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PALGRAVE STUDIES IN VICTIMS AND VICTIMOLOGY

A Victim Community
Stigma and the Media Legacy of
High-Profile Crime
Nicola O’Leary
Palgrave Studies in Victims and Victimology

Series Editors
Pamela Davies
Department of Social Sciences
Northumbria University
Newcastle upon Tyne, UK

Tyrone Kirchengast
Law School
University of Sydney
Sydney, NSW, Australia
In recent decades, a growing emphasis on meeting the needs and rights of
victims of crime in criminal justice policy and practice has fuelled the
development of research, theory, policy and practice outcomes stretching
across the globe. This growth of interest in the victim of crime has seen
victimology move from being a distinct subset of criminology in aca-
demia to a specialist area of study and research in its own right. Palgrave
Studies in Victims and Victimology showcases the work of contemporary
scholars of victimological research and publishes some of the highest-­
quality research in the field. The series reflects the range and depth of
research and scholarship in this burgeoning area, combining contribu-
tions from both established scholars who have helped to shape the field
and more recent entrants. It also reflects both the global nature of many
of the issues surrounding justice for victims of crime and social harm and
the international span of scholarship researching and writing about them.

Editorial Board:
Antony Pemberton, Tilburg University, Netherlands
Jo-Anne Wemmers, Montreal University, Canada
Joanna Shapland, Sheffield University, UK
Jonathan Doak, Durham University, UK

More information about this series at

[Link]
 Nicola O’Leary

A Victim Community
Stigma and the Media Legacy
of High-Profile Crime
Nicola O’Leary
Criminology and Sociology
University of Hull
Hull, UK

Palgrave Studies in Victims and Victimology

ISBN 978-3-030-87678-4    ISBN 978-3-030-87679-1 (eBook)
[Link]

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse
of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
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the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
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Cover illustration: molotovcoketail/getty images

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 Acknowledgements

First and foremost, my thanks go to the participants of this research. I

cannot thank them individually of course as I promised them anonymity,
but I am grateful for their generous help and support for this research and
for sharing their stories and experiences with me.
I am indebted to many people for their encouragement and guidance
as this project developed. It has been a long time in the writing! The book
is based on doctoral research in the Department of Criminology and
Sociology at the University of Hull, and particular thanks go to my super-
visors Mike McCahill and Simon Green, for their initial reassurance to
embark upon doctoral studies, their constructive feedback on numerous
drafts of my thesis and their inspiration and support to develop the thesis
into a book. Chris Greer and Keith Tester examined my PhD thesis and
their perceptive comments proved extremely useful when the time (even-
tually!) came to write this book. My thanks also go to my colleagues at
Hull and elsewhere, with whom I discussed my research as it has devel-
oped over the years.
I would also like to thank Pamela Davies and Tyrone Kirchengast, as
series editors of the Palgrave Studies in Victims and Victimology series,
for their patience and for supporting the publication of this book.
This book has been part of my life for a long time now, in one form or
another. There are many friends who have been with me through this

v
vi Acknowledgements

time and supported me in various ways and I thank them all. I am par-
ticularly grateful to my oldest friend Rachel Frank for encouraging me to
keep going and get this book written. Finally, my deepest gratitude goes
to my family who have always believed in me and particularly to Sean
and Josette; to my parents, Sean and Maria O’Leary; and to my brother
Dermot. I am especially grateful to Sean, who has seen this project evolve
from the beginning and has been unstinting in his support of me and our
family and to Josette, who will always make me proud.
 Contents

1 Introduction  1

2 The Paradoxes and Contradictions of ‘Victim’ and

‘Community’ 21

3 Crime News, Media and Identity 61

4 Dunblane: A United Community Divided 89

5 Soham: The Litany of a ‘Tragic Town’123

6 Making Sense of ‘Victim Communities’: Negotiating

Collective Identity157

7 Conclusion185

vii
viii Contents

Appendix A: Notes on Methodology195

Appendix B: Overview of News Content Analysis203

Appendix C: Interviewee Characteristics205

Index207
 1
Introduction

There are certain crimes that when they occur, are of such magnitude and
resonance that they seem to embody the mood of the time. Events that
are so shocking people remember where and when they were when they
heard about them. The legacy of certain serious crimes and high-profile
events and the associated trauma goes beyond the immediate victims and
their families. These events haunt others whose voices are less frequently
recognised or heard. Some crimes can enter the public consciousness in
such a way that society itself seems harmed or irreversibly changed.
On 7 January 2015 in a suburb of Paris, two brothers Said and Cherif
Kouachi broke into the offices of the French satirical weekly newspaper
Charlie Hebdo, armed with assault rifles. They killed 11 people inside the
office who worked for the newspaper and injured 11 others elsewhere in
the building. They also shot and killed a French National Police officer
outside the building who was attending the incident. A day later, a related
attack was undertaken by an associate of the brothers, Amedy Coulibaly,
who killed a policewoman and then entered a Jewish supermarket taking
several people hostage. Four people were killed inside the supermarket. A
video was subsequently posted online where Coulibaly pledges his alle-
giance to ISIS. The two brothers had also identified themselves as

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 1

N. O’Leary, A Victim Community, Palgrave Studies in Victims and Victimology,
[Link]
2 N. O’Leary

belonging to Al-Qaeda in Yemen. The perpetrators claimed the attack

was carried out to avenge the Prophet Mohammed for the newspaper’s
derogatory portrayal of Islam. Eventually all three gunmen were shot
dead by French security services. The death toll overall came to 17.
The effects of these events were profound and widely felt, not only in
France but elsewhere. They raised a series of thorny and complex issues
that included the focus on free speech at all costs and concerns about the
execution of violence inspired by religious and political ideology (Walklate
& Mythen, 2016). However, others may have felt the attacks in Paris
amounted to a ‘moral violation’ (Beck, 2015). In the days that followed 7
January, 3.7 million people took to the streets and marched to protest. At
the same time the ‘Je suis Charlie’ slogan and logo were created by French
Art Director, Joachim Roncin. The website of Charlie Hebdo went offline
shortly after the shooting, and when it became live again, it bore the leg-
end Je suis Charlie on a black background. The slogan was first used on
Twitter with the hashtag #jesuischarlie. Within two days of the attack,
the slogan had become one of the most popular news hashtags in Twitter
history (Goldman & Pagilery, 2015). The numbers marching and the
international uptake of the slogan coalesced a multitude of values and
served as an articulation point for a range of principles around not just
free speech and security but also collective identity, resilience and victim-
hood. In the UK, over recent decades we can identify several other land-
mark cases and events that have produced similar widespread reaction in
one form or another: the killings of Stephen Lawrence and James Bulger
in 1993, the deaths of Sarah Payne in 2000, the disappearance of
Madeleine McCann in 2007 and most recently in 2021, the kidnap and
murder of Sarah Everard. These crimes are a selection of those that have
had a profound impact on society and reached a level of prominence and
awareness in the public eye. All are high-profile crimes which have
become the focus of extensive and extended popular and media attention
and created a significant collective social reaction.
The examples discussed and referred to above are all historically recent
examples of events that can be viewed as forms of victimisation. Some of
course are now known terrorist attacks, where spreading fear and uncer-
tainty amongst as many as possible is key and where the target is not only
individuals or groups of people, but attacks which are aimed at political
 1 Introduction 3

and cultural disruption, engendering a climate of fear and anxiety in soci-

ety more broadly. Reactions to such events often lead to political and
social discussions and some very wide-ranging questions both legally and
at the level of politics and media discourse. At the same time however,
these are examples of a globally pertinent issue that requires theoretical
and empirical attention. Crime victims are now very firmly on the map.
For politicians, the media and the public at large, criminal injury and loss
are a source of constant concern and anxiety. Both criminological and
victimological literatures have addressed much of this concern in recent
years (see Chermak, 1995; Green, 2008; Furedi, 2006), but what has yet
to be investigated is how local communities experience high-profile
crimes and the media attention and social reaction that inevitably fol-
lows. This book seeks to address this gap by empirically exploring how
two communities in the UK, Dunblane and Soham, who experienced
particularly high-profile crimes in the UK context, lived with the tragic
events at the time and the unrelenting attention of the world’s media
afterwards.
Of course, this is a phenomenon that is neither spatially nor tempo-
rally specific. These types of serious and high-profile crimes are not just
happening in the UK and Europe, the issue is a globally pertinent one.
Communities and peoples all over the world are suffering harm and vio-
lence and coming to terms with these events as forms of victimisation.
Neither is this a recent phenomenon, but what is clear is that these events
take on a different significance and produce different consequences when
taking place in a 24/7 crime news mediasphere (Greer & McLaughlin,
2011). The following are a necessarily brief selection of international
examples of high-profile crime events that we might consider forms of
wider victimisation.

Mumbai, India, 2008

Perpetrators: Ten gunmen including Mohammed Ajmal
Kasab.
Details: In the city of Mumbai, India, in November
2008, a series of terrorist attacks were carried
4 N. O’Leary

out, when 10 members of Lashkar-e-Taiba,

an Islamic terrorist organisation based in
Pakistan, carried out 12 coordinated shoot-
ing and bombing attacks lasting four days
across the Indian city. The attacks began on
Wednesday 26 November and lasted until
Saturday 29 November 2008. At least 174
people died, including 9 attackers, and more
than 300 were wounded. The 10 Pakistani
men associated with the terror group
Lashkar-e-Taiba stormed several buildings in
Mumbai, killing 166 people and injuring a
further 293. Nine of the gunmen were killed
during the attacks, one survived. Mohammed
Ajmal Kasab, the lone surviving gunman,
was executed in November 2012. The perpe-
trators travelled from Karachi, Pakistan, to
Mumbai via boat. Along the way, they
hijacked a fishing trawler and killed the cap-
tain and the crew members. The men docked
at the Mumbai waterfront near the Gateway
of India monument. They hijacked cars,
including a police van, and split into at least
three groups to carry out the attacks, accord-
ing to police. The attackers used automatic
weapons and grenades.
Context: There had been many other terrorist attacks
in Mumbai since the 13 coordinated bomb
explosions that killed 257 people and injured
700 on 12 March 1993.
Motive: The 1993 attacks were carried out in revenge
for earlier religious riots that killed many
Muslims. International reaction for the
attacks was widespread, with many countries
and international organisations condemning
 1 Introduction 5

the attacks and expressing their condolences

to the civilian victims.
Consequences/Coverage: Media coverage highlighted the use of social
media and social networking tools, including
Twitter and Flickr, in spreading information
about the attacks. In addition, many Indian
bloggers offered live textual coverage of the
attacks. A map of the attacks was set up by a
web journalist using Google Maps.
Commented on as the most well-docu-
mented terrorist attack anywhere.

Oslo/Utoya, Norway, 2011

Perpetrator: Anders Behring Breivik.
Details: On 22 July 2011 Anders Breivik killed 77 people, 8 by
setting off a car bomb in Oslo (also injuring a further
209) and killing a further 69 in a shooting spree on the
island of Utoya, 40 kilometres away (where in addition
at least 110 were injured).
The island attack occurred less than two hours after the
first in Oslo and took place at a summer camp organised
by the AUF, the youth division of the ruling Norwegian
Labour Party. The camp is held there every summer and
was attended by approximately 600 teenagers. Breivik,
dressed in a homemade police uniform and showing
false identification, took a ferry to the island. He told
those on the island that he was there for security reasons
following the explosions in Oslo. He then asked the
young people to gather around him before pulling weap-
ons and ammunition from a bag and firing at them
indiscriminately. He continued the shooting and killing
as he moved around the island and surrounding waters.
The police arrived around one hour after the first alarm
call at which point Breivik surrendered.
6 N. O’Leary

Motive: Breivik is as a right-wing fundamentalist. He supported

a far-right idea that Norway’s accessible open culture
was being undermined by immigration. He was also a
man who was not ashamed of what he did/was about to
do. He had obtained the correct uniform and dressed
as a policeman—he had planned well enough to have
weapons (and ammunition) that he was going to shoot
for two hours; he spoke to the young people on the
island saying, ‘Gather round, I want to ask you some
questions,’ and then shot them. Crucially, he did not
take his own life; he was making a point, not trying to
be a martyr.
Context: Norway has a population of around five million, so
given that young people at the summer camp were part
of national youth movement, the loss that these actions
entailed was far reaching. Both spree and serial killings
in Scandinavia are relatively rare.
Consequences: Norway is a country with a reputation for charity and
humanity. Indeed, in the aftermath of these events,
both the political leaders at the time and the people of
Norway demonstrated for the attacks to be met with
more openness and democracy. This stands in contrast
to the rather more draconian responses set in place by
UK Prime Minister Tony Blair and U.S. President
George W. Bush after the bombings of 7/7 (2005) and
9/11 (2001), respectively.

Cologne, Germany, New Year’s Eve, 2015/2016

Details: During the 2015/2016 New Year’s Eve celebrations in
Germany, there were reports of mass sexual assaults,
alleged rapes and numerous thefts in Germany, with
many taking place in Cologne city centre. Many of the
incidents involved women being surrounded and
assaulted by large numbers of men operating in groups,
 1 Introduction 7

leading to speculation that the assaults were organised.

The Cologne assaults were not reported by the national
media for days, and many news outlets started report-
ing it only after a wave of anger on social media made
covering the story unavoidable. Several months later
the authorities admitted that on New Year’s Eve, more
than 1200 women were sexually assaulted in various
German cities, including more than 600 in Cologne
and about 400 in Hamburg.
Consequences: This event has had many consequences, not least in
relation to the hardening of attitudes towards immi-
grants/refugees in Germany (as many of the alleged
perpetrators were reported to be of Arab or North
African origin and their immigration status was ques-
tioned in the media), but also in the distrust towards
government and the media, particularly after their lack
of and then ‘late’ reporting. Legislative changes in
German law were also made, broadening the definition
of sexual assault to include any sexual act that a victim
declines through verbal or physical cues. Previously
German law required a victim to physically resist their
attacker (BBC News, 7 July 2016).

Since the attacks in Cologne and Hamburg, there have been several
further high-profile terrorist attacks that occurred in the UK and Europe
including but not limited to March 2016—a series of attacks in Brussels
at both the Airport and the Metro that left 35 dead and 340 injured.
July 2016—in the French city of Nice, a 19-tonne cargo truck was
deliberately driven into crowds of people celebrating Bastille Day, result-
ing in the deaths of 86 people and injuring 458 others.
December 2016—Berlin Christmas Market attack, 12 dead and 56
injured.
March 2017—Westminster attack, London. 6 dead, 49 injured.
May 2017—Manchester Arena bombing, 23 dead, 119 injured.
June 2017—London Bridge attacks, 11 dead, 48 injured.
8 N. O’Leary

Introducing the Notion

of a ‘Victim Community’
All of these events have had profound and far-reaching effects in the
countries where they took place in France, the UK and on the global
stage. Many of these concerns within criminal justice and public policy
arenas have been investigated, and important political, legislative and
social repercussions have been addressed by the criminological and victi-
mological literature. What has not been clear is how these, and events like
them, are identified as forms of victimisation, not only for those primary
victims involved but also for the wider (local) community and broader
still—media and virtual national/international audience. Important
questions remain unasked as to what such events mean for our under-
standings of identity, collective victimisation, stigma and resilience. Such
events then bring into focus some of the questions that this book aims to
consider; how do such events seem to act disproportionately on how cer-
tain crime problems are more broadly conceived? What is the role of the
media and social reaction in that process? And what are the process of
collective victimhood in this and how do communities experience high-­
profile crime and the media attention that inevitably follows?
The traditional or positivist strand of victimology, emulating the sister
discipline of criminology, is pre-occupied with measuring the nature and
extent of criminal victimisation and the impact that such victimisation
has on people. Consequently, positivism reflects a rather individualistic,
passive and static understanding of the process of criminal victimisation
and betrays an implicit acceptance of a functionalist view of society
(Walklate, 1989). Other areas within victimology have also broadened
the horizons of the discipline. By focusing on the powerful as arbiters of
social harm, radical victimologists have either embraced a human rights
perspective in setting an agenda for their work (e.g. Elias, 1993) or have
argued much more directly for a ‘victimology of state crime’ (Rothe, &
Kauzlarich, 2014). This victimology brings to the table a much wider
appreciation of the concept of victim and by definition makes visible
categories of victims hidden from view within positivism. This is of course
to be valued and applauded. However, such a radical perspective still
 1 Introduction 9

presumes that the law dictates who counts as a victim of such crime; in
this instance, ‘law’ refers to international codes, the Court of Human
Rights or the Geneva Convention, for example. Thus, some aspects of
radical victimology are marked by an inherent conservatism similar to
that found within positive victimology.
Also, there are several applications; the critical victimology offered by
Mawby and Walklate (1994) affords the best opportunity to reframe our
understandings of the victim. This perspective foregrounds the processes
that create the victims we ‘see’ as well as the ones we do not ‘see’, while
simultaneously recognising that the victim is a human agent who can
adopt an active as well as a passive role in response to their experiences of
criminal victimisation (Walklate, 2016). Consequently, critical victimol-
ogy is helpful here in that it asks essential questions about the term ‘vic-
tim’ itself, and the circumstances in which it is applied.
Whilst the relationship between victim and crime has received atten-
tion within the study of victims, very little is known about communities
of victims or how victimisation is represented and experienced by those
who are caught up in the maelstrom of media coverage in the wake of a
serious and high-profile crime. There is academic discourse around media
effects and impacts and wider victimological discourse, but work on vic-
tim communities in this context is not (yet) developed.
This book introduces the notion of a ‘victim community’, a collective
who have been victimised not only by the commission of an offence but
also the media and societal reaction to it. The concept is a vehicle by
which to explore and understand the role and the influence of the media
in the construction and representation of identity. This book suggests
that a ‘victim community’ can be considered a collective of those who
belong or are physically located at a site where a serious and high-profile
crime has taken place. A victim community in the physical sense may be
constructed or shaped both by the media itself and its role in coordinat-
ing and articulating a social reaction in the wake of certain significant and
highly mediatised crimes. As a consequence, some of those within the
‘victim community’ may come to acquire a collective sense of stigma and
spoiled identity. The condition of late modernity is often described as
concerned and fearful, producing an anxiety that comes with the loss of
a sense of belonging, in which case people may seek to establish new
10 N. O’Leary

identities, which may, if only on a temporary basis, make them feel part
of a wider community. A victim community in a symbolic sense, there-
fore, may be considered more of a late-modern community of choice,
enabled by new media technologies to achieve a sense of community,
albeit without the attached sense of stigma. In some senses, new media
technologies1 may offer a part solution to the perceived problems of dis-
location in late-modern society by fostering such a sense of identity and
community across space and time. Therefore, in order to explore how
victim communities may occur, in both a physical and symbolic sense, it
is necessary to understand how the various elements of victim identity,
community, late modernity and new media technology culminate and
combine.
This work does not imply that victim communities are necessarily a
new phenomenon or that they do not or did not exist before the late-­
modern age and the onset of mass media production in all its various
present-day forms. This book suggests that the label or identity attached
to a ‘victim community’ can be both an internal and an external state; it
can exist, physically or symbolically, with or without media (re)construc-
tion and representation. However, as a key element this book examines
how and why the media plays such a central and significant part in pro-
pelling certain crime events into the public sphere with sufficient vigour
and emotional intensity to shape public fears of victimisation, often
invoking the strongest public reaction locally, nationally and sometimes
globally.
The central aims of this book are to understand and locate the stories
of these communities within an analysis addressing and questioning the
nature, impact and effects of that victimisation, the characteristics of
social relations and cultural identity in late modernity and the role of the
media in that complex process of victimisation. There are very few studies
that have researched the process of becoming a victim2 and none that have
focused on being a victim and the meaning attributed to this process by

1
Here we refer to new media technologies as those that deliver on-demand access to content irre-
spective of time or place, as well as the possibility of interactive use, creative participation and
community formation around the media content.
2
However, as noted, see McGarry and Walklate (2015) for foregrounding theoretical issues and
discussion.
 1 Introduction 11

victims themselves, via the mediated and social reaction of others. There
are very real and tangible impacts on and consequences for those living in
the shadow of such terrible and serious events and also for others wider
still via media dissemination and presentation.
This book is based on a two-year qualitative study that looks at the
relationships, dilemmas and unexpected triumphs of these communities
struggling to come to terms with the most harrowing of events, within
the glare of the media spotlight by telling the stories of those who live in
places where such high-profile crimes have happened. It examines the
experiences of two such communities in the UK—Dunblane and
Soham—that have witnessed high-profile crimes and lived with the tragic
events at the time and the attention of the world’s media afterwards.
These two cases are historically recent examples of events as forms of vic-
timisation, which have impact on and consequences for our study of
identity, collective victimisation, stigma and resilience. These are margin-
alised but relevant areas of investigation as the kaleidoscope of victimo-
logical theory and research explores and illuminates those darker areas of
knowledge and interest which have traditionally harboured an invisibility
of such communities suffering. What has not been clear is how this and
events like it are identified as forms of victimisation, not only for those
victims involved but also for the wider (local) and broader still—media
and virtual national/international audience. Important questions remain
unasked as to what such events mean for our understandings of identity,
collective victimisation, stigma and resilience.

The Victimological and the Cultural

As noted by Jenks (2003), there are events (such as discussed here) that
transgress our collective and individual understanding of what we can
take for granted in our everyday lives in relation to what is understood as
crime and victimisation. The media coverage and reporting of such seri-
ous crimes and terrorist attacks (and indeed other ‘natural’ disasters) is
intended to emotionally move us and to encourage us to place ourselves
alongside the victims, to feel what they feel—are they not after all just
like us? The excavation of our feelings in this way poses questions not
12 N. O’Leary

only about the role of the media in late modernity but also about the
events themselves and about the creation of suffering. Suffering and harm
are of course also experienced and caused by many more events of mun-
dane or ‘ordinary’ everyday acts of criminal victimisation. This ordinari-
ness of suffering (Walklate, 2012) is also experienced by many other lives
globally, which are characterised by poverty, war or famine. However,
suffering which was once deemed private has become much more public
in recent years. In this shift from private suffering to public suffering, it
is suggested that ‘we are all victims now’ (Furedi, 2006; Mythen, 2007).
The work of Claire Valier (2004) has also hinted at this with a ‘return to
the gothic’, the vicarious attention to the suffering of others. Here we are
placed side by side with the victim and encouraged to feel what they feel,
primarily through the use of the visual via TV, film, internet and social
media technology. Within the political and criminal justice arena too,
policies such as victim impact statements and compensation schemes are
intended to give voice to the victim, reflecting a similar empathetic intent
to move us. As McEvoy and Jamieson (2007, p. 425) suggest, ‘Suffering
becomes reshaped, commodified, and packaged for its public and didac-
tic salience’. It is a particular kind of suffering, however: it is an individu-
alised as opposed to a collective suffering. Such cultural narratives of
victimisation point to the importance of recognising how we understand
harm and who is placed to define it.
At the forefront of development of cultural victimology are McGarry
and Walklate (2015), who characterise cultural victimology as broadly
comprising of two key aspects. These are the wider sharing and reflection
of individual and collective victimisation experiences on the one hand
and the mapping of those experiences through the criminal justice pro-
cess on the other. Cultural victimology is a relatively newcomer to the
victimological literature over recent years in an attempt to incorporate a
number of features of the modern social, political and cultural landscape
which both surrounds and permeates the notion of being a ‘victim’. These
features include the increasingly visual nature of social life and the sym-
bolic displays of shared emotion that go along with this. Central to this
cultural approach to victimisation is an understanding of victimhood as
a dynamic and developing concept, both in terms of society’s understand-
ing of it and the individual (or group) victim’s personal experience (see
 1 Introduction 13

also Green et al., 2021). The contemporary turn to visual culture affords
a window of opportunity for victimologists to think critically about their
role in framing this culture. As argued by Walklate (2012, p. 181), here
is the space for witnessing—the potential that ‘demands our engagement
with what we see and challenges us to think about what we do not see’.
This notion that victimisation is no longer an ‘individual’ experience but
in many cases transcended the direct (or even indirect) victims to include
still larger groups within society is a key feature of victimology’s cul-
tural turn.
This book is concerned with the process of victimisation, the process
of becoming a victim, in the eyes of the establishment and the public at
large. In precisely this way, cultural victimology has problematised the
basic understanding of who is and who is not regarded as a genuine vic-
tim by focusing increased attention on the process of becoming recognised
as a victim rather than assuming this as a static concept. This is what this
book seeks to empirically explore and develop and to examine how par-
ticular ‘serious’ and ‘tragic’ crime events seem to act disproportionately
on how certain crime problems are more broadly conceived, including
the role of the mass media and social reaction in that process.

Bearing Witness and Je Suis Charlie

The cultural approach to victimology emphasises the sense of a public
‘bearing witness’ to victimisation of some crime events (Spencer, 2010),
especially through social media and 24-hour television coverage. Indeed,
in other cases of victimisation around the world, the point has been
reached where people thousands of miles away can (bear) witness to
crimes in real time through the social media updates of those involved on
the ground. Such incidents can be ‘witnessed’ live through media report-
ing within minutes of occurrence, and in the following hours/days, hun-
dreds of mobile phone-captured images/videos of the events as they
occurred can be broadcast almost as they happen. Often the cultural por-
trayal of an attack or terrorism, for example, is not just on individuals but
on society and the whole of ‘British democracy’.
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 Marketing - Exercise Book
Second 2022 - Institute

Prepared by: Assistant Prof. Brown

Date: August 12, 2025

Practice 1: Case studies and real-world applications

Learning Objective 1: Research findings and conclusions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Learning Objective 2: Best practices and recommendations
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 2: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 3: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 4: Practical applications and examples
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 5: Research findings and conclusions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 7: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 8: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Discussion 2: Fundamental concepts and principles
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 11: Study tips and learning strategies
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 13: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 15: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 18: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Case studies and real-world applications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 20: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Introduction 3: Practical applications and examples
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 23: Literature review and discussion
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 25: Research findings and conclusions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 27: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Quiz 4: Theoretical framework and methodology
Practice Problem 30: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Key terms and definitions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 34: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 37: Research findings and conclusions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 38: Research findings and conclusions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 40: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Module 5: Case studies and real-world applications
Example 40: Historical development and evolution
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 41: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 43: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 43: Research findings and conclusions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 44: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 45: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 50: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice 6: Learning outcomes and objectives
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 54: Experimental procedures and results
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 55: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 59: Experimental procedures and results
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Results 7: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 62: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 64: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 67: Key terms and definitions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 68: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 69: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 69: Practical applications and examples
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Background 8: Research findings and conclusions
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 72: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 72: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 79: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Chapter 9: Experimental procedures and results
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 85: Literature review and discussion
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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