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Developments in Clay Science
Clay Minerals and Synthetic Analogous
as Emulsifiers of Pickering Emulsions
Volume 10
DEVELOPMENTS IN CLAY SCIENCE

Series Editor

P. YUAN AND F. BERGAYA

Developments in Clay Science

Clay Minerals and

Synthetic Analogous
as Emulsifiers of
Pickering Emulsions
Volume 10

Edited by
Fernando Wypych
Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Paraná,
Centro Polit
ecnico, Curitiba, PR, Brazil

Rilton Alves de Freitas

Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Paraná,
Centro Polit
ecnico, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
Elsevier
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The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
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Notices
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broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical
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Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
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ISBN: 978-0-323-91858-9
ISSN: 1572-4352

For information on all Elsevier Publications

visit our website at [Link]

Publisher: Candice Janco

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Typeset by STRAIVE, India
Contents

Contributors xiii

Part 1
Introduction
1. Clay minerals: Classification, structure, and
properties 3
Fernando Wypych and Rilton Alves de Freitas
1.1 Basic concepts, classification, and nomenclature 3
1.1.1 Aluminosilicate 3
1.1.2 Basal surface 3
1.1.3 Basal reflection 4
1.1.4 Bentonite 4
1.1.5 Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) 4
1.1.6 Cation exchange 5
1.1.7 Clay 5
1.1.8 Clay minerals 5
1.1.9 Interlayer distance 5
1.1.10 Layer 5
1.1.11 Phyllosilicate 5
1.1.12 Kaolin 6
1.1.13 Serpentine-kaolin 6
1.1.14 Smectite 6
1.1.15 Talc-pyrophyllite 7
1.2 Clay minerals with neutral structures 8
1.2.1 Clay minerals of the kaolin/serpentine group 8
1.2.2 Clay minerals of the talc/pyrophyllite group 12
1.3 Clay minerals with negatively charged layers 13
1.3.1 Clay minerals of the smectite group 14
1.3.2 Clay minerals of the mica group 15
1.3.3 Clay minerals of the vermiculite group 16
1.3.4 Clay minerals of the chlorite group 17
1.3.5 Clay minerals of the sepiolite/palygorskite group 17
1.4 Physical and chemical modifications of clay minerals 18
1.5 Concluding remarks 30
Acknowledgments 31
References 31

v
vi Contents

2. Fundamentals of emulsion formation and stability 37

Caroline E.P. Silva and Watson Loh
2.1 Definitions 37
2.2 Thermodynamics of emulsification 40
2.3 Kinetic stability (metastability) of emulsions 41
2.4 Instability phenomena in emulsions 42
2.4.1 Sedimentation and creaming: Gravitation
separation 43
2.4.2 Flocculation 44
2.4.3 Ostwald ripening 44
2.4.4 Coalescence 45
2.5 Preparation and stabilization of emulsions 46
2.5.1 Disrupting droplets by mechanical energy
(comminution methods) 46
2.5.2 Low-energy emulsification methods 50
2.5.3 Protecting the oil–water interface 51
2.5.4 Electrostatic stabilization 52
2.5.5 Steric stabilization 52
2.5.6 Choosing the emulsifier according to the type of
emulsion 53
2.5.7 Rheology modifiers 55
References 56

3. Pickering emulsions: History and fundamentals 61

Baptiste Robin, Florence Agnely, Nicolas Tsapis, and
Nicolas Huang
3.1 A brief history of Pickering emulsions 61
3.1.1 1990s: The origins of solid-stabilized emulsions 61
3.1.2 From the 1910s to the 1980s: 80 years of modest
advances 62
3.1.3 From the 1990s: The boom of Pickering
emulsions 63
3.2 Formation and main characteristics of Pickering
emulsions 68
3.2.1 Stability of emulsions 68
3.2.2 Droplet size 75
3.2.3 Emulsion type 78
3.3 Conclusion 79
References 79

4. Experimental multiscale approach and instrumental

techniques for the characterization of Pickering
emulsions 87
V
eronique Schmitt and Val
erie Ravaine
4.1 Introduction 87
4.2 Emulsion characterization at the macroscopic and
mesoscopic and microscopic levels 88
Contents vii

4.2.1Ability of particles to stabilize an emulsion 88

4.2.2Type of obtained emulsions 89
4.2.3Creaming or sedimentation and dispersion state of the
emulsion 90
4.2.4 Drop size distribution 95
4.2.5 Limited coalescence 95
4.3 Particles at the interface 98
4.3.1 Characterization of individual particles at the liquid
interface 99
4.3.2 Organization of particles at the liquid interface 101
4.3.3 Organization of particles at a model liquid
interface 104
4.3.4 Mechanical properties of particle-laden model liquid
interface 105
4.3.5 Mechanical properties of particle-laden drop surfaces
in emulsions 111
4.4 Conclusion 115
References 115

Part 2
Pickering emulsion based on clay minerals
5. Physical and chemical properties of layered clay
mineral particle surfaces 125
Cliff T. Johnston, Marika Santagata, and
Mohammadhasan Sasar
5.1 Introduction 125
5.2 Surface-active clay minerals 127
5.2.1 Structural considerations 128
5.2.2 Isomorphous substitution 129
5.2.3 Surface structures 131
5.2.4 Particle morphologies 134
5.3 Surface wettability of clay minerals 138
5.3.1 Water sorption isotherms 138
5.3.2 Molecular modeling of clay-water interactions 139
5.3.3 Surfaces with variable hydrophobic/hydrophilic
characteristics 141
5.4 Surface modification 142
5.4.1 Siloxane surface of kaolinite and halloysite 142
5.4.2 Alumina hydroxyl surface of kaolinite and halloysite
(lumen) 144
5.4.3 Modification of edge site 147
5.5 Particle-particle interactions 148
5.5.1 Significance to Pickering emulsions 148
5.5.2 Perspectives on the factors controlling the structure
and fabric of clay dispersions 149
5.6 Conclusions 156
References 159
viii Contents

6. Pickering emulsions and foams stabilization based on

clay minerals 169
Yongfeng Zhu and Aiqin Wang
6.1 Introduction 169
6.2 Pickering emulsion or foam stabilized with clay mineral 171
6.2.1 Layered chain structure 171
6.2.2 Tubular structure 174
6.2.3 Layer structure 177
6.3 Stabilization manner of clay mineral in pickering emulsions
or foams 184
6.3.1 Synergistically stabilized with clay mineral and small
molecular 185
6.3.2 Synergistically stabilized with clay mineral and
polymers 187
6.3.3 Synergistically stabilized with the clay mineral and
other particles 188
6.4 Effect factors of Pickering emulsion or foams stabilized with
clay mineral 190
6.4.1 Ion strength 190
6.4.2 Clay mineral particles concentration 192
6.4.3 Clay mineral particle size 193
6.4.4 Clay mineral shape 194
6.4.5 Dispersion pH 196
6.5 Application of the clay mineral stabilized pickering emulsion
or foam 196
6.5.1 Application in enhanced oil recovery (EOR) 196
6.5.2 Application in preparation of clay-based polymeric
nanoparticles 198
6.5.3 Application in preparation of the porous material 205
6.5.4 Application in catalysis reaction 208
6.5.5 Application in historic preservation 210
6.6 Conclusion and outlook 212
6.6.1 The unclear stabilization mechanism 212
6.6.2 The uniqueness of clay minerals is unrealized 213
Acknowledgments 213
Declaration of competing interest 213
References 213

7. Pickering emulsions based on layered clay minerals

with neutral structures, scrolls, and nanotubes
morphologies 229
Priscila Gritten Sieben, Fernando Wypych, and
Rilton Alves de Freitas
7.1 Clay minerals with neutral structures 229
7.1.1 Kaolinite 231
7.1.2 Halloysite 232
7.1.3 Talc 234
7.2 Clay minerals with neutral structures applied in
emulsions 236
Contents ix

7.3 Emulsions containing nonionic clay minerals applied in

biomedical and pharmaceutical areas 243
7.4 Dermatology and cosmetics applications 245
7.5 Environmental applications 247
7.6 Conclusion 247
References 248

8. Pickering emulsions based on cation-exchanged

layered clay minerals 253
Rilton Alves de Freitas and Fernando Wypych
8.1 Introduction 253
8.2 Smectite group of minerals 257
8.2.1 Laponite 262
8.2.2 Montmorillonite 266
8.3 Conclusions 271
References 272

9. Role of surfactants and polymers for clay minerals as

stabilizer of Pickering emulsion 277
Anne Aimable, Gisèle Lecomte-Nana, and C
ecile Pagnoux
9.1 Introduction 277
9.2 Interactions between clay minerals and surfactant or
polymers for Pickering emulsification 278
9.2.1 Short introduction on main layered clay minerals and
description of their surface properties 278
9.2.2 Characterization techniques to evaluate interactions
between surfactants and polymers and clay mineral
surfaces 285
9.3 A nonexhaustive overview of Pickering emulsions stabilized
by clay minerals with surfactants and polymers 292
9.3.1 Some examples using kaolinite for Pickering
emulsions 292
9.3.2 Halloysite as a Pickering stabilizer for enhanced oil
recovery 293
9.3.3 Montmorillonite, a key material for clay stabilized
Pickering emulsions 295
9.3.4 Laponite, a model clay for a versatile use in Pickering
emulsions 297
9.3.5 Pickering clay emulsions with biopolymers 299
9.4 New materials derived from clay minerals Pickering
emulsions 300
9.4.1 Emulsion polymerization for the synthesis of clay
polymer nanocomposites (CPN) 300
9.4.2 Colloidosomes and liquid marbles 303
9.4.3 Porous materials derived from Pickering clay
emulsions 305
9.5 Conclusion 307
References 307
x Contents

Part 3
Pickering emulsion based on synthetic layered
hydroxides
10. Layered double hydroxides and hydroxide salts:
Structure and properties 317
Fernando Wypych and Rilton Alves de Freitas
10.1 Layered compounds: Basic concepts and
nomenclature 317
10.2 Layered double hydroxides 324
10.2.1 Layered double hydroxides with the composition
n
1 xMx (OH)2] (A )x/n
yH2O
[M2+ 3+
324
10.2.2 Layered double hydroxides with the composition
[Li(Al(OH)3)2](An )1/n
yH2O 326
10.2.3 Layered double hydroxides with the composition
M2+(Al(OH)3)nA2
yH2O 327
10.2.4 Layered double hydroxides with the composition
[M2+ 3+ + 2
6 Al3 (OH)18][B (H2O)6(X )2]
6H2O 327
10.3 Layered hydroxide salts 330
10.3.1 Layered hydroxides salts: Simonkolleite:
Zn5(OH)8Cl2
H2O 331
10.3.2 Layered hydroxides salts: zinc hydroxide nitrate
dihydrate: Zn5(OH)8(NO3)2
2H2O 331
10.3.3 Other layered hydroxide salts 332
10.3.4 Layered hydroxides salts: sodium-gordaite:
Zn4(OH)6(SO4)Cl
Na(H2O)6 332
10.3.5 Layered hydroxides salts: Osakaite/Namuwite
family: Zn4(OH)6(SO4)
nH2O 333
10.4 Methods of synthesis 334
10.4.1 Coprecipitation with constant and variable pH 334
10.4.2 Reconstruction or structural memory effect 337
10.4.3 Mechanochemical approach 337
10.4.4 Hydrolysis of salts and oxides 337
10.4.5 Exchange reactions 338
10.4.6 Diadochy reactions 339
10.4.7 Sol/gel method 339
10.5 Some applications and future perspectives 340
Acknowledgments 341
References 341

11. Pickering emulsions based on layered double

hydroxides and metal hydroxides 351
Vanessa Pr
evot, C
edric Gastaldi, and Claude Forano
11.1 Introduction 351
11.1.1 LDH- and LHS- stabilizing particles used for
Pickering emulsions 352
Contents xi

11.2 Oil-in-water emulsions 355

11.2.1 Water-in-oil emulsions 360
11.2.2 Water-in-water emulsions 363
11.3 Applications of Pickering emulsion stabilized by LDH/LSH
particles 368
11.3.1 LDH preparation 368
11.3.2 Catalysis 369
11.3.3 Porous LDH materials 369
11.3.4 Toward nanocomposite colloids 369
11.4 Conclusions 371
References 372

Index 377
This page intentionally left blank
Contributors

Florence Agnely (61), Universit
e Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Institut Galien Paris-Saclay,

Orsay, France
Anne Aimable (227), University of Limoges, CNRS, IRCER, UMR 7315, Limoges,
France
Rilton Alves de Freitas (3, 229, 253, 317), Department of Chemistry, Federal
University of Paraná, Centro Polit
ecnico, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
Claude Forano (351), Universit
e Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, ICCF, Clermont-
Ferrand, France
edric Gastaldi (351), Universit
e Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, ICCF, Clermont-
C

Ferrand, France
Nicolas Huang (61), Universit
e Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Institut Galien Paris-Saclay,
Orsay, France
Cliff T. Johnston (125), Departments of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences
and Agronomy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
Gisèle Lecomte-Nana (277), University of Limoges, CNRS, IRCER, UMR 7315,
Limoges, France
Watson Loh (37), Department of Physical Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry,
University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
ecile Pagnoux (277), University of Limoges, CNRS, IRCER, UMR 7315, Limoges,
C

France
Vanessa Pr
evot (351), Universit
e Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, ICCF, Clermont-
Ferrand, France
erie Ravaine (87), Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, Bordeaux INP, ISM, Talence, France
Val

Baptiste Robin (61), Universit
e Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Institut Galien Paris-Saclay,
Orsay, France
Marika Santagata (125), Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West
Lafayette, IN, United States
Mohammadhasan Sasar (125), Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University,
West Lafayette, IN, United States
eronique Schmitt (87), Centre de Recherche Paul Pascal (CRPP), Univ. Bordeaux,
V

CNRS, Pessac, France
Priscila Gritten Sieben (229), Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Paraná,
Centro Polit
ecnico, Curitiba, PR, Brazil

xiii
xiv Contributors

Caroline E.P. Silva (37), Department of Physical Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry,

University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
Nicolas Tsapis (61), Universit
e Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Institut Galien Paris-Saclay,
Orsay, France
Aiqin Wang (169), Key Laboratory of Clay Mineral Applied Research of Gansu
Province, Center of Eco-material and Green Chemistry, Lanzhou Institute of
Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou, P.R. China
Fernando Wypych (3, 229, 253, 317), Department of Chemistry, Federal University of
Paraná, Centro Polit
ecnico, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
Yongfeng Zhu (169), Key Laboratory of Clay Mineral Applied Research of Gansu
Province, Center of Eco-material and Green Chemistry, Lanzhou Institute of
Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou, P.R. China
Part 1

Introduction
This page intentionally left blank
Chapter 1

Clay minerals: Classification,

structure, and properties
Fernando Wypych and Rilton Alves de Freitas
Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Paraná, Centro Polit

ecnico, Curitiba, PR, Brazil

1.1 Basic concepts, classification, and nomenclature

Since the definitions in clay science are still not unanimous, due especially to
the interdisciplinary nature of this field of research, some terms used through-
out the text will be first defined following the terminology as indicated by
Bergaya and Lagaly (2013).

1.1.1 Aluminosilicate
In general, silicates which contain tetrahedrally coordinated aluminum are
called aluminosilicates in contrast to silicates containing octahedrally coordi-
nated aluminum for which the term aluminum silicate is used. Phyllosilicates
are generally considered aluminosilicates, because most phyllosilicates do
have Al substitution for Si, but not all do (and those minerals without tetrahe-
dral Al present, but with Al in other polyhedral coordinations are more prop-
erly referred to as “aluminum silicates”).

1.1.2 Basal surface

Basal surface the terminating surface (or basal plane) parallel to the atom
planes in the repeating layers in clays and layered minerals. Common usage
has broadened the meaning to include (internal) surfaces that parallel the
terminating surface. If the repeating layers have a stacking direction along
[001], the c crystallographic axis, then the atom planes in the repeating layers
are the (00l) planes (parallel to the plane containing the two lateral axes,
a and b).

Developments in Clay Science, Vol. 10. [Link]

Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 3
4 PART 1 Introduction

1.1.3 Basal reflection

Basal reflection a diffraction X-ray peak from a layer material originating from
those atomic planes which comprise the layers (i.e., parallel to cleavage). For
most layer silicates, basal reflections are of the Miller index type: 00l, where
l is an integer.

1.1.4 Bentonite
[Link] Mineralogical/petrological term
A soft, plastic, light-colored rock composed primarily of clay minerals of the
smectite group, particularly the clay mineral montmorillonite, which typically
forms from chemical alteration of glassy volcanic ash or tuff under marine or
hydrothermal conditions. Bentonite may contain accessory crystal grains that
were originally phenocrysts in the parent rock as well as secondary antigenic
mineral phases such as K-rich feldspar. Diagenetic or low-grade metamorphic
alteration can modify the smectite to a variety of interstratified illite-smectite
minerals, resulting in materials known as K-bentonites.

[Link] Industrial term

A highly colloidal and plastic clay material, primarily composed of the clay
mineral montmorillonite, that is commonly used in drilling mud, as a foundry
sand binder, in cat litter, animal feed, cements, ceramics and various other
industrial activities and products. Sodium bentonite swells significantly when
exposed to water (to
12 ) whereas calcium bentonite has minimal swelling
capability (to
3).

1.1.5 Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET)

For specific surface area analysis surface area determination by sorption analy-
sis of non-polar gases, typically N2, on a solid, as calculated from the linear
form of the BET equation for multi-layer gas adsorption on the surface of a
sample of known weight. The technique requires removal of sorbed gases from
the sample prior to BET analysis. Objections involving the use of BET analysis
for clays containing H2O include (1) platy surfaces of the phyllosilicate parti-
cles protect underlying adjacent surfaces from gas adsorption, and (2) interlayer
regions may become inaccessible to N2 owing to pretreatments that remove
interlayer H2O, which collapses any swelling clays present, and thus results
may be affected by preparation techniques. It is commonly considered to mea-
sure external surface area and, as such, should not be used for total specific sur-
face area or as an indicator of the amount of chemically accessible internal
surface area.
 Clay minerals: Classification, structure, and properties Chapter 1 5

1.1.6 Cation exchange

A process whereby a cation bound to a site on a surface is replaced by a cation
from a solution. In both phyllosilicates and zeolites, the cation may be located
on either external surfaces or internal surfaces; thus, the full process may
involve cations from the interior that diffuse toward the surface, and are in
turn replaced by cations from the solution which diffuse inward.

1.1.7 Clay
A naturally occurring material composed primarily of fine-grained minerals,
which is generally plastic at appropriate water contents and will harden when
dried or fired. Although clay usually contains phyllosilicates, it may contain
other materials that impart plasticity and harden when dried or fired.

1.1.8 Clay minerals

Refers to phyllosilicate minerals and to minerals which impart plasticity to
clay and which harden upon drying or firing. Clay minerals may be of any crys-
tallite size so that the term “clay mineral” is consistent with the definition of
“mineral,” which is unrelated to crystallite size. However, the unique properties
of clays are partly related to their small particle size and high surface area.

1.1.9 Interlayer distance

Is more precise to describe the distance between the adjacent layers (tetrahe-
dral sheet to tetrahedral sheet, and is measured by taking the average of the z
coordinate of the basal oxygen plane. The “interlayer displacement” describes
the displacement portion or lateral shift from tetrahedral sheet to tetrahedral
sheet across the interlayer space. Compare layer, layer displacement.

1.1.10 Layer
For phyllosilicates, a layer contains one or more tetrahedral sheets and an
octahedral sheet. There are two types of layers, depending on the ratios of
the component sheets: a “1:1 layer” has one tetrahedral sheet and one octahe-
dral sheet, whereas a “2:1 layer” has an octahedral sheet between two oppos-
ing tetrahedral sheets.

1.1.11 Phyllosilicate
Family of minerals contains continuous two-dimensional tetrahedral sheets of
composition T2O5 (T ¼ Si, Al, Be, …) with tetrahedra linked by sharing three
6 PART 1 Introduction

corners of each, and with a fourth corner pointing in any direction. The tetra-
hedral sheets are linked in the unit structure to octahedral sheets, or to groups
of coordinated cations, or individual cations. Although continuous tetrahedral
sheets often form sixfold rings, other ring configurations are considered part
of the phyllosilicate family.

1.1.12 Kaolin
[Link] Petrologic term
Rock composed primarily of kaolinite, nacrite, dickite, or halloysite (i.e., miner-
als of the kaolin group). In most case, the identification of the specific species is
unknown. The rock is commonly white, earthy, and soft.

[Link] Mineralogic term

A sub-group name (within the group “serpentine-kaolin”) for those phyllosili-
cates that are dioctahedral, with 1:1 layers, and with a net layer charge of
approximately 0. Species of this sub-group include kaolinite, nacrite, dickite
and halloysite. Previously, the group name was “serpentine-kaolinite,” and the
subgroup name was “kaolinite,” but this scheme created confusion because it
was unclear if “kaolinite” was referring to the more general sub-group or the
species “kaolinite.”

1.1.13 Serpentine-kaolin
A group name for platy phyllosilicates of 1:1 layer and a layer charge of
0 per
formula unit. Generally, the d(001) spacing is approximately 7.1–7.3 Å. The
group is further divided into subgroups that are either trioctahedral (serpentine)
or dioctahedral (kaolin), and these subgroups are further divided into mineral
species based on chemical composition. The 1:1 layers are bonded by long
hydrogen bonds (
2.9 Å) and possible Coulombic interactions between the
octahedral sheets of one layer and the tetrahedral sheet of the adjacent layer.

1.1.14 Smectite
Smectite a group name for platy phyllosilicates of 2:1 layer and a layer charge
of approximately 0.2 to 0.6 per formula unit. Generally for natural sam-
ples, the d(001) spacing is approximately 14.4–15.6 Å, although other spacing
may occur depending on H2O retention and interlayer occupancy. The group
is further divided into subgroups that are either trioctahedral or dioctahedral
with different mineral species based on chemical composition. Smectite
minerals have large specific surface areas (10–700 m2/g) and exhibit a high
 Clay minerals: Classification, structure, and properties Chapter 1 7

expansion (swelling) capability in the presence of H2O. Smectite and vermic-

ulite minerals are often referred to as “swelling” or “expandable” clay miner-
als. Cation-exchange capacity or solvation of polar molecules is large.
Smectite is commonly a primary constituent of bentonite (see bentonite for
respective genesis information) and pelitic sediments (e.g., shales) and occurs
in soils. Very early, smectite was used as a term for fuller’s earth (initially),
montmorillonite, and certain bentonitic clay deposits.

1.1.15 Talc-pyrophyllite
A group name for platy phyllosilicates of 2:1 layer and a layer charge of

0 per formula unit. Generally, the d(001) spacing is approximately
9.1–9.4 Å. The group is further divided into subgroups that are either triocta-
hedral (talc) or dioctahedral (pyrophyllite), and these subgroups are further
divided into mineral species based on chemical composition. The layers are
bonded by weak van der Waals interactions.
More definitions related with layered materials and intercalation com-
pounds can be found in Chapter 10.
The structure of the clay minerals was reproduced using the Visualization
for Electronic and Structural Analysis (VESTA) program, version 3.4.8
(Momma and Izumi, 2011), and using the Crystallographic Information File
(CIF) available in the Crystallography Open Database ([Link]
[Link]/cod/).
Clay minerals are very abundant, and many different aluminosilicate
resources exist around the world. Clay minerals are very common in soils
and in fine-grained sedimentary rocks, and belong to a very important class
of compounds having variable chemical compositions. In general, they are
defined by their crystallography and layer charges. Clay minerals normally
do not occur as a single pure phase, instead being associated with different
impurities such as quartz, amorphous silica, cristobalite, alunite, iron oxides,
anatase, magnesite, and organic matter. The impurities depend on the clay
minerals’ genesis, and their identification and removal are very important to
aggregate value and enable their use in many industrial processes. In spite
of these impurities, to facilitate the comprehension, clay minerals are consid-
ered as “pure” materials in the present chapter.
Due to their abundance, low price, diversity of structures and properties,
low environmental impact, and good mechanical/heat stability, these materials
have been used since antiquity. Nowadays, demand is still strong due to the
growing number of industrial applications, attracting increasing interest from
researchers in the interdisciplinary area of clay science due especially to the
sui-generis particles habits and properties.
Two important geometric units are present in clay minerals’ structures:
SiO4 tetrahedra when Si4+ is positioned in the center and O2 anions are at
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 Criminology - Complete Guide
Summer 2025 - Faculty

Prepared by: Teacher Williams

Date: July 28, 2025

Results 1: Research findings and conclusions

Learning Objective 1: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 1: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 2: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 3: Literature review and discussion
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 3: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 4: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 4: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 5: Case studies and real-world applications
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 5: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 5: Ethical considerations and implications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 6: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 7: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 8: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 9: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Quiz 2: Theoretical framework and methodology
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 13: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Best practices and recommendations
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 14: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 16: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Summary 3: Research findings and conclusions
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 22: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 23: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 24: Ethical considerations and implications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 28: Literature review and discussion
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 29: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Chapter 4: Statistical analysis and interpretation
Example 30: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Key terms and definitions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 33: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 33: Research findings and conclusions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 35: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 38: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 40: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Unit 5: Fundamental concepts and principles
Example 40: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 43: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 45: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 48: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 50: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Section 6: Critical analysis and evaluation
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 54: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 54: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 55: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 57: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Review 7: Current trends and future directions
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 62: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 62: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 64: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 65: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 65: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 66: Best practices and recommendations
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 67: Key terms and definitions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 68: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 69: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Module 8: Learning outcomes and objectives
Example 70: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 71: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 73: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 76: Ethical considerations and implications
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Background 9: Statistical analysis and interpretation
Practice Problem 80: Study tips and learning strategies
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 83: Best practices and recommendations
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Key terms and definitions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Part 10: Literature review and discussion
Practice Problem 90: Research findings and conclusions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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