Honours Level Dynamics for BCS Exam

Part-1, Group-B: Dynamics

Gemini
September 26, 2025

1 Motion in a Straight Line

1.1 Theory
Motion in a straight line, also known as rectilinear motion, is the most basic type of motion. The key
quantities to describe this motion are displacement (s), velocity (v), and acceleration (a).
Velocity is the rate of change of displacement with respect to time.

Velocity

ds
v=
dt

Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time.

Acceleration

dv d2 s
a= = 2
dt dt

From these fundamental definitions, we can derive the equations of motion for constant acceleration.

1.2 Problems
2
1. A particle starts from rest and moves with a constant acceleration of 5 m/s . Find the velocity
and the distance covered after 4 seconds.

Solution
2
Given, initial velocity u = 0, acceleration a = 5 m/s , time t = 4 s. Velocity

v = u + at = 0 + 5 × 4 = 20 m/s.

Distance
1 1
s = ut + at2 = 0 + × 5 × 42 = 40 m.
2 2

2. A car moving with a velocity of 20 m/s is brought to rest by applying brakes in 5 seconds. Find
the retardation.

Solution

Given, initial velocity u = 20 m/s, final velocity v = 0, time t = 5 s. Using

v = u + at,

we have
0 = 20 + a × 5,

1
 which gives
2
a = −4 m/s .
2
The retardation is 4 m/s .

3. A body moves along a straight line with an acceleration of 3t2 − 2t. Find the velocity and displace-
ment at t = 2s, if the initial velocity is 5 m/s and initial displacement is 0.

Solution
Given
a = 3t2 − 2t.
Velocity Z Z
v= adt = (3t2 − 2t)dt = t3 − t2 + C1 .

At t = 0, v = 5, so C1 = 5. Thus,

v = t3 − t2 + 5.

At t = 2,
v = 23 − 22 + 5 = 8 − 4 + 5 = 9 m/s.
Displacement
t4 t3
Z Z
s= vdt = (t3 − t2 + 5)dt = − + 5t + C2 .
4 3
At t = 0, s = 0, so C2 = 0. Thus,

t4 t3
s= − + 5t.
4 3
At t = 2,
24 23 8
s= − + 5(2) = 4 − + 10 = 11.33 m.
4 3 3

4. The equation of motion of a particle is given by s = 2t3 − 15t2 + 36t − 10. Find the velocity when
the acceleration is zero.

Solution
Given
s = 2t3 − 15t2 + 36t − 10.
Velocity
ds
v= = 6t2 − 30t + 36.
dt
Acceleration
dv
a= = 12t − 30.
dt
When a = 0,
12t − 30 = 0,
so t = 2.5 s. At t = 2.5,

v = 6(2.5)2 − 30(2.5) + 36 = 37.5 − 75 + 36 = −1.5 m/s.

5. A particle is projected vertically upwards with a velocity of 98 m/s. Find the greatest height
attained and the time taken to reach the highest point.

2
 Height

hmax

Time

Solution
2
Given, initial velocity u = 98 m/s, acceleration a = −g = −9.8 m/s . At the highest point,
final velocity v = 0. Using
v = u + at,
we get
0 = 98 − 9.8t,
so t = 10 s. Using
v 2 = u2 + 2as,
we get
0 = 982 − 2 × 9.8 × s,
so
982
s= = 490 m.
19.6

2 Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

2.1 Theory
Simple Harmonic Motion is a special type of periodic motion where the restoring force is directly pro-
portional to the displacement and acts in the direction opposite to that of displacement. The equation
of motion for SHM is
d2 x
m 2 = −kx.
dt

Equation of SHM

d2 x k
2
+ ω 2 x = 0, where ω 2 =
dt m

The general solution to this equation is

x(t) = A cos(ωt + ϕ),
where A is the amplitude, ω is the angular frequency, and ϕ is the phase constant.

2.2 Problems
1. A particle executing SHM has a maximum displacement of 4 cm and its acceleration at a distance
2
of 1 cm from its mean position is 3 cm/s . What will be its velocity when it is at a distance of 2
cm from its mean position?

3
 Solution
Acceleration in SHM is
a = −ω 2 x.
Given a = 3 when x = 1, so
3 = ω 2 (1),
which means ω 2 = 3. Velocity in SHM is
p
v=ω A2 − x 2 .

Given amplitude A = 4 cm. At x = 2 cm,

√ p √ √ √
v = 3 42 − 22 = 3 12 = 36 = 6 cm/s.

2. The displacement of a particle is given by x = 3 cos(2t) + 4 sin(2t). Find the amplitude and the
initial velocity.

Solution
We can write
x = A cos(2t − α),
where p
A= 32 + 42 = 5.
So, the amplitude is 5. Velocity
dx
v= = −6 sin(2t) + 8 cos(2t).
dt
Initial velocity (at t = 0) is

v(0) = −6 sin(0) + 8 cos(0) = 8.

3. A particle of mass 2 kg is attached to a spring of spring constant 50 N/m. It is displaced by 10 cm

from its equilibrium position and released. Find the time period of oscillation.

Solution

Here m = 2 kg, k = 50 N/m. Angular frequency

r r
k 50
ω= = = 5 rad/s.
m 2
Time period
2π 2π
T = = ≈ 1.256 s.
ω 5

4. A particle performs SHM with a period of 12 seconds. Two seconds after it passes the center of
oscillation, its velocity is found to be 3.142 cm/s. Find the amplitude.

Solution
Given T = 12 s, so
2π π
ω= = rad/s.
12 6
Let the displacement be
x = A sin(ωt).

4
 Then velocity
v = Aω cos(ωt).
At t = 2 s, v = 3.142 ≈ π. So,
π π π π π 1 π
π=A cos( × 2) = A cos( ) = A × = A .
6 6 6 3 6 2 12
This gives A = 12 cm.

5. A point describes SHM in such a way that its velocity and acceleration at a point P are u and f
respectively and the corresponding quantities at another point Q are v and g. Find the distance
PQ.

Solution
Let the distances of P and Q from the center be x1 and x2 . Then

u2 = ω 2 (A2 − x21 )

and
f = −ω 2 x1 .
Also
v 2 = ω 2 (A2 − x22 )
and
g = −ω 2 x2 .
From these, u2 /f 2 = (A2 − x21 )/x21 and v 2 /g 2 = (A2 − x22 )/x22 . Also, x1 = −f /ω 2 and
x2 = −g/ω 2 . Distance
P Q = |x1 − x2 | = |(g − f )/ω 2 |.
We have u2 + f 2 /ω 2 = ω 2 A2 and v 2 + g 2 /ω 2 = ω 2 A2 . So

u2 + f 2 /ω 2 = v 2 + g 2 /ω 2 ,

which gives
ω 2 = (g 2 − f 2 )/(u2 − v 2 ).
P Q = |(g − f )(u2 − v 2 )/(g 2 − f 2 )| = |(u2 − v 2 )/(g + f )|.

3 Motion in a Resisting Medium: Damped Oscillations

3.1 Theory
When an oscillator moves in a fluid (a resisting medium), it will experience a frictional force. This force
is often proportional to the velocity of the oscillator. This is called damped motion. The equation of
motion is:

Damped Oscillation Equation

d2 x dx
m 2
+b + kx = 0
dt dt

Here, b is the damping coefficient. We can write this as

d2 x dx
+ 2γ + ω02 x = 0,
dt2 dt
where 2γ = b/m and ω02 = k/m.

5
 p
The term ω0 = k/m is the natural angular frequency. This is the angular frequency at which
the system would oscillate if there were no damping (b = 0).
The term γ = b/(2m) is the damping coefficient, which determines how quickly the oscillations
decay.
The solution depends on the value of the discriminant of the characteristic equation

r2 + 2γr + ω02 = 0,

which is
∆ = 4(γ 2 − ω02 ).

3.1.1 Case 1: Underdamped Motion (γ < ω0 )

The system oscillates with a decaying amplitude. The solution for underdamped motion is

x(t) = Ae−γt cos(ωd t + ϕ),

where q
ωd = ω02 − γ 2
is the damped angular frequency.

x(t)

Underdamped Oscillation

3.1.2 Case 2: Overdamped Motion (γ > ω0 )

The system returns to equilibrium without oscillating. The solution for overdamped motion is

x(t) = e−γt (C1 eαt + C2 e−αt ),

where q
α= γ 2 − ω02 .

x(t)

Overdamped Oscillation

3.1.3 Case 3: Critically Damped Motion (γ = ω0 )

The system returns to equilibrium as quickly as possible without oscillating. The solution for critically
damped motion is
x(t) = (C1 + C2 t)e−γt .

6
 x(t)

Critically Damped Oscillation

3.2 Problems: Damped Oscillations

1. A 2-kg mass is attached to a spring with constant k=8 N/m. The damping constant is b=4 Ns/m.
The mass is pulled down 0.1 m and released. Write down the equation of motion and solve it. Is
the motion underdamped, overdamped or critically damped?

Solution
The equation of motion is
d2 x dx
2 +4 + 8x = 0,
dt2 dt
or
d2 x dx
2
+2 + 4x = 0.
dt dt
Here 2γ = 2 =⇒ γ = 1 and ω02 = 4 =⇒ ω0 = 2. Since γ < ω0 , the motion is
underdamped. The solution is
√ √
x(t) = e−t (C1 cos( 3t) + C2 sin( 3t)).

At t = 0, x = 0.1, so C1 = 0.1. Also, at t = 0, v = 0.

√ √ √ √ √ √
v(t) = −e−t (C1 cos( 3t) + C2 sin( 3t)) + e−t (−C1 3 sin( 3t) + C2 3 cos( 3t)).
√ √ √
v(0) = −C1 + C2 3 = 0 =⇒ C2 = C1 / 3 = 0.1/ 3.
So,
√ 0.1 √
x(t) = e−t (0.1 cos( 3t) + √ sin( 3t)).
3

2. A particle of mass 5 kg is attached to a spring with a spring constant of 125 N/m. The damping
coefficient is 60 Ns/m. The particle is displaced 10 cm and released. Find the position of the
particle at any time t.

Solution
The equation of motion is
d2 x dx
5 + 60 + 125x = 0,
dt2 dt
or
d2 x dx
2
+ 12 + 25x = 0.
dt dt
Here 2γ = 12 =⇒ γ = 6 and ω02 = 25 =⇒ ω0 = 5. Since γ > ω0 , the motion is
overdamped. The characteristic equation is

r2 + 12r + 25 = 0,

with roots √
r = −6 ± 11.
The solution is √ √
x(t) = e−6t (C1 e 11t
+ C 2 e− 11t
).

7
 At t = 0, x = 0.1, so C1 + C2 = 0.1. At t = 0, v = 0.
√ √ √ √
v(t) = −6x(t) + e−6t (C1 11e 11t − C2 11e− 11t ).
√ √
v(0) = −6(0.1) + 11(C1 − C2 ) = 0 =⇒ C1 − C2 = 0.6/ 11.
Solving for C1 and C2 , we get √
C1 = 0.05 + 0.3/ 11
and √
C2 = 0.05 − 0.3/ 11.

3. An LCR circuit has L = 10 mH, C = 1 µF and R = 200 Ω. Is the circuit overdamped, underdamped
or critically damped? Find the resonant frequency.

Solution
The equation for an LCR circuit is

d2 q dq 1
L 2
+ R + q = 0.
dt dt C
This is analogous to the damped oscillator equation with m = L, b = R, k = 1/C.

2γ = R/L = 200/(10 × 10−3 ) = 20000.

So γ = 10000.
ω02 = 1/(LC) = 1/((10 × 10−3 ) × (1 × 10−6 )) = 108 .
So ω0 = 10000. Since γ = ω0 , the circuit is critically damped. The resonant frequency is
ω0 = 10000 rad/s.

d2 x
4. The equation of motion of a damped oscillator is given by dt2 + 4 dx
dt + 13x = 0. Find the period
of oscillation.

Solution
√
Here 2γ = 4 =⇒ γ = 2 and ω02 = 13 =⇒ ω0 = 13. Since γ < ω0 , the motion is
underdamped. The damped angular frequency is
q √
ωd = ω02 − γ 2 = 13 − 4 = 3 rad/s.

The period of oscillation is

2π 2π
T = = s.
ωd 3

5. A body of mass 10 kg is suspended by a spring of stiffness 40 N/m. If the damping is 20% of the
critical damping, find the natural frequency, the damped frequency and the logarithmic decrement.

Solution

m = 10 kg, k = 40 N/m. Natural frequency

p p
ω0 = k/m = 40/10 = 2 rad/s.

Critical damping coefficient

bc = 2mω0 = 2 × 10 × 2 = 40 Ns/m.

Actual damping
b = 0.2bc = 0.2 × 40 = 8 Ns/m.

8
 2γ = b/m = 8/10 = 0.8,
so γ = 0.4. Damped frequency
q √ √
ωd = ω02 − γ 2 = 4 − 0.16 = 3.84 ≈ 1.96 rad/s.

Logarithmic decrement
2π 2π
δ = γTd = γ = 0.4 ≈ 1.28.
ωd 1.96

6. A door is fitted with a dashpot which provides a damping force proportional to the angular velocity.
The door has a moment of inertia of 12.5 kg m2 and the spring in the dashpot has a stiffness of 50
Nm/rad. Find the damping coefficient if the door is to be critically damped.

Solution
The equation of motion is
d2 θ dθ
I + c + kθ = 0,
dt2 dt
where I is moment of inertia, c is damping coefficient, k is stiffness. For critical damping,
√ √ √
c = cc = 2 Ik = 2 12.5 × 50 = 2 625 = 2 × 25 = 50 Nms/rad.

4 Forced Oscillations and Resonance

4.1 Theory
In addition to the restoring force and the damping force, we can have an external driving force. The
equation of motion becomes:

Forced Oscillation Equation

d2 x dx
m +b + kx = F0 cos(ωt)
dt2 dt

Here, F0 is the amplitude of the driving force and ω is the driving frequency. The solution to this
equation is the sum of a transient solution (which decays with time) and a steady-state solution. The
steady-state solution is given by
x(t) = A cos(ωt − δ),
where the amplitude A is given by
F0 /m
A(ω) = p 2 .
(ω0 − ω 2 )2 + (2γω)2
Resonance occurs when the driving frequency ω is close to the natural frequency ω0 . At resonance, the
amplitude of the oscillations becomes very large.
A(ω)

Small Damping

Medium Damping

Large Damping

ω
ω0

9
4.2 Problems: Resonance
1. A mass of 1 kg is attached to a spring with k = 100 N/m and damping constant b = 2 Ns/m.
The mass is driven by an external force F (t) = 10 cos(8t). Find the amplitude of the steady-state
oscillations.

Solution
p
Here m = 1, k = 100, b = 2, F0 = 10, ω = 8. We have ω0 = k/m = 10 and 2γ = b/m = 2.
So, the amplitude is

10/1 10 10 10
A= p =√ =√ =√ ≈ 0.254 m.
2
(100 − 64) + (2 ∗ 8)2 2
36 + 16 2 1296 + 256 1552

2. For the system in the previous problem, what is the resonance frequency and the amplitude at
resonance?

Solution
p p √
The resonance frequency is ωr = ω02 − 2γ 2 = 100 − 2(12 ) = 98 ≈ 9.9 rad/s. The
amplitude at resonance is

F /m 10 5
Amax = p0 = √ = √ ≈ 0.502 m.
2
2γ ω0 − γ 2 2 100 − 1 99

3. An LCR circuit has L = 1 H, C = 1 F, and R = 1 Ω. It is driven by a voltage V (t) = cos(t). Find

the current in the steady state.

Solution

The equation is Lq̈ + Rq̇ + q/C = cos(t). The current is I = q̇. The steady-state current is
V0
given by I(t) = I0 cos(ωt − δ), where I0 = √ 2 2
. Here V0 = 1, ω = 1, L = 1,
R +(ωL−1/(ωC))
C = 1, R = 1. So,
1
I0 = p = 1.
1 + (1 − 1)2
2

The phase is tan δ = (ωL − 1/(ωC))/R = 0. So, I(t) = cos(t).

4. A child on a swing is pushed by her father. The swing has a natural frequency of 0.5 Hz. If the
father pushes with a frequency of 0.4 Hz, 0.5 Hz, and 0.6 Hz, in which case will the amplitude of
the swing be the largest?

Solution
The amplitude will be largest when the driving frequency is closest to the natural frequency.
The natural frequency is 0.5 Hz. So, the amplitude is largest when the father pushes with
a frequency of 0.5 Hz. This is the phenomenon of resonance.

5. The quality factor of a resonant system is given by Q = ω0 /(2γ). A system has a resonance
frequency of 100 Hz and a Q-factor of 50. Find the damping coefficient γ.

Solution

Given f0 = 100 Hz, so ω0 = 2πf0 = 200π rad/s. Q = 50. So,

ω0 200π
γ= = = 2π.
2Q 2 × 50

10
5 Additional Spring Problems
1. Two springs of constants k1 and k2 are connected in series. A mass m is attached to the end. Find
the effective spring constant and the period of oscillation.

Solution
For springs in series, the effective spring constant kef f is given by

1 1 1
= + ,
kef f k1 k2
so
k1 k2
kef f = .
k1 + k2
The period of oscillation is
s
m m(k1 + k2 )
r
T = 2π = 2π .
kef f k1 k2

2. Two springs of constants k1 and k2 are connected in parallel. A mass m is attached to the
combination. Find the effective spring constant and the period of oscillation.

Solution
For springs in parallel, the effective spring constant is

kef f = k1 + k2 .

The period of oscillation is

r
m m
r
T = 2π = 2π .
kef f k1 + k2

3. A spring of force constant k is cut into two pieces of lengths in the ratio 1:2. What are the force
constants of the two pieces?

Solution
The spring constant is inversely proportional to the length of the spring. Let the original
length be L. The lengths of the pieces are L/3 and 2L/3. Let the spring constants be k1
and k2 . Then
k1 (L/3) = k2 (2L/3) = kL.
So
k1 = 3k
and
k2 = 3k/2.

4. A mass of 1 kg is attached to a spring and it stretches the spring by 9.8 cm. The mass is pulled
down by 5 cm and released. Find the period of oscillation and the maximum velocity.

11
 Solution
From
mg = kx,
we have
1 × 9.8 = k × 0.098,
so k = 100 N/m. Period
p p
T = 2π m/k = 2π 1/100 = 2π/10 = π/5 s.

Amplitude A = 5 cm = 0.05 m. Maximum velocity

p p
vmax = Aω = A k/m = 0.05 × 100/1 = 0.5 m/s.

5. A block of mass m1 is attached to a spring of constant k and placed on a smooth horizontal

surface. Another block of mass m2 is placed on top of the first block. The coefficient of static
friction between the blocks is µs . Find the maximum amplitude of oscillation such that the blocks
move together.

m2
m1

Solution
The maximum acceleration of the system is
k
amax = ω 2 A = A.
m1 + m2
The force on the top block is F = m2 a. The maximum frictional force is

fmax = µs m2 g.

For the blocks to move together, F ≤ fmax , so

m2 amax ≤ µs m2 g.

This gives
amax ≤ µs g.
So
k
A ≤ µs g,
m1 + m2
which means
µs g(m1 + m2 )
A≤ .
k

6 Advanced Calculus-based Dynamics Problems

1. A rocket of initial mass M0 (including fuel) is launched vertically. It expels fuel at a constant rate
α with a constant relative velocity u. Find the velocity of the rocket as a function of time.

12
 Altitude

Rocket

αu

Solution
The mass of the rocket at time t is

M (t) = M0 − αt.

The equation of motion is

dv
M = −M g + αu.
dt
So
dv αu
= −g + .
dt M0 − αt
Integrating with respect to t, we get

v(t) = −gt − u ln(M0 − αt) + C.

At t = 0, v = 0, so
C = u ln(M0 ).
M0
v(t) = −gt + u ln( ).
M0 − αt

2. A particle is projected with velocity v0 at an angle θ to the horizontal. The air resistance is
proportional to the velocity, with proportionality constant k. Find the equations of motion.

Solution
The equations of motion are
d2 x dx
m 2
= −k
dt dt
and
d2 y dy
m 2
= −mg − k .
dt dt
The x-equation gives
dx
= vx (0)e−kt/m = v0 cos(θ)e−kt/m .
dt
Integrating again gives
mv0 cos(θ)
x(t) = (1 − e−kt/m ).
k

13
 The y-equation is
dvy k
= −g − vy .
dt m
This is a linear first-order ODE. The solution is
mg −kt/m mg
vy (t) = (v0 sin(θ) + )e − .
k k
Integrating again gives
m mg −kt/m mg
y(t) = − (v0 sin(θ) + )e − t + C.
k k k
At t = 0, y = 0, so
m mg
C= (v0 sin(θ) + ).
k k

3. A simple pendulum of length l has a bob of mass m. The pendulum is released from rest at an
angle θ0 . Find the period of oscillation for small angles.

Solution
The equation of motion is
d2 θ
ml = −mg sin(θ).
dt2
For small angles, sin(θ) ≈ θ, so we have

d2 θ g
+ θ = 0.
dt2 l
This is the equation for SHM with ω 2 = g/l. The period is
s
2π l
T = = 2π .
ω g

4. A particle of mass m is attached to the end of a light string of length l. The other end of the string
is attached to a fixed point. The particle moves in a a horizontal circle with constant angular
velocity ω. Find the tension in the string.

Solution
Let θ be the angle the string makes with the vertical. The forces on the particle are tension

14
 T and gravity mg. The vertical component of tension balances gravity:

T cos(θ) = mg.

The horizontal component provides the centripetal force:

T sin(θ) = mω 2 (l sin(θ)).

From the second equation,

T = mω 2 l.
Then
cos(θ) = g/(ω 2 l).
For a solution to exist, ω 2 l > g.

5. A bead of mass m is free to slide on a smooth circular wire of radius a which is rotating with
constant angular velocity ω about a vertical diameter. Find the positions of equilibrium.

Solution
Let θ be the angle the radius to the bead makes with the vertical. The forces on the bead are
gravity mg, the normal reaction N from the wire, and the centripetal force. The equation
of motion in the tangential direction is

−mg sin(θ) + mω 2 a sin(θ) cos(θ) = 0.

This gives
g
sin(θ)(− + ω 2 cos(θ)) = 0.
a
So sin(θ) = 0 (which means θ = 0 or θ = π) or
g
cos(θ) = .
aω 2
The equilibrium positions are at the lowest point (θ = 0), the highest point (θ = π), and at
cos(θ) = aωg 2 if ω 2 > g/a.

7 Further Advanced Calculus-based Dynamics Problems

1. A uniform chain of length L and mass M is held vertically with its lower end just touching a table.
The chain is released. Find the force on the table when a length x of the chain has fallen.

15
 Solution
The force on the table is the sum of the weight of the part of the chain on the table and
the force due to the impact of the falling part. The mass per unit length is λ = M/L. The
weight of the chain on the table is
W = (λx)g.
The velocity of the falling part is p
v= 2gx.
The rate of mass falling on the table is
dm p
= λv = λ 2gx.
dt
The force due to impact is
dm
Fimpact = v = v(λv) = λv 2 = λ(2gx) = 2λgx.
dt
The total force is
3M gx
F = W + Fimpact = λxg + 2λgx = 3λgx = .
L

2. A particle of mass m moves under a central force F = −k/r2 . Show that the angular momentum
is conserved.

Solution
The torque on the particle is
⃗τ = ⃗r × F⃗ .
Since the force is central, F⃗ is parallel to ⃗r. So,

⃗τ = ⃗r × F⃗ = 0.

The rate of change of angular momentum is equal to the torque. So,

⃗
dL
= ⃗τ = 0.
dt
⃗ is a constant vector, i.e., it is conserved.
This means the angular momentum L

3. A spherical raindrop falls from rest. It accumulates moisture at a rate proportional to its surface
area. Find the acceleration of the raindrop.

Solution
Let the radius of the raindrop be r and its mass be m. The mass is
4 3
m= πr ρ,
3
where ρ is the density of water. The rate of change of mass is
dm
= k(4πr2 ),
dt
where k is a constant. So,
d 4 3 dr
( πr ρ) = 4πr2 ρ = k(4πr2 ).
dt 3 dt
This gives
dr
= k/ρ,
dt

16
 so r = (k/ρ)t + r0 . Let’s assume r0 = 0. So r = (k/ρ)t. The equation of motion is

d
(mv) = mg.
dt
So
dv dm
m +v = mg.
dt dt
We have
dm
= 4πr2 k = 4π(k/ρ)2 t2 k.
dt
And
4 4πk 3 3
m= π(k/ρ)3 t3 ρ = t .
3 3ρ2
Substituting these into the equation of motion and solving for acceleration a = dv/dt gives
3v
a=g− .
t

4. A particle is projected up a smooth inclined plane of inclination α with a velocity u. The resistance
to motion is k times the velocity. Find the distance the particle travels before coming to rest.

Solution
The equation of motion is
dv
m = −mg sin α − kv.
dt
We can write this as
dv
v = −g sin α − (k/m)v.
dx
So Z 0 Z x
v
dv = dx.
u −g sin α − (k/m)v 0

The integral on the left can be solved using partial fractions. Let a = g sin α and b = k/m.
We have Z 0
v
dv = x.
u −a − bv
This gives
m mg sin α
x= [−ku − mg sin α ln( )].
k2 mg sin α + ku

5. A particle of mass m is attached to a light elastic string of natural length a and modulus of elasticity
λ. The other end of the string is fixed at a point O. The particle is let fall from O. Find the greatest
extension of the string.

Solution
Let the greatest extension be x. By conservation of energy, the loss in potential energy is
equal to the gain in elastic potential energy. So,

λx2
mg(a + x) = .
2a
This is a quadratic equation in x:
λ 2
x − mgx − mga = 0.
2a

17
Solving for x gives s
mga 2λ
x= (1 + 1+ ).
λ mga

18
 Honours Level Dynamics for BCS Exam
Part-1, Group-B: Motion in a Plane
Gemini
September 26, 2025

1 Motion in a Plane: Cartesian Coordinates

1.1 Theory
Motion in a plane can be described by the position vector

⃗r(t) = x(t)î + y(t)ĵ.

The velocity vector is the time derivative of the position vector.

Velocity in Cartesian Coordinates

d⃗r dx dy
⃗v (t) = = î + ĵ = vx î + vy ĵ
dt dt dt

The acceleration vector is the time derivative of the velocity vector.

Acceleration in Cartesian Coordinates

d⃗v d2 x d2 y
⃗a(t) = = 2 î + 2 ĵ = ax î + ay ĵ
dt dt dt

1.2 Problems
1. The position of a particle is given by ⃗r(t) = (3t2 −1)î+(t3 −3t)ĵ. Find the velocity and acceleration
at t = 2.

Solution
Velocity
d⃗r
⃗v (t) = = 6tî + (3t2 − 3)ĵ.
dt
At t = 2,
⃗v (2) = 12î + 9ĵ.
Acceleration
d⃗v
⃗a(t) = = 6î + 6tĵ.
dt
At t = 2,
⃗a(2) = 6î + 12ĵ.

2. A particle moves in the xy-plane with a velocity ⃗v = (2t − 2)î + (3t2 )ĵ. If the particle is at the
origin at t = 0, find its position at t = 1.

1
 Solution
Position is the integral of velocity.
Z Z
⃗
⃗r(t) = ⃗v (t)dt = ((2t − 2)î + (3t2 )ĵ)dt = (t2 − 2t)î + t3 ĵ + C.

⃗ = 0. Thus,
At t = 0, ⃗r(0) = 0, so C

⃗r(t) = (t2 − 2t)î + t3 ĵ.

At t = 1,
⃗r(1) = (1 − 2)î + 1ĵ = −î + ĵ.

3. A particle moves with constant acceleration ⃗a = 2î − 3ĵ. At t = 0, the particle is at the origin with
velocity ⃗v0 = 5ĵ. Find the position vector at any time t.

Solution
Velocity Z Z
⃗v (t) = ⃗adt = ⃗ 1.
(2î − 3ĵ)dt = 2tî − 3tĵ + C

⃗ 1 = 5ĵ. Thus,
At t = 0, ⃗v (0) = 5ĵ, so C

⃗v (t) = 2tî + (5 − 3t)ĵ.

Position Z Z
3 ⃗ 2.
⃗r(t) = ⃗v (t)dt = (2tî + (5 − 3t)ĵ)dt = t2 î + (5t − t2 )ĵ + C
2
⃗ 2 = 0. Thus,
At t = 0, ⃗r(0) = 0, so C
3
⃗r(t) = t2 î + (5t − t2 )ĵ.
2

4. The coordinates of a particle moving in a plane are given by x(t) = A cos(ωt) and y(t) = B sin(ωt).
Find the equation of the path of the particle.

Solution
x y
We have A = cos(ωt) and B = sin(ωt). Squaring and adding gives

x2 y2
+ = cos2 (ωt) + sin2 (ωt) = 1.
A2 B2
This is the equation of an ellipse.

5. A particle moves in a plane with velocity components vx = c1 and vy = c2 + at. Find the path of
the particle.

Solution
dx dy
We have dt = c1 and dt = c2 + at. Integrating gives

x = c1 t + d1

and
1
y = c2 t + at2 + d2 .
2

2
 From the first equation, t = (x − d1 )/c1 . Substituting into the second equation gives

x − d1 1 x − d1 2
y = c2 + a( ) + d2 .
c1 2 c1
This is a parabolic path.

2 Motion in a Plane: Polar Coordinates

2.1 Theory
Position can be described by (r, θ). The unit vectors in polar coordinates are r̂ and θ̂.
y

θ̂

r̂

θ
x

The derivatives of the polar unit vectors are dr̂ dθ̂

dt = θ̇ θ̂ and dt = −θ̇r̂.
The velocity in polar coordinates has radial and transverse components.

Velocity in Polar Coordinates

d dr̂
⃗v = (rr̂) = ṙr̂ + r = ṙr̂ + rθ̇θ̂
dt dt

The acceleration in polar coordinates has radial and transverse components.

Acceleration in Polar Coordinates

d⃗v
⃗a = = (r̈ − rθ̇2 )r̂ + (rθ̈ + 2ṙθ̇)θ̂
dt

2.2 Problems
1. The position of a particle in polar coordinates is given by r = 2t and θ = 3t. Find the velocity and
acceleration at t = 1.

Solution

At t = 1, r = 2, θ = 3. ṙ = 2, r̈ = 0, θ̇ = 3, θ̈ = 0. Velocity

⃗v = 2r̂ + 2(3)θ̂ = 2r̂ + 6θ̂.

Acceleration
⃗a = (0 − 2(32 ))r̂ + (2(0) + 2(2)(3))θ̂ = −18r̂ + 12θ̂.

2. A particle moves in a circle of radius a with constant angular velocity ω. Find the velocity and
acceleration.

3
 Solution

Here r = a (constant), so ṙ = 0, r̈ = 0. θ̇ = ω (constant), so θ̈ = 0. Velocity

⃗v = 0r̂ + aω θ̂ = aω θ̂.

Acceleration
⃗a = (0 − aω 2 )r̂ + (0 + 0)θ̂ = −aω 2 r̂.
This is the centripetal acceleration.

3. A particle moves along the spiral r = eθ . If the angular velocity θ̇ is constant and equal to ω, find
the velocity and acceleration.

Solution

r = eθ , so ṙ = eθ θ̇ = rω. r̈ = ṙω = rω 2 . θ̈ = 0. Velocity

⃗v = rωr̂ + rω θ̂.

Acceleration
⃗a = (rω 2 − rω 2 )r̂ + (0 + 2(rω)ω)θ̂ = 2rω 2 θ̂.

4. If the radial and transverse velocities of a particle are always equal, show that the path is an
equiangular spiral.

Solution

Given ṙ = rθ̇. So dr dθ dr θ
dt = r dt . This gives r = dθ. Integrating gives ln(r) = θ + C, or r = Ae ,
which is the equation of an equiangular spiral.

5. A particle moves with an acceleration which is always directed towards the origin. Show that the
particle sweeps out equal areas in equal times.

Solution
The acceleration is always towards the origin, so the transverse component of acceleration
is zero.
rθ̈ + 2ṙθ̇ = 0.
Multiplying by r gives
d 2
r2 θ̈ + 2rṙθ̇ = (r θ̇) = 0.
dt
So, r2 θ̇ = h (constant). The area swept out is dA = 12 r2 dθ. So dA
dt = 12 r2 dθ
dt =
h
2, which is
constant. This is Kepler’s second law.

3 Tangential and Normal Acceleration

3.1 Theory
Velocity is always tangential to the path. Acceleration can be resolved into tangential and normal
components.

4
 y

n̂
t̂

The tangential acceleration is the rate of change of speed.

Tangential Acceleration

dv
at =
dt

The normal acceleration is directed towards the center of curvature.

Normal Acceleration

v2
an = ,
ρ
where ρ is the radius of curvature.

3.2 Problems
1. A particle moves in a circle of radius 2 m with its speed given by v = 4t. Find the tangential and
normal accelerations at t = 1 s.

Solution

At t = 1, v = 4 m/s. Tangential acceleration

dv 2
at = = 4 m/s .
dt
Normal acceleration
v2 42 2
an = = = 8 m/s .
ρ 2

2. A car is traveling at a constant speed of 20 m/s around a curve of radius 50 m. What is its
acceleration?

Solution
Since the speed is constant, the tangential acceleration is zero. The acceleration is purely
normal.
v2 202 2
a = an = = = 8 m/s ,
ρ 50
directed towards the center of the curve.

3. A particle moves along the parabola y = x2 . If the x-component of the velocity is constant, vx = c,
find the tangential and normal accelerations.

5
 Solution
√
x = ct, y = (ct)2 . So ⃗r = ctî + c2 t2 ĵ. Velocity ⃗v = cî + 2c2 tĵ. Speed v = c2 + 4c4 t2 .
Tangential acceleration
dv 4c4 t
at = =√ .
dt c + 4c4 t2
2

Acceleration ⃗a = 2c2 ĵ. Total acceleration magnitude is |⃗a| = 2c2 . Normal acceleration
r
16c8 t2 2c3
q
2 2
an = |⃗a| − at = 4c4 − 2 = √ .
c + 4c4 t2 c2 + 4c4 t2

4. A bead slides down a smooth wire bent in the shape of a cycloid x = a(θ + sin θ), y = a(1 − cos θ).
Find the acceleration.

Solution
This is a classic problem. The acceleration is constant in magnitude and is equal to g. The
proof involves using the work-energy theorem and the geometry of the cycloid.

5. A particle moves along a path such that its tangential and normal accelerations are equal. If it
starts from rest, find the path.

Solution
dv v2 ds ds
Given at = an , so dt = ρ . Also, v = dt and ρ = dψ , where ψ is the angle the tangent makes
dv dt dψ 2
with the x-axis. So v 2 = ρ = v . This gives vdv = dψ. Integrating gives v /2 = ψ + C.
Since it starts from rest, v = 0 when ψ = 0 (assuming we set the initial angle to 0), so
C = 0. So v 2 = 2ψ. Also, v = ds/dt. The path is an equiangular spiral.

4 Central Forces
4.1 Theory
A central force is a force that is always directed towards or away from a fixed point, the center of force.
A central force can be written as F⃗ = f (r)r̂. An important consequence of this is that the angular
momentum of the particle is conserved.

Conservation of Angular Momentum

⃗
dL ⃗ = constant
= 0 =⇒ L
dt

This also implies that the motion is confined to a plane.

4.2 Problems
1. Show that for a particle moving under a central force, the areal velocity is constant.

Solution
This is the same as problem 5 in the polar coordinates section. The transverse acceleration
is zero, which leads to r2 θ̇ = h (constant). The areal velocity is dA 1 2
dt = 2 r θ̇ = h/2, which is
constant.

2. A particle moves under a central force F = −k/r3 . Find the path of the particle.

6
 Solution
2
−F
The differential equation of the path is ddθu2 + u = mh 3
2 u2 , where u = 1/r. Here F = −ku .
2
So ddθu2 + u = mh
ku
2 . This is a SHM-type equation. The solution is u = A cos(ωθ + ϕ), where

ω = 1 − k/(mh2 ). The path is a precessing ellipse.

2

3. A particle of mass m is subject to a central force F (r) = −kr. Find the trajectory.

Solution
This is a simple harmonic oscillator in 3D. The motion is an ellipse centered at the origin.

4. The potential energy of a particle of mass m in a central force field is V (r) = −k/r. Find the force
and the differential equation of the orbit.

Solution

The force is F = − dV 2
dr = −k/r . This is the gravitational force. The differential equation
d2 u k
of the orbit is dθ2 + u = mh2 . The solution is a conic section.

5. A particle is moving in a circular orbit of radius r0 under an inverse square law force F = −k/r2 .
The particle is given a small radial impulse. Show that the subsequent oscillations about the
circular orbit are simple harmonic and find the frequency.

Solution
2 dV
L k ef f
The effective potential is Vef f (r) = 2mr 2 − r . For a circular orbit, dr |r0 = 0. A small
radial impulse leads to oscillations around r0 . The frequency of these oscillations is given
2
1 d Vef f
by ω 2 = m dr 2 |r0 . We find s
k
ω= .
mr03

7
 Honours Level Dynamics for BCS Exam
Part-1, Group-B: Central Forces
Gemini
September 26, 2025

1 Central Forces: Detailed Theory

1.1 Introduction
A central force is a force that is always directed towards or away from a fixed point, the center of force.
The magnitude of the force depends only on the distance from the center. A central force can be written
as F⃗ = f (r)r̂. Examples include the gravitational force and the electrostatic force.

1.2 Conservation Laws

1.2.1 Conservation of Angular Momentum
The torque on a particle due to a central force is

⃗τ = ⃗r × F⃗ = ⃗r × f (r)r̂ = 0.

Since the torque is the rate of change of angular momentum,

⃗
dL
= ⃗τ = 0.
dt

Conservation of Angular Momentum

⃗ = ⃗r × p⃗ = constant
L

This has two important consequences:

⃗
1. The motion of the particle is confined to a plane perpendicular to the constant vector L.
2. The areal velocity is constant (Kepler’s Second Law).

1.2.2 Conservation of Energy

If the central force is conservative, it can be derived from a potential energy function V (r) such that
f (r) = − dV
dr . The total energy of the system is the sum of kinetic and potential energy:

Conservation of Energy

1
E =T +V = m|⃗v |2 + V (r) = constant
2

1.3 Equation of Motion and Binet’s Equation

The equation of motion is m⃗a = f (r)r̂. In polar coordinates, this becomes:

m(r̈ − rθ̇2 ) = f (r)

m(rθ̈ + 2ṙθ̇) = 0

1
The second equation gives mr2 θ̇ = L (constant angular momentum). We can use this to eliminate t from
d Lu2 d
the equations and find the shape of the orbit. Let u = 1/r. Then θ̇ = Lu2 /m. And dt = dθ d
dt dθ = m dθ .
This leads to the famous Binet’s Equation for the trajectory:

Binet’s Equation

d2 u m
+ u = − 2 2 f (1/u)
dθ2 L u

1.4 Differential Equations for Common Central Forces

1.4.1 Inverse-Square Law
For an inverse-square law force, f (r) = −k/r2 = −ku2 . Binet’s equation becomes:

d2 u mk
+u= 2
dθ2 L
This is the differential equation for conic sections.

1.4.2 Hooke’s Law (Simple Harmonic Oscillator)

For a linear restoring force, f (r) = −kr = −k/u. Binet’s equation becomes:

d2 u mk
2
+u= 2 3
dθ L u

1.4.3 Inverse-Cube Law

For an inverse-cube law force, f (r) = −k/r3 = −ku3 . Binet’s equation becomes:

d2 u mk
2
+u= 2 u
dθ L
d2 u mk
2
+ (1 − 2 )u = 0
dθ L
This gives different types of trajectories depending on the sign of (1 − mk/L2 ).

1.5 Effective Potential Energy

The total energy can be written as

1 1 L2
E= m(ṙ2 + r2 θ̇2 ) + V (r) = mṙ2 + + V (r).
2 2 2mr2
We define the effective potential energy as:

Effective Potential Energy

L2
Vef f (r) = + V (r)
2mr2

2
L
The term 2mr 2 is called the centrifugal potential. The motion can be thought of as a 1D problem in

r with this effective potential.

2
 V (r)

Vef f

E>0

r
E<0
Emin

1.6 Inverse-Square Law and Kepler’s Laws

For an inverse-square law force, f (r) = −k/r2 , Binet’s equation becomes:

d2 u mk
+u= 2
dθ2 L
This is a simple harmonic oscillator equation with a constant term. The solution is:
1 mk
u= = 2 (1 + e cos(θ − θ0 ))
r L
This is the equation of a conic section with eccentricity e. The type of orbit depends on the total energy
E:
• E > 0 =⇒ e > 1: Hyperbola (unbound orbit)
• E = 0 =⇒ e = 1: Parabola (unbound orbit)
• E < 0 =⇒ 0 ≤ e < 1: Ellipse or Circle (bound orbit)

3
1.7 Problems
1. A satellite is in a circular orbit of radius R around the Earth. What is its speed?

Solution
For a circular orbit, the gravitational force provides the centripetal force.
r
GM m mv 2 GM
= =⇒ v = .
R2 R R

2. A comet is in a parabolic orbit around the Sun. Find its speed when it is at a distance r from the
Sun.

Solution
For a parabolic orbit, the total energy is zero.
r
1 GM m 2GM
E = mv 2 − = 0 =⇒ v = .
2 r r
This is the escape velocity at distance r.

3. A planet has a semi-major axis a and eccentricity e. Find its speed at perihelion and aphelion.

4
 Solution

At perihelion, rp = a(1 − e). At aphelion, ra = a(1 + e). By conservation of angular

momentum, rp vp = ra va . By conservation of energy, 21 mvp2 − GM
rp
m
= 12 mva2 − GM m
ra .
Solving these two equations gives
r
GM 1 + e
vp =
a 1−e
and r
GM 1 − e
va = .
a 1+e

4. Show that for an elliptical orbit, the period squared is proportional to the semi-major axis cubed
(Kepler’s Third Law).

Solution
√
The area of an ellipse is A = πab = πa2 1 − e2 . The areal velocity is dA L
dt = 2m . The period
2
√
2
p
A
is T = dA/dt = 2mπa L 1−e . For an elliptical orbit, L = GM m2 a(1 − e2 ). Substituting
this gives
4π 2 3
T2 = a .
GM

5. A particle of mass m is projected from a point P at a distance R from the center of force O with
velocity V in a direction making an angle α with OP. The force is F = −k/r2 . Find the eccentricity
of the orbit.

Solution

The energy is E = 21 mV 2 − R
k
. The angular momentum is L = mV R sin α. The eccentricity
is given by r
2EL2
e= 1+ .
mk 2
Substituting the expressions for E and L gives the eccentricity in terms of the initial con-
ditions.

5
 Honours Level Dynamics for BCS Exam
Part-1, Group-B: Motion in a Resisting Medium
Gemini
September 26, 2025

1 Motion in a Resisting Medium: Theory

1.1 Introduction
When a body moves through a fluid (like air or water), it experiences a resistance force, or drag, which
opposes the motion. This force generally depends on the velocity of the body.
The drag force is a non-conservative force that dissipates energy.

1.2 Resistance Proportional to Velocity (Linear Drag)

At low speeds, the drag force is approximately proportional to the velocity (Stokes’ Drag).

Linear Drag Force

F⃗d = −k⃗v

1.2.1 Equation of Motion

For a body falling vertically under gravity and linear drag, the equation of motion is:
dv
m = mg − kv
dt

1.2.2 Terminal Velocity

As the speed increases, the drag force increases until it balances the gravitational force. At this point, the
acceleration is zero, and the body falls at a constant speed called the terminal velocity, vt . At terminal
velocity, the net force is zero.
mg
mg − kvt = 0 =⇒ vt =
k

1.2.3 Velocity and Position as a Function of Time

Solving the differential equation gives the velocity as a function of time:

v(t) = vt (1 − e−kt/m )

Integrating again gives the position:

vt m
y(t) = vt t − (1 − e−kt/m )
k

1
 v(t)

vt

1.3 Resistance Proportional to the Square of Velocity (Quadratic Drag)

At higher speeds, the drag force is proportional to the square of the velocity.

Quadratic Drag Force

F⃗d = −c|v|⃗v

For vertical motion, this simplifies to Fd = −cv 2 .

1.3.1 Equation of Motion and Terminal Velocity

The equation of motion for a falling body is:
dv
m = mg − cv 2
dt
Terminal velocity is reached when mg − cvt2 = 0, so
r
mg
vt = .
c

1.3.2 Velocity as a Function of Time

Solving the differential equation gives:
gt
v(t) = vt tanh( )
vt

2 Problems
2.1 Linear Drag
1. A small sphere of mass m = 1 g falls from rest in a viscous liquid. The drag force is Fd = −kv
with k = 0.2 Ns/m. Find the terminal velocity.

Solution
Terminal velocity
mg 0.001 × 9.8
vt = = = 0.049 m/s.
k 0.2

2. For the sphere in the previous problem, find the time it takes to reach 90

Solution

We have v(t) = vt (1−e−kt/m ). We want to find t such that v(t) = 0.9vt . So, 0.9 = 1−e−kt/m ,
which gives e−kt/m = 0.1. Taking the natural log, we get −kt/m = ln(0.1), so

m ln(0.1) 0.001 × ln(0.1)

t=− =− ≈ 0.0115 s.
k 0.2

2
 3. A particle is projected vertically upwards with initial velocity v0 in a medium with linear drag.
Find the time taken to reach the highest point.

Solution

The equation of motion is m dv

dt = −mg − kv. Solving this differential equation gives

m kv0
t= ln(1 + ).
k mg

4. A particle is projected horizontally with speed u in a medium with linear drag. Find the path of
the particle.

Solution

The equations of motion are mẍ = −k ẋ and mÿ = −mg − k ẏ. The solutions are x(t) =
m2 g
mu
k (1 − e
−kt/m
) and y(t) = − mgt
k + k2 (1 − e
−kt/m
). Eliminating t gives the path.

5. A particle of mass m is released from rest at a height h. The resistance is kv. Find the velocity
with which it strikes the ground.

Solution
dv k
We have v dy =g− m v. Integrating this gives

m m2 g kv
y=− v − 2 ln(1 − ).
k k mg
We can solve this for v when y = h.

2.2 Quadratic Drag

1. A skydiver of mass 80 kg falls from rest. The drag coefficient is c = 0.25 Ns2 /m2 . Find the terminal
velocity.

Solution
Terminal velocity
80 × 9.8 √
r
vt = = 3136 = 56 m/s.
0.25

2. For the skydiver in the previous problem, find the speed after falling for 10 seconds.

Solution
The speed is given by
gt 9.8 × 10
v(t) = vt tanh( ) = 56 tanh( ) = 56 tanh(1.75) ≈ 56 × 0.94 = 52.64 m/s.
vt 56

3. A baseball of mass 0.145 kg is thrown with a speed of 40 m/s. The drag coefficient is c = 0.001
Ns2 /m2 . Find the initial deceleration.

Solution

The initial deceleration is due to drag only (if thrown horizontally). The drag force is
Fd = cv 2 = 0.001 × 402 = 1.6 N. The acceleration is a = Fd /m = 1.6/0.145 ≈ 11.03 m/s2 .

3
4. A particle is projected vertically upwards with velocity v0 in a medium with quadratic drag. Find
the maximum height reached.

Solution
dv
The equation of motion is mv dy = −mg − cv 2 . Integrating this from v0 to 0 gives the
maximum height
m cv 2
h= ln(1 + 0 ).
2c mg

5. A particle is dropped from a great height. The resistance is proportional to the square of the
v2
velocity. Show that the distance fallen in time t is gt ln(cosh( vgtt )).

Solution
Rt
We have v(t) = vt tanh( vgtt ). The distance fallen is y(t) = 0
v(t′ )dt′ . Integrating tanh(ax)
gives a1 ln(cosh(ax)). So,
t
gt′ ′ gt′ v2
Z
vt gt
y(t) = vt tanh( )dt = vt [ ln(cosh( ))]t0 = t ln(cosh( )).
0 vt g vt g vt

4
 Honours Level Dynamics for BCS Exam
Part-1, Group-B: Motion in Three Dimensions
Gemini
September 26, 2025

1 Motion in Three Dimensions: Cartesian Coordinates

1.1 Theory
Motion in three dimensions can be described by the position vector

⃗r(t) = x(t)î + y(t)ĵ + z(t)k̂.

The velocity vector is the time derivative of the position vector.

Velocity in Cartesian Coordinates

d⃗r dx dy dz
⃗v (t) = = î + ĵ + k̂ = vx î + vy ĵ + vz k̂
dt dt dt dt

The acceleration vector is the time derivative of the velocity vector.

Acceleration in Cartesian Coordinates

d⃗v d2 x d2 y d2 z
⃗a(t) = = 2 î + 2 ĵ + 2 k̂ = ax î + ay ĵ + az k̂
dt dt dt dt

1.2 Problems
1. The position of a particle is given by ⃗r(t) = (t2 )î + (2t + 1)ĵ + (t3 − t)k̂. Find the velocity and
acceleration at t = 1.

Solution
Velocity
d⃗r
⃗v (t) = = 2tî + 2ĵ + (3t2 − 1)k̂.
dt
At t = 1,
⃗v (1) = 2î + 2ĵ + 2k̂.
Acceleration
d⃗v
⃗a(t) = = 2î + 6tk̂.
dt
At t = 1,
⃗a(1) = 2î + 6k̂.

2. A particle moves with constant acceleration ⃗a = 3î− ĵ +2k̂. At t = 0, its initial velocity is ⃗v0 = ĵ − k̂
and its initial position is ⃗r0 = î. Find the position vector at any time t.

1
 Solution
Velocity Z Z
⃗v (t) = ⃗adt = ⃗ 1.
(3î − ĵ + 2k̂)dt = 3tî − tĵ + 2tk̂ + C

⃗ 1 = ĵ − k̂. Thus,
At t = 0, ⃗v (0) = ĵ − k̂, so C

⃗v (t) = 3tî + (1 − t)ĵ + (2t − 1)k̂.

Position
Z Z
3 2 1 ⃗ 2.
⃗r(t) = ⃗v (t)dt = (3tî + (1 − t)ĵ + (2t − 1)k̂)dt = t î + (t − t2 )ĵ + (t2 − t)k̂ + C
2 2
⃗ 2 = î. Thus,
At t = 0, ⃗r(0) = î, so C
3 1
⃗r(t) = (1 + t2 )î + (t − t2 )ĵ + (t2 − t)k̂.
2 2

3. A projectile is fired from the origin with initial velocity ⃗v0 = v0x î + v0y ĵ + v0z k̂. Assuming no air
resistance, find the time of flight and the range.

Solution
The equations of motion are ẍ = 0, ÿ = 0, z̈ = −g. Integrating gives: vx = v0x , vy = v0y ,
vz = v0z − gt. x = v0x t, y = v0y t, z = v0z t − 21 gt2 . Time of flight: Set z = 0 (assuming it
lands at the same height). t(v0z − 12 gt) = 0. So t = 0 or t = 2vg0z . Range: The range is the
p
horizontal distance covered. If it lands in the xy-plane, the range is x2 + y 2 at t = 2vg0z .

2 Motion in Three Dimensions: Cylindrical Coordinates

2.1 Theory
Cylindrical coordinates (r, ϕ, z) are useful for problems with axial symmetry. The unit vectors are r̂, ϕ̂,
and ẑ.
y

ϕ̂
r r̂
ẑ
x

z
dr̂ dϕ̂
The derivatives of the cylindrical unit vectors are dt = ϕ̇ϕ̂ and dt = −ϕ̇r̂.
The velocity in cylindrical coordinates is:

Velocity in Cylindrical Coordinates

⃗v = ṙr̂ + rϕ̇ϕ̂ + ż ẑ

2
 The acceleration in cylindrical coordinates is:

Acceleration in Cylindrical Coordinates

⃗a = (r̈ − rϕ̇2 )r̂ + (rϕ̈ + 2ṙϕ̇)ϕ̂ + z̈ ẑ

2.2 Problems
1. A particle moves such that its cylindrical coordinates are r = t, ϕ = t, z = t2 . Find the velocity
and acceleration at t = 1.

Solution

At t = 1: r = 1, ϕ = 1, z = 1. ṙ = 1, ϕ̇ = 1, ż = 2t = 2. r̈ = 0, ϕ̈ = 0, z̈ = 2. Velocity

⃗v = 1r̂ + 1(1)ϕ̂ + 2ẑ = r̂ + ϕ̂ + 2ẑ.

Acceleration

⃗a = (0 − 1(12 ))r̂ + (1(0) + 2(1)(1))ϕ̂ + 2ẑ = −r̂ + 2ϕ̂ + 2ẑ.

2. A particle moves on the surface of a cylinder of radius R. Its position is given by r = R, ϕ = ωt,
z = vt. Find the velocity and acceleration.

Solution

Here r = R (constant), ṙ = 0, r̈ = 0. ϕ = ωt, ϕ̇ = ω, ϕ̈ = 0. z = vt, ż = v, z̈ = 0. Velocity

⃗v = 0r̂ + Rω ϕ̂ + vẑ = Rω ϕ̂ + vẑ.

Acceleration
⃗a = (0 − Rω 2 )r̂ + (R(0) + 2(0)(ω))ϕ̂ + 0ẑ = −Rω 2 r̂.

3 Motion in Three Dimensions: Spherical Coordinates

3.1 Theory
Spherical coordinates (R, θ, ϕ) are useful for problems with spherical symmetry. The unit vectors are R̂,
θ̂, and ϕ̂.
y

θ̂
ϕ̂R R̂
x

The velocity in spherical coordinates is:

3
 Velocity in Spherical Coordinates

⃗v = ṘR̂ + Rθ̇θ̂ + R sin θϕ̇ϕ̂

The acceleration in spherical coordinates is:

Acceleration in Spherical Coordinates

⃗a = (R̈ − Rθ̇2 − R sin2 θϕ̇2 )R̂ + (Rθ̈ + 2Ṙθ̇ − R sin θ cos θϕ̇2 )θ̂ + (R sin θϕ̈ + 2Ṙ sin θϕ̇ + 2R cos θθ̇ϕ̇)ϕ̂

3.2 Problems
1. A particle moves such that its spherical coordinates are R = t, θ = π/2, ϕ = t. Find the velocity
and acceleration at t = 1.

Solution

At t = 1: R = 1, θ = π/2, ϕ = 1. Ṙ = 1, θ̇ = 0, ϕ̇ = 1. R̈ = 0, θ̈ = 0, ϕ̈ = 0. Velocity

⃗v = 1R̂ + 1(0)θ̂ + 1 sin(π/2)(1)ϕ̂ = R̂ + ϕ̂.

Acceleration

⃗a = (0−1(0)2 −1 sin2 (π/2)(1)2 )R̂+(1(0)+2(1)(0)−1 sin(π/2) cos(π/2)(1)2 )θ̂+(1 sin(π/2)(0)+2(1) sin(π/2)(1)+2(

⃗a = −R̂ + 2ϕ̂.