Chemistry exam:
States of matter:
Distinguishing properties:
The kinetic theory:
● All matter is made up of particles
● The kinetic theory describes and explains the states of matter and their
interconversions in terms of movement, arrangement of particles and forces of
attraction between them
1. Solid:
Particles packed tightly in a regular arrangement and are close and touching
Have a fixed shape and fixed volume
Does not flow and is not easily compressible
Strongest force of attraction but slowest speed of movement
Vibrate in fixed positions
2. Liquid:
Particles close and some are touching but irregular arrangement
No fixed shape (takes that of the containers) and fixed volume
Flows easily but not easy to compress
Force of attraction weaker than solid but still strong and faster than solid speed wise
Slide over each other in a continuous random motion
3. Gas:
Particles far apart in an irregular arrangement
No fixed shape nor fixed volume (both take that of the container)
Flows easily and easy to compress
Force of attraction weakest and fastest speed wise
Fast and random in every direction
Definitions to know:
1. Gas:The state of matter where the particles havethe most energy. The particles in a
gas are relatively spread out and move randomly in all directions.
2. Liquid:The state of matter where the particles are arranged randomly and close
together. The particles are able to move past each other.
3. Solid:The state of matter where the particles holda regular arrangement and have the
least amount of energy. The particles vibrate in fixed positions.
4. Kinetic particle theory:The theory which models thethree states of matter by
representing the particles as small solid spheres. Kinetic theory can help to explain
melting, boiling, freezing, condensing and sublimation.
5. Sublimation:The process of a solid turning straightinto a gas, without first becoming a
liquid.
Changes of state:
● Melting:Solid to liquid (gain of energy(faster))
● Boiling:Liquid to gas. Bubbles of gas will form throughoutthe liquid, rising to the
surface to evaporate into the surroundings.(gain of energy(faster))
● Evaporation:Liquid to gas. The particles of gas formedwill escape from the surface of
the liquid only. (gain of energy(faster))
● Freezing:Liquid to solid (loss of energy(slower))
● Condensation: Gas to liquid (loss of energy(slower))
● Sublimation:Solid to gas (loss of energy(slower))
NOTE:melting and freezing happen at the melting point
Boiling and condensing happen at the boiling point
Explaining changes of state using kinetic theory:
1. Melting:
heat transferred so more kinetic energy so particles vibrate faster which leads to
particles being able to overcome the intermolecular forces holding them in place and
break the bonds of attraction until eventually it becomes a liquid and temperature stays
constant during the process
2. Vapourization(boiling and evaporation)
Heat energy is absorbed until particles gain enough energy so particles slide over each
other faster then they can overcome all intermolecular forces and now they can move
freely and far apart and temp stays constant while boiling
3. Freezing:
● Heat energy is RELEASED to the surroundings so particles lose kinetic energy and
move more slowly so intermolecular forces become stronger and hold particles in fixed
positions then liquid becomes solid temp stays constant during freezing
4. Condensation:
Heat energy is RELEASED to the surroundings so particles lose kinetic energy and
move closer together and move slower so intermolecular forces become stronger till
bonds are formed between particles and they start sliding over each other and temp
stays constant during condensation
5. Sublimation :
Particles gain enough energy to completely overcome forces without passing through
the liquid state
6. Desublimation :
Particles lose energy to go straight to the solid state
● Example of a heating graph as we go up more heat is transferred (more kinetic
energy)
● Down below explains how for example people have the common mistake of
believing that if they increase the temp on a liquid the temperature during the
change will not stay the same but will be used in making it faster
● In aheating curve, when heat is supplied the particles gain kinetic energy and
the temperature rises. At a change of state,, the temperature stays constant
because the added energy is used to overcome intermolecular forces instead of
raising the kinetic energy.
Cooling curves:
As you can see temp stays constant during these changes
● In acooling curve, when heat is removed the particleslose kinetic energy and the
temperature falls. During a change of state, such as freezing or condensation, the
temperature remains constant because energy is released as intermolecular forces
form. After the change of state has finished, the temperature continues to drop as the
particles slow down further.
Effects of Impurities:
● Melting:lowers the melting point and becomes overa range
● Boiling:raises the boiling point and it occurs overa range
● Reason:The extra particles from impurities disruptthe regular structure of the
substance, so it requires less energy to melt but more energy to boil.
Effect of pressure and temperature on gas volume:.
1. Temperature:
● Increasing temperature → particles move faster → collide more → volume
increases.
● Decreasing temperature → particles move slower → volume decreases.
2. Pressure:
● Increasing pressure → particles forced closer → volume decreases.
● Decreasing pressure → particles spread out → volume increases.
● NOTE:more temperature more volume less density
● More pressure higher density
● Pressure in gas is made by gas particles hitting the inside walls of the container
Summary :
● Gas volume increases with higher temperature and decreases with higher pressure
● Gas volume decreases with lower temperature and increases with lower pressure
● Fixed volume: temperature ↑ → pressure ↑, temperature ↓ → pressure ↓
● Constant pressure: temperature ↑ → volume ↑, temperature ↓ → volume ↓
Diffusion:
efine: the random movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low
D
concentration until evenly distributed
Factors that affect the rate:
● State: gas is fastest and solid doesn't
● Mass:(of one particle) the lighter the faster
● Temperature : more temp the faster
● Concentration gradient: Greater difference in concentration → faster diffusion
NOTE:ammonia and hydrochloric acid is a very commonexample you must have memorized
and the result is always the same :
Explain using the kinetic particle
theory:
The ammonia molecules have a
lighter relative molecular mass
so the particles are able to
diffuse faster so it meets hcl at
an area closer to the end of hcl
Atomic structure and the periodic table:
Elements compounds and mixtures:
Some quick definitions :
● Atom: the smallest particle from which all substances are made of
● molecules :2 or more atoms chemically bonded (are not easily separated)
● Compound: substance made by 2 or more elements chemically bonded
● Pure substance: consists of one type of element or compound
● Element: a pure substance made up of only one type of atom and cannot be simplified
into simpler substances
● Mixtures: 2 or more substances physically mixed and can be separated by simple
means
NOTE:atoms of each element have a different sizeand mass in comparison to another element
Everything can be classified into element mixture or compound
Periodic table and the structure of an atom:
● The periodic table only shows elements and the rows are called periods and columns
are called groups
● Groups have similar properties such as vigorosity to water and number of electrons on
the outer shell
● Periods show the time the element was discovered in
This is the key for the PERIODIC table only we will
show you another key for how you will write the
description of the atom
This is how you will write the description. Also keep in mind for non ionic elements the atomic
number is the same as the electron number and neutron is also the same for non isotopes and
so far in chem protons are unchangeable.
Atomic structure:
● Each atom is made up of subatomic particles:protons,neutrons,electrons
● The proton and neutron are located in the middle of the atom and is called the nucleus
● The electrons are located outside the nucleus and move in orbital shells
This is the structure of an atom the way
the electrons are organized is called the
electron configuration and it shows the
maximum that each shell holds for
example the first shell holds 2 the second
holds 8 the electron configuration for the
atom on the right is 2,3
Must know that relative
mass has several
numerical values such as
1/1830 1/1836 and the
one showed before as
either can come
Electron configuration:
● Same electron configuration so same chemical properties
Isotopes :
● Isotopes are different atoms of thesameelementthatcontain the same number of
protonsbut a different number ofneutrons
Why isotopes share properties:
● Isotopes display thesame chemical characteristics
● This is because they have the same number of electrons in their outer shells, and this is
what determines their chemistry
● The difference between isotopes is the neutrons which are neutral particles within the
nucleus and add mass only
● The difference in mass affects the physical properties, such as density, boiling point and
melting point
Ions :
● A nionis an electrically charged atom or group ofatoms formed by theloss or gain of
electrons
● This loss or gain of electrons takes place to obtain afulloutershellof electrons
● Negative ions are calledanionsand form when atomsgainelectrons, meaning they
have more electrons than protons
● Positive ions are calledcationsand form when atomsloseelectrons, meaning they
have more protons than e
Forming of a cation Forming of an anion
