of bones (Fig. 1.3). Metacarpals and metatarsals
resentation of cervical and lumbar vertebrae (Fig. 1.2). were generally more abundant than carpal and tarsal
The good preservation of lumbar vertebrae is probably bones. The frequency of phalanges, of both hand and
associated with their shape and structural robusticity while foot, was directly related to their dimensions, with
that of cervical vertebrae, especially C1 and C2, could be proximal phalanges being more abundant than middle
due to the protection afforded by the cranium when the phalanges, and middle phalanges more abundant than
skeleton is articulated. The poorer state of preservation distal ones. This observation could suggest a consistent
of thoracic vertebrae has been ascribed to their low bone relationship between size and survival (Bouchud 1977) as
density (Willey et al. 1997). In the five collections well as reflecting the size and recovery relationship of
observed, the best preserved portion of the vertebrae were human anatomical remains (Ubelaker 1981; Henderson
the facet of the dens of the axis and the dens itself. Even 1987).
in very fragmentary collections (Bello et al. 2003a) and in
cremated samples (Duday 1989) these are well rep- Individual preservation
resented. The lamina and the spinous processes were also It has already been observed that subadult individuals
generally well preserved, but they were frequently generally had skeletons less well preserved and less well
fragmented. Thus in case of isolated spinous processes, represented than adults in osteological series (Angel 1969;
these elements are poorly identifiable (Grayson 1989). Walker et al. 1988; Guy and Masset 1997; Guy et al 1997;
The vertebral body was the poorest preserved portion Buckberry 2000; Bello et al. 2006). Also in the six observed
due to its high proportion of cancellous bone (Münzel samples the lower frequencies of well-preserved skeletons
1988). and well-represented skeletons have been evaluated for
The small bones of the hands and feet were generally subadults (Table 1.3).
poorly represented in the six observed osteoarchaeological We extend the analyses to specific subgroups of
collections, but they tend to be well preserved and almost individuals in the case of Spitalfields, since for this sample
complete when present. The good state of preservation the sex and age diagnoses were directly derived from coffin
of the hand and foot bones has been associated with the plates and confirmed, where possible, by cross-checking
reduction of the medullary cavity (Guthrie 1967), which baptism dates and burial registers (Molleson and Cox
facilitates the complete preservation of these bones even 1993). The analysis of age and sex differences in the state
in very fragmented and damaged collections (Defleur et of preservation which has been applied to this collection
al. 1993). In the observed samples, hand bones were had, therefore, the purpose of avoiding the circularity of
generally more abundant than foot bones. The detailed previous work in which the age and sex of the skeletons
evaluation of the mean BRI values for each single bone of were estimated from morphological observations.
the hands and feet of the adult individuals of the St. Estève It has been suggested by Guy and co-authors (1997,

St. Estève-le-Pont Hauture St. Maxinin

Fédons Observance
100

80

60
BRI
BRI

40

20

0
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
C7
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
T10
T11
T12
L1
L2
L3
L4
L5

Figure 1.2. BRI values observed for the vertebrae of the whole sample of St. Estève le Pont, Hauture, St. Maximin, Fedons and Observance
sites.
6 Silvia Bello and Peter Andrews

226) that there is a threshold separating two types of preservation increased proportionally with increase in API
human remains: an infant type, with soft ill-structured preservation scores in the case of adults. These last were
bones, rich in interstitial water, poorly protected against generally characterised by lower percentage of API class
chemical or mechanical degradation, and a more robust 1 and higher percentages of API classes 5 and 6. The
adult type. However, in the case of the Spitalfields sample, anomaly for the API class 5, for which subadults aged
the patterns of preservation appear more continuous than 0–4 years were scored with a higher percentage than
has been proposed by Guy and co-authors. By considering adults, can be explained by the generally good state of
the percentage of bones for each class of preservation preservation of Spitalfields remains. Remains of subadults
(API scores of preservation), subadults aged 5–19 years at Spitalfields were generally well preserved when present
at Spitalfields had a pattern of preservation with (cf. exclusion of API class 1), most of them being
intermediate characteristics between the younger preserved more than 75% (classes 5 and 6). Nevertheless,
subadults and the adults (Fig. 1.4). Subadults aged 0–4 the epiphyses of long bones were generally absent or
years were mainly characterised by a poor state of poorly preserved in the case of subadults aged 0–4 years,
preservation with high frequencies of API class 1. The and thus their long bones scored class 5. Only 6 long
percentages of bones per class of preservation bones (0.23% of all long bones of subadults aged 0–4
progressively decrease and the lowest values were years) were complete and scored class 6. The long bones
evaluated for API class 6 (bones completely preserved). of subadults aged 5–19 years and adults were generally
Conversely, the frequencies of bones per class of well preserved with comparable frequencies for API
classes 5 and 6.
St. Estève le Pont Observance These results suggest that human remains cannot be
separated into only two age classes of preservation. It is
likely that the state of preservation of osseous remains
increases proportionally with individual age (cf. Table 1.4).
Unfortunately, the reduced number of subadults for the
age class 5–19 years at Spitalfields does not allow a
definitive conclusion.
Taking into consideration the sex of subadult
individuals, subadult females were less well preserved than
subadult males. The patterns of preservation (frequencies
of bone per class of preservation, API) were generally
similar with main differences for the age class 0–4 years
(Fig. 1.5). For this age class, females had a higher
percentage of bone not preserved (API class 1: Chi2 =
5.391, p = 0.0202) and a lower percentage of well
preserved bones (API class 5: Chi2 = 5.14, p = 0.0233)
than subadult males of the same age class.
By considering the frequency of well preserved bones,
females aged less than 1 year and females aged 1–4 years
had frequencies of well preserved skeletons at 35.7% and
38.5%. Conversely, this low frequency was only
observable for males aged less than 1 year: 36.8% for the
age class 0–1 year and 56.5% for the age class 1–4 years.
Figure 1.3. BRI average values of the hands and feet bones of adult These results suggest that the threshold between poorer
individuals of St. Estève le Pont and Observance collections. Darker and better states of preservation should be set around 1
grey means more abundant bones.

St. Estève le Pont Hauture St. Maximin Fédons Observance Spitalfields

% WPS
Subadults 15.6 16.7 40.0 25.0 56.9 51.1
Adults 75.0 24.1 47.7 98.4 75.0 76.6
% WRS
Subadults 46.9 51.9 62.9 62.5 68.7 63.4
Adults 96.2 37.9 63.6 100 87.5 51.4

Table 1.3. Percentage of well-preserved skeletons (WPS) and well represented skeletons (WRS) in the six observed samples according to the
individual groups of age.
 The Intrinsic Pattern of Preservation of Human Skeletons 7

year for males and around 4 years for females (Table 1.4). Discussion
A similar pattern with generally higher values was also
evident for the frequency of well represented skeletons. Humans are the only living species which pays and paid
In the case of females, the classes of less than 1 year and great attention to death. They treat their dead according
1–4 years had frequencies of well preserved skeletons of to the criteria and cultural expression of the period, going
50.0% and 53.8%. In the case of males, a lower frequency beyond the mere necessity of simply disposing of the bodies
was observable for individuals aged less than 1 year and manifested by a burial often rich in symbolic and
(57.9%), while a higher percentage was achieved for the ritual connotations. Although, on a functional level, the
age class 1–4 years (73.9%). Nevertheless, the limited intention may have been to protect the bodies of the dead
number of individuals for smaller subclasses of age (e.g. from animal and weathering damage, the action taken
only 2 females and 2 males aged 3–4 years) might have during the funerary ritual could involuntarily or deliberately
introduced a bias in these analyses. Consequently, these have contributed to the destruction and/or the
results should be treated with caution. disappearance of all or part of the body/skeleton. Particular

Spitalfields

50 0-4 years
5-19 years
Adults
40
per each class of preservation (API)

30
% of bones

20

10

0
Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5 Class 6

Figure 1.4. Percentage of bones per each class of preservation (API) according to the individuals’ age in Spitalfields sample.

Age No. of API BRI

Individuals
No. % No. %
of WPS of WPS of WRS
of WRS of WRS
F M F M F M TOT. F M F M TOT.
< 1 year old 14 19 5 7 35.7 36.8 40.0 7 11 50.0 57.8 48.6
1–2 years 11 16 4 11 36.4 68.8 55.6 11 16 45.5 68.8 59.3
3–4 years 2 7 1 2 50.0 28.6 55.6 2 7 100 68.8 77.8
1–4 years old 13 23 5 13 38.5 56.5 55.6 7 17 53.8 73.9 66.7
0–4 years old 27 42 10 20 37.0 47.6 47.9 14 28 51.9 66.7 57.7
5–9 years old 0 2 1 50 33.3 1 50 33.3
10–14 years old 3 1 2 1 66.7 100 100 2 1 66.7 100 75.0
15–19 years old 7 3 5 2 71.4 66.7 60.0 7 3 100 100 100
5–19 years old 10 6 7 4 70 66.7 64.7 9 5 90.0 83.3 82.4
Subadults 37 48 17 24 45.9 50 51.1 23 33 62.2 68.8 63.4
Females 139 107 77.0 120 86.3
Males 139 106 76.3 123 88.5
Adults 282 210 76.6 246 51.4

Table 1.4. Number and Percentage of well preserved skeletons (WPS) and well represented skeletons (WRS) according to the individuals’
age and sex at the Spitalfields site.
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