Mining and processing of minerals in Zimbabwe and Africa

Objectives
•describe the term mining
•describe the factors influencing mining in Zimbabwe
• Draw labelled map showing Zimbabwe’s geological formations
•identify mines and minerals in Zimbabwe
•describe the distribution of mines and minerals in Zimbabwe
•Draw a map showing mines and minerals distribution in Zimbabwe
•list precious minerals in Zimbabwe
•Identifying minerals
•Discussing the characteristics of ores and mineral groups in Zimbabwe
•describe the economic importance of minerals in Zimbabwe
•describe small scale mining
•describe the contribution of small scale mining to the economy of Zimbabwe
•explain the challenges and solutions to small scale mining
•identify methods used in prospecting for gold (including IKS)
•describe physiochemical properties of alluvial minerals
•identify methods used in gold panning
•outline problems associated with gold panning
•suggest measures to increase the contribution of gold panning to the national economy
Describe the Surface and Underground mining methods used in Zimbabwe and give the advantages and
disadvantages of each
•explain the processing of selected minerals in Zimbabwe and Africa
•describe the importance of beneficiation of minerals in Zimbabwe
•identify mitigation measures
•Identify mining area rehabilitation measures
•explain sustainable use of mineral resources such as, reuse and recycling
•describe environmental impact assessment
•describe the importance of environmental impact assessment in mining
•explain the cost-benefit analysis concept
•describe the importance of the cost- benefit analysis in mining
•Calculating cost benefit for a hypothetical mining project
•describe the environmental impacts of mining
•outline the legislative framework on mining and mining rights
•explain the importance of safety and health issues in mining

Mining in Zimbabwe

 Zimbabwe has a wide mineral resource base which is exploited commercially.

 Large scale mining is dominated by foreign transnational companies such as Anglo-American, Rio Tinto
and Ashanti Gold Fields.
 The majority of the local mines are involved in gold, asbestos and chrome mining.

Distribution of minerals in Zimbabwe

Describe the distribution of minerals shown on the above map

 Most of the minerals are concentrated along the metamorphic rocks zone along the Great Dyke.
 Coal and limestone are found in sedentary rock basins such as the Zambezi Valley and the Save-
Limpopo valleys (S.E Lowveld).
 Below is a table showing major minerals and their locations.

MineralMine areas
Asbetsos Mashava, Zvishavane, Mutorashanga
Copper Mhangura, Chinhoyi
Chrome Shurugwi, Mutorashnga
Coal Hwange
Gold Mazowe valley, Bindura, Shamva, Bulawayo, Kadoma, Chegutu, Mvuma Kwekwe
Iron ore Buchwa, Redcliff
Limestone Redcliff, Collen Bawn
Manganese near Redcliff
Nickel Bindura
Platinum near Chegutu, Shurugwi, Zvishavane
Tin Kamativi
Phosphate Dorowa
Factors influencing mining
•Technology – the level of technology determines the scale of operations as well as efficiency in the
recovery of minerals. Improvements in technology has allowed exploitation of deep ores.
•Labour supply – mining requires all classes of labour. Where local labour supplies are inadequate, migrant
workers are often employed for example workers from Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Zambia and Angola are
employed in the mines of South Africa.
•Physical accessibility – construction of transport networks and mineral processing infrastructure is difficult
in areas of rugged terrain and steep slopes.
•Geological occurrence of minerals – geological occurrence determines mining methods as well as the cost
of operations. Shallow horizontal seams can be mined using cheaper open cast method. Horizontal seams
that appear on the sides of hills can be mined using the adit or drift method and the shaft method is used
for deeper seams.
•Climatic conditions – exploitation of minerals in hot humid climates with a high incidence of
environmental diseases is difficult. Money has to be spent on destroying pets that cause diseases as well as
supplying preventative drugs such as anti-malarial drugs.
•The size of the deposits and the quality/grade of the ore – this determines the life span of the mining
operations. High grade ores are exploited first because ores with a low concentration value are expensive
to exploit as they have a high proportion of waste materials.
•Demand and prices on the world market – prices of minerals fluctuate on the world market. If the prices
are fluctuating at a low level, this reduces the viability of the mining operations.
•Availability of capital – initial capita l is required to buy land on which development is to be made as well
as set up infrastructure. In Zimbabwe, small scale companies cannot undertake meaningful operations due
to lack capital. Mining in Zimbabwe is dominated by large TNCs with huge capital reserves for example
Anglo-American Corporation and Union Carbide.
•Government policy and political necessity – governments encourage exploitation of local resources in
order to create employment as well as developing the economy of the country. It is also importance for
governments to ensure self-sufficiency and guaranteed supplies in a politically divided and unstable world.
•Opinions of environmentalists – environmentalists can oppose resource exploitation if such operations are
likely to upset local ecosystems or results in loss of biodiversity for example the concerns raised by
environmental groups over mineral exploitation in the Zambezi valley.
•Alternative supplies of the same resources – where there are several producers of the same commodity,
there is a tendency to flood the market. An oversupply will result in the drop in prices and this reduces the
profitability of the extraction of the particular resources.

Importance of small scale mining

Growth of industries

 Mining helps industries to grow by providing raw materials to industries

 Many industries obtain their raw materials from the mining sector.
 For example, building and construction industries get some of their raw materials from processed
asbestos and iron ore.
 Heavy engineering firms obtain iron and steel from the Zimbabwe Iron and Steel Company.

Employment creation

 Mining creates employment directly and indirectly. Mining operations with limited technology tend
to be labour intensive.
 beneficiation is any process that improves the economic value of the ore by removing the
impurities minerals, which results in a higher grade product

Development of multi-ethnic communities

 Mining has always depended on foreign workers from Malawi, Zambia and Mozambique.
Improvement in the standards of living of the miners and their dependents.

 Mining companies also provide basic social services for the miners such as education, health and
recreation. These services also benefit people from the surrounding communities.

Human resources development

 Apart from the direct investments in education through setting up of schools, mining companies
support tertiary education through the provision of scholarships and setting up of specialist schools
such as the School of Mines in Bulawayo.

Foreign currency earnings

 The main foreign currency earners for Zimbabwe are gold, asbestos, chrome and platinum. Mines
are markets for other sectors of the economy for example engineering firms and agriculture.
 Development of infrastructure such as water supply and transport networks has benefited other
sectors of economy for example, agriculture and industries.

Growth of towns and cities

for example Kwekwe, Kadoma, Hwange and Mashava have also developed as a result of mining

Problems being faced by the Mining Industry in Zimbabwe

•Disinvestment by TNC after 1980 resulted in some mine closures and creation of ghost towns.
•For example are Kamative and Mhangura.
•Some mine closures are also as a result of mineral deposit exhaustion, examples are iron ore at Buchwa,
tin at Kamativi and copper at Mhangura.
•Mine closures have resulted in loss of employment and viable means of livelihood for many former mine
workers from neighboring countries.
•It has resulted in some of them to become destitutes and living in informal settlements.
•Where mines have been closed down there is also physical decay of infrastructure and abandoned
buildings.
•Frequent accidents occur at work caused by unstable ground which causes rock falls or collapsing of shafts
or gas explosions underground.
•An example is the Hwange mine disaster which claimed the lives of over 400 miners on the 6th of June
1972.
•There is also outdated equipment and shortage of foreign currency to import modern machinery.
•Reduced profit margin due to the requirements by ZESA for the payment of electricity bills in foreign
currency for major exporting companies.
•High cost of upgrading technology and shortage of skilled manpower.
•Theft of gold and other precious stone.
•Fluctuating mineral prices on the world market due to competition from other producers and pressure
from lobby groups.
•For example, the campaign against use of asbestos in developed countries has reduced exports of this
material.
•Displacement of human of human settlements in areas where minerals are found for example Chiadzwa
•Political strife in these areas as people fight for minerals
•There is possibility of increased violence and crime as people form gangs and fight over territories in
informal mines for example gold panners in Matebeleland and diamond miners in Chiadzwa
•Corruption and backroom deals that undermine the international integrity of the industry

Gold panning/ small scale mining in Zimbabwe

 Small scale gold miners are mainly illegally gold miners who are not registered and operate informaly.
Benefits of gold panning
 It is a source of income and wealth for the panners.
 Increased supplies of gold to Fidelity Printers (main government buyer of gold) leads to increased
foreign currency earnings for the country.
 Gold panners are a market for informal traders.
 Employment creation.
Problems of gold panning
Gold panning has resulted in numerous physical, economic and social problems.

Physical environmental problems

 Destruction of vegetation.
 Environmental degradation due to random digging of pits and trenches.
 Soil erosion and siltation of rivers and dams.
 Siltation also increases the frequency of flash floods.
 Damage to marine ecosystem as aquatic plants and animals are destroyed by siltation or poisoned by
mercury. The How Mine disaster is an example.
 Pollution of water sources due to use of mercy and lack of sanitation.
 Growth of informal settlements made of plastics and grass, shacks destroys the natural beauty of the
land.
 Open pits and trenches are danger to people and livestock.
Economic problems
 Leakage of gold. Not all the gold is sold to the government buyer. Much of the gold is exported illegally
resulting in the loss of potential foreign currency.
 Damage of infrastructure for example, digging of tunnels along the main Bulawayo to Harare railway
line disrupts train services and damage to buildings and infrastructure for example at Effel Flats primary
school in Kadoma.
 Recently gold panners invaded a forest planation in the Eastern Highlands and have destroyed valuable
timber worth millions of dollars.
 Reduced water supplies for agriculture and urban settlements due to pollution and siltation.
 Destruction of farm lands.
 Reductions in the tourism potential of some areas, for example, Mzingwane and Inyankuni dam areas in
Matabeleland South.
Social problems
 Exploitation of labour. Most panners work for long periods of time. There are no regular working hours
and the workers lack protective clothing.
 Much of the work is manual and the risk of accidents is very high.
 Loss of life due to collapsing of tunnels.
 A general increase in crime rates.
 An increase in prostitution and the spread of diseases such as HIV/AIDS.
 Drunkenness and other forms of disorderly behavior.
Measures to control the problems of gold panning
 Licensing of panners.
 Close monitoring of activities and increased police patrols.
 Enforcing of environment laws.
 High penalties for those who do not observe the laws.
 Education and training of panners in environmentally friendly methods of extracting gold.

Describe the Surface and Underground mining methods used in Zimbabwe and give the advantages and
disadvantages of each

 1. Name the three types of mining shown as A,B and C (3)

 2. State and explain factors that lead to each choice of mining methods A, B and C (6)

Name and describe the types of mining taking place at A, B and C

State the advantages and disadvantages of each type of mining method show

Coal mining in Zimbabwe

Location of Hwange and factors that lead to development of Hwange coal mine
Most Coal is mining in Zimbabwe is done at Hwange
Hwange is 336km from Bulawayo and 106km from Victoria Falls
Coal mines are on the southern side of Hwange town

Factors that promoted the development/ large scale exploitation of coal in Hwange

1. Geological occurrence of coal

 Coal mined at Hwange is a sedimentary rock in the Karoo system of Southern Africa
 It formed from fossilisation of buried tropical vegetation that was put under pressure by overburden
 Coal seam occurs underground and it extends as deep as 900m below the surface
 The geological occurance of coal is as shown in diagram below

The southern seams are closer to surface ie 45 to 105m below the ground
The seams are relatively flat and thick ie 1,5 to 12,5m thick
Flat and shallow coal seams of Hwange are cheap to extract through open cast
The northen seams are in deep faulted layers
Hwange coal is called bituminous coal ie 80%
It has 74% carbon giving it a good heating value ie it makes coke
However it has a high ash content 13.5% which lowers its value
Other types of coal are anthracite and lignite
2. market demand for coal-At Zambia copper belt, at ZISCO, for powering rail wagons and for curing
tobacco on farms, at thermal power plant
3. Physical accessibility ie Hwange is well linked by rail and road
4. labour supply
5. Plenty capital
6. Government policy

Coal mining methods at Hwange

 Both open cast and vertical shaft mining methods are used
 Coal mining is done by Hwange colliery company limited

 Underground vertical and inclined shaft mining methods are used at Hwange to exploit deep seated
seams over 100m deep
 Vertical shafts are suck down to level of seam
 When seam is reached underground tunnels called galleries are formed from shaft along the seam
 Coal is either loaded by hand into trollies and them lifted to surface by cage. But at some sites the
process is mechanized
Open cast mines
Opened as from 1970s
80% of Hwange coal is from open cast mines

How it is done
Heavy machines such as dragline or some mechanical shovels removes the overburden
The seam is blasted and scooped by mechanical shovels that load the coal into haulage trucks or onto
conveyor belt
The loaded coal is then carried to processing plants or areas of need

Copper mining in Zambia

The Copper belt

•The following are factors which have influenced the development of copper mining on the copper belt in
Zambia:

Geological occurrence of copper

•The copper deposits occur in an axial belt which stretches from Zambia into the Democratic Republic of
Congo (DRC).
•The copper ore occurs in seams of varying depths and the seams are gently folded in places.
•Both open cast and shaft mining methods are used in the extraction of copper.

Labour supply
•There is a large amount of migrant labour of all classes from areas within Zambia as well as other
neighbouring countries such as Zimbabwe, Malawi and Rwanda.

Technology and capital

•Mining is heavily dependent on foreign investment and mining technology.

Political stability
•Political stability within the whole Southern Africa region is essential for profitable exploitable of copper
deposits.
•Internal civil wars in the DRC, Angola and Mozambique have had negative effects on mining in Zambia.

Market/demand
•Exploitation of copper resources is influenced by trends on the world market. The price of copper has been
fluctuating at a lower level during the past twenty years and this has reduced profitability of the mining
sector.

Transport and distance from the market

•Zambia is a landlocked country.
•Huge amounts of money are spent on transportation of copper through neighbouring countries.
•Internal civil wars in the DRC and Angola have rendered the shortest and therefore most viable rail route
to the sea (Benguela railway line) unstable.
•The alternative eastern route which was constructed due to these problems of political instability is too
long.
•Use of the TanZam railway line is affected by high fuel costs, shortages of spares and insufficiently port
capacity at Dar-es-Salaam.

Government policy
•Nationalization of some mines after the attainment of political independence resulted in reduced output
and loss of skilled manpower.
Power supplies
•Hydroelectric power (HEP) comes from the DRC, Kariba and Kafue HEP schemes.
•Initially, coal was railed from the Hwange field but it is now mined from the Mamba deposits in Zambia
(Zambezi valley).

The processing of copper in Zambia

Copper products
The following is a list of properties of copper:
 Copper is ductile. Meaning it can be made into wire.
 It can be polished, thus it is used for making ornaments for example, copper plates, cups and trays.
 It is malleable and it can be molded into various shapes to make fire screens.
 It can be mixed with other metals to form alloys such as bronze used to make bronze medals.
 It is rust resistant thus it can be used in the manufacture of water pipes.
Some of the products that are made using copper are:
 Electrical wires
 Transformers
 Coins
 Jewelry
 Water pipes
 Connectors
 Car radiators
 Thermostats
 Alloys
 Copper tins

Benefits of copper mining
 Export earnings.
 Employment creation.
 Development of power and infrastructure (roads, railway lines). This has benefited other sectors of the
economy such as the agriculture and heavy industries.
 Development of human resources through direct investment in education and on the job training.
 Development of social services for example education, health and recreation.
 Higher salaries and wages for the workers. Mine workers also benefit from subsidized housing and
health care.
 Raw materials for industries.
Disadvantages of copper
 Copper mining has its own disadvantage as far the Zambia economy is concerned. These include:
 Neglect of agriculture and underdevelopment in other areas. All development efforts are concentrated
on the Copper belt region.
 Rural to urban migration which has resulted in depopulation of the areas surrounding the Copper belt.
 Over-dependency on copper has resulted in dwindling of foreign currency earning due to fluctuation in
the price of copper on the world market.
 Migrant labour disrupts the traditional way of life. The family structure is weakened and subsistence
farming suffers due to shortage of labour.
 Pollution of the environment which is caused by dust from quarry sites, mines dumps and processing
plants.
 Frequently landslides occurs on the mine dumps.
 Environment is degraded and vegetation and animal habitats destroyed.

Oil in Nigeria
 Nigeria is the largest producer of oil in Africa.
 There are six petroleum exportation terminals in the country. Shell owns two, while Mobil, Chevron,
Texaco, and Agip own one each.
 As of 2014, Nigeria’s petroleum industry contributes about 14% to its economy.
Geological occurrence of oil and extraction method
Oil mining

Using the above diagram, describe the occurrence of oil underground

 Oil occurs in the pores of sedimentary rocks.

 It normally occurs in dome-shaped anticlines between layers of non-porous rocks.
 The oil is usually trapped in the crest of the anticline with gas above and water below.
 Oil bearing rocks may be affected by faulting and occurrence of volcanoes.
Steps in the mining of oil
 Before the oil can be extracted, a detailed survey of the geological structure of the area is carried out.
 This is followed by the drilling of oil wells and construction of derricks.
 When the drill reaches the oil underground it comes out through the well.
 When the oil ceases to flow naturally it is pumped to the surface.
 This is usually done by pumping water into the well which forces the oil up as it is less dense.

Problems of oil extraction

 The following are problem associated with oil extractions:
 Hot humid equatorial climate is associated with high incidence of environmental diseases.
 High temperatures reduce the capability of to work.
 Slippery and unstable ground/high level of ground water makes construction of roads, railway lines and
pipelines difficult.
 Numerous distributaries increase the cost of construction of bridges.
 Limited refining capacity. Refining capacity at Warri and Port Harcout cannot meet the local demand.
 Heavy dependency on foreign investment.
 Environmental pollution such as oil spills damage coastal ecosystems.
Benefits of oil extraction
 Foreign currency earnings through exporting of oil.
 Employment creation.
 Growth of industry including oil refining and petro chemicals.
 Government revenue through company taxation.
 Oil is more efficient than coal and wood when it comes to burning.
Disadvantages
 The price of oil fluctuates greatly on the world market according to the amount being produced.
 Environmental pollution.
 General decline in agriculture due to shortage of labour which will be diverted to mining.
 Foreign companies mainly TNCs export crude oil to their countries of origin and this reduces the rate of
industrialization.
 Explosion of pipelines has resulted in loss of life on several occasions.
 Political activism resulting from environmental pollution and foreign ownership for example the Ken
Sarowira saga.
Sustainable use/Conservation of mineral resources
•Conservation of resources is the ethical use and protection of valuable resources, such as trees, minerals,
wildlife, water and others.
•It focuses on maintaining the natural world in order to protect the sources of resources.

Ways used in conservation of mineral resources are

•Recycling and re-use for example recycling of tin and use of scrap metal in the manufacture of iron and
steel.
•Also there is recycling of mine dumps such as those at Conemara.
•More efficient recovery methods that is use of modern technology in processing of ores to reduce
wastage.
•Use of alternative resources.
•Research and exploration.
 Planned and strategic marketing of minerals for example exploitation and marketing when the price on
the world market is favourable•Recycling and re-use for example recycling of tin and use of scrap metal
in the manufacture of iron and steel. Also there is recycling of mine dumps such as those at Conemara.
•More efficient recovery methods that is use of modern technology in processing of ores to reduce
wastage.
Rehabilitation of mine areas
•Mine areas can be rehabilitated by planting trees to stabilize dumps.
•Where dragline is used, overburden is dumped into the previous quarry site and thus the land is reclaimed
as the mining progresses.
• revegetation of land.

Problems of rehabilitating mine dumps.

•In Hwange, spontaneous combustion of dumps during the hot season make re-vegetation difficult.
•Soils are usually sterile or they contain toxic substances which retard the growth of plants.
•A lot of time and money is spent each year on research designed to find suitable tree species which can be
grown.
•Materials on old dumps are loose/unconsolidated. Excessive drainage makes it difficult for plants to grow.
•Extreme acidification of surface materials retards plant growth.

Revision questions

1(a) Define the term “sustainable use of resource” (2)

(b) Using examples show how the use of permits and recycling of used materials leads to the sustainable use of resources (5)

(c) For a mineral you have studied,

(i) Describe the factors that have influenced its large scale exploitation (4)

(ii) What are the environmental impacts of the exploitation of the mineral? (3)

(d) Photograph below shows copper mining in Zambia

(e) State and explain precautions that can be put in place to ensure safety of mining in area show on photograph

2(a) Draw annotated diagrams to illustrate the methods of adit and shaft mining (6)
(b)What measures would you recommend to minimise environmental problems of gold panning (7)

(c) Outline problems being faced by mining industry in Zimbabwe and suggest how you would solve each problem (8)

3(a) For one named mineral in Africa, draw a sketch map to show the location of the mining area (3)

(b) Show on the sketch map factors which have encouraged the development of mining in the area (6)

(c) Describe four ways in which mining affects lives of people (4)

4.(b) with the aid of a well labelled diagram, describe the geological occurrence of oil in Nigeria (4)

(b) briefly outline factors that have influenced oil production in Nigeria (6)

(C) outline the benefits and problems of oil extraction in Nigeria