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 A practical guide on
quality management in spinning
 A practical guide on
quality management
in spinning

B. Purushothama

WOODHEAD PUBLISHING INDIA PVT LTD

New Delhi ● Cambridge ● Philadelphia
Published by Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd.
Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd., G-2, Vardaan House, 7/28, Ansari Road
Daryaganj, New Delhi – 110002, India
www.woodheadpublishingindia.com

Woodhead Publishing Limited, 80 High Street, Sawston, Cambridge,

CB22 3HJ UK

Woodhead Publishing USA 1518 Walnut Street, Suite1100, Philadelphia

www.woodheadpublishing.com

First published 2011, Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd.

© Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd., 2011

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded
sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission. Reasonable efforts have
been made to publish reliable data and information, but the authors and the
publishers cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials. Neither
the authors nor the publishers, nor anyone else associated with this publication,
shall be liable for any loss, damage or liability directly or indirectly caused or
alleged to be caused by this book.
Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any
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Publishing India Pvt. Ltd. for such copying.

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Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd. ISBN: 978-93-80308-08-1

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Typeset by Sunshine Graphics, New Delhi

Printed and bound by Sanat Printers, New Delhi
 Preface

Quality is demanded by all and customer of spinning is no exemption. The

quality has dimensions of product parameters, timely delivery and
affordable price and also after sales service. To produce quality is not one
man’s job. It is a combined effort of all in the organization and also of the
customers.
In my experience of 38 years in various spinning mills, in various
positions from Production Supervisor to Production Manager, Chief of
R&D and Quality Assurance and also in my interactions with various
research associations, professional associations etc, I could learn various
aspects responsible for getting the quality. In this book an effort is made
to recollect them and put in simple possible way so that people in the
industry can take advantage. Some of the new concepts of Quality are
explained in this book, which are not normally explained in other books.
The book starts with the concepts of quality management system and
then the objectives of product. We normally get various norms for quality
of yarns, updated from time to time, by various research associations and
also from customers. However, they are not end use specific, but are broadly
classified as carded and combed, hosiery and weaving yarns etc. However,
in reality the customers are interested in the yarns to meet their specific
requirements. Therefore, in this book, the concepts of product objectives
and the impact of product features at customer’s end is discussed with
some examples.
To produce good quality, one needs to take action at the source of
generation of poor quality. Hence the reasons for getting poor quality is
discussed in details with four angles viz. the raw material, the work
practices, the machinery conditions and adapting of appropriate technology.
The Processwise nonconformities normally observed and the normal
complaints from the customers are then discussed. In order to achieve the
required results, monitoring the processes with suitable control points and
check points are essential. They are discussed in detail.
This book has targeted the shop floor technicians and students willing
to become a spinner. The developments in the spinning field in terms of
latest machinery are not discussed here, but the concentration is on tuning
and maintaining the existing machinery and trying to get best out of it by
xiv Preface

good work practices. If we do not know how to get best out of the existing
machinery and technology, we cannot get success even with latest
machineries.
I hope the technicians and the industry get some benefit out of this
book and would be able to cater to their customers with the quality they
require, so that the industry can progress. I am very much thankful to
Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd., for coming forward to publish this
book and encouraging me to write a useful book.

B. Purushothama
 1
Introduction to quality management

Quality cannot be inspected into a product; it is either there or not.

It must be bred into the making of the product by the operative; this
is where quality starts. – Phillip Crosby

1.1 Introduction
Quality management consists of four parts, viz., quality planning, quality
control, quality assurance and quality improvement. Quality planning deals
with planning the activities to meet the customer needs, whereas quality
control deals with monitoring the activities using different control points
and checks to ensure bad quality does not go to the customer. Quality
assurance is focused on establishing systems and procedures to ensure
that quality is achieved all the time and quality improvement concentrates
on changing needs of the customers and proactively works for improving
the levels of quality not only of the product but also of the systems targeting
reduction in costs, timely services and delivery in time while adhering to
product quality, legal and regulatory requirements and ethical values
(Fig. 1.1).

1.1 Components of quality management.

Quality planning is the process of planning the production activities in

order to achieve the goals of meeting the customer requirements in time,
within the available resources. Understanding the customer’s needs is the
first step in the process. It is defined in IS/ISO 9000:2000 as “Part of
Quality Management focused on setting Quality Objectives and specifying
necessary operational processes and related resources to fulfill the Quality

1
2 A practical guide on quality management in spinning

Objectives”. The product and service provision planning process in ISO

9001:2000 defines the following controls, as appropriate to the product,
which is called a quality plan:
● the quality objectives and regulations
● the necessary processes, documents and resources
● the required checks and criteria for product acceptance
● the records needed
In textiles, the ultimate consumers and the men involved in retailing
are, normally, not technicians. Therefore, the customer’s requirements are
not clearly captured and explained as required to a shop floor technician.
Although in some cases, technicians are employed for identifying the
specific needs, the interpretation changes, and the production personnel
get a different message. Over specification is a common phenomenon
adapted to ensure reliability, which is resulting in increased expenses. Let
us take an example of 20s carded hosiery for knitting purpose. The
customers always ask for the best yarn, and often refer to a benchmark
like Uster Statistics and demand for 5% or 25% level. They never try to
realize whether that quality is required for the product being manufactured
and the technology adapted. One should understand that Uster 25%
indicates the quality level achieved by the top 25% of the mills who
participated in the survey in each parameter separately. Normally the mills
with new equipments participate in such surveys and others hesitate. All
the mills on earth are not participating. Further, unless Ms. Zellweger Uster
requests a mill to participate, the mills will not participate. That being the
case, we should try to know what is happening to the yarns made by other
mills, which are inferior to Uster 25% level. If that yarn can be used to get
the required end product, why should not we use it? Whether the quality
of yarn required for different end uses are same, e.g., hand knitting, slow-
speed knitting, high-speed knitting, etc., or for the different products with
single Jersey, pique, interlock, rib, etc., for T-shirts, socks, hand gloves,
sanitary napkin covers, undergarments, Rexene and other coated materials?
Another important point to be noted is that Zellweger Uster gives statistics
for each parameter separately, but the customers interpret that a particular
yarn made by some mill had all the parameters at Uster 5% or 25% level.
A mill with old machines, which cannot run at high speed gets a higher
elongation compared to modern mills with high-speed working and hence
comes in better level like Uster 5% level. So we should think before coming
to a conclusion.
In some cases, the customer gives a sample of yarn and asks the spinner
to match the quality. The men in laboratory analyze the properties of the
yarn sample and give report to the spinner. The spinner tries to keep the
same parameters of twist and count at spinning stage. Normally people do
 Introduction to quality management 3

not realize that the samples given are not ring frame cops but are cones,
hanks or a piece of cloth from which the yarn is taken out.
The yarn properties on cone/hank/fabric are normally different compared
to what it was at ring spinning stage. Studies have shown that the count
becomes slightly fine as we process the yarn in winding and is normally
attributed to tension and some fibre loss during winding. Normally count
becomes slightly fine in winding, especially in soft-twisted yarns like
hosiery yarns. The count becomes further fine when the yarn is bleached
or dyed in light shades, but becomes coarser when dyed with extra dark
shades.
The change in twist per metre was also observed as the yarn undergoes
winding operation. The twist increases from ring frame cop to winding.
This is attributed to the side unwinding. The increase in twist is equal to
the number of coils unwound. One can see it by winding a flat tape on a
spindle and unwinding from the nose (see Fig. 1.2). In case of side
unwinding of bobbins this change in twist is not observed.

1.2 Twisting of yarn.

The increase in TPM matches with the coils per metre of yarn. This is
irrespective of the direction of twist. Same is not the case if the cones are
rewound. The twist increases while rewinding in case of “Z” twist and
reduces in case of “S” twist. If the yarn has undergone the process of
warping or knitting, again there shall be an increase in TPM in case of
“Z” twist yarns, but a reduction in “S” twist yarns. In case of the yarn
undergoing wet processing, it is difficult to assess the correct twist per
4 A practical guide on quality management in spinning

metre. Hence while deciding the parameters in ring frames this fact is to
be kept in mind.

1.2 Understanding customer needs

If we need to be successful in the international market, we need to comply
both with the Product Quality Norms and the National and International
Trade Regulations. Unless we comply both, it shall not be possible to be
in the market. The normal requirements may be listed as follows:

Specified needs
● The average count and the tolerance
● Maximum variation (CV%) tolerated in count
● The twist per metre and the tolerance for TPM
● Maximum allowed variations in twist (CV% of TPM)
● The minimum breaking strength (RKM or CSP) and the maximum
allowed variation
● The minimum elongation at break and the maximum allowed
variations in elongation
● Maximum permitted unevenness (U%)
● Maximum limits for imperfections per KM – thick, thin and neps.
● The maximum hairiness and variations permitted
● Class-wise maximum permitted faults per 100 KM (Classimat or
Classifault)
● Maximum permissible level of contaminations
● The average cone weight and the tolerance
The unspecified needs include uniformity in shade through out the lot
and between lots, to absorb size uniformly during sizing, fault-free winding,
lower breakages at warping, sizing, looms and in knitting, able to get the
required shade of dyeing right at first time in all the lots of dyeing, able to
get the required feel of the fabric and so on.
The specific needs of a customer are easy to understand, while we need
to work hard to understand unspecified needs, which are much higher
compared to specified needs.
The product specific technical parameters include the fibre, the count,
carded or combed, for weaving or hosiery, the minimum strength required,
the twist range, the permissible U% and imperfections, the cone weight,
cone diameter and number of cones per package or per order. We also need
to consider the instructions to users by means of care labels, packing and
labeling, the other regulations like the markings as per statutory requirements,
adhering to the norms of customs, imports and exports, ethical work norms,
non-usage of harmful materials and controlling the effluents, etc.
 Introduction to quality management 5

1.3 Customer requirements.

1.4 Specified and unspecified needs of a customer.

Once the parameters needed is clear, one can plan for the raw materials,
the processes needed, the machines to work, the process controls needed,
the inspection and testing, the training needed for operators, the starting
and ending date of production, the infrastructures needed, the information
required, etc.

1.3 Quality objectives of the product

Any product manufactured should have an objective. It should be clear to
6 A practical guide on quality management in spinning

the spinner as to what is expected out of the yarn and the way in which the
yarn is supposed to work, how it should contribute for the success of the
end product to do its functions or meet the customer needs and expectations.
If the quality objectives of the product are clear then it helps in deciding
the specifications. Let us take an example of a combed hosiery yarn. When
we say combed hosiery people jump to a conclusion of TM say 3.6. But if
we discuss as to what purpose the yarn is used; whether for T-shirt, banian,
sports socks, baby socks, baby wear, candle wick, sewing thread, industrial
application like Rexene, towels, embroidery threads, etc., we get a clear
idea as to what TM is needed. For sports socks we need slightly higher
TM compared to baby socks. Candle wicks require a lower TM compared
to T-shirts. Further, we need to understand the type of machine on which
our yarn works. If knitting is done on a slow-speed machine, it can work
with a very low TM. If the knitting speed is high, then a slightly higher
TM is preferred to have good working and also lower linting. In Chapter 2
the concepts of quality objectives of products are discussed in detail.
To ensure that parameters are met all the time, internal targets are to be
fixed at each process by carefully assessing the process capability of the
plant in operation; in other words, six sigma concepts. Each mill has to
work out internal targets for each type of machine they have. The process
control norms also depend on the process and machine capability. Once the
targets are fixed, the process and procedures can be established, and resources
can be planned and provided. The inspection and test plan depends on the
customer requirements and not on the process capability or machine
capability, as the customer is least interested on the problems we have, but
is concerned about his getting correct material in time. If we give something
better than the expectation of customer without increasing the price, he shall
be happy, but shall not accept any deviation in quality in further supplies.
Hence while deciding the internal norms and acceptance criteria, one should
work very carefully. The planning for production should be done in such a
way that customer gets what he expected and we do not over do any thing.
Therefore, the important steps in quality planning are as follows:
● Understanding customer needs and deciding quality objectives of
the product.
● Identification of processes needed.
● Identification of machines to work.
● Determination of process controls and norms.
● Determination of inspection, testing and acceptance criteria.
● Planning the starting and ending time.
● Identification of persons to operate and control.
● Identification of training needs.
● Working out infrastructure requirement.
 Introduction to quality management 7

The plans need to be documented for effective follow up while

manufacturing and for monitoring the process. An effective quality plan
helps in achieving the results as expected in product and services. It is
better to prepare checklists for follow up, so as to ensure that nothing is
left out from what was planned.

1.4 Balancing the processes – quality planning

Balancing the machineries includes aspects like getting optimum utilization
of the machines, ensuring smooth flow of materials between processes,
avoiding stock build-up and starvation due to want of back material,
ensuring that the production targets are met as per customer’s delivery
requirements and at the same time ensuring that the speed and hank
organization selected give the quality of yarn as committed to customer.
The normal wastes generated in each process, both saleable and usable,
needs to be added while working out the productions.
Although the process is balanced and the machineries are allotted as
per the calculations, we see unbalancing because of working problems
encountered in certain qualities, unforeseen breakdowns, rejection of
in-process materials due to quality issues, absenteeism in certain section,
etc. The shop floor technicians need to workout alternate plans to take
care of such situation. They need to verify the suitability of alternate
process to get both quality and productivity. Normally we get quality
problems in this type of short-term adjustments, as we might not be able
to adapt all parameters as decided. We might have to accept a via-media
solution.

1.5 Quality control

A system for ensuring the maintenance of proper standards in
manufactured goods, especially by periodic random inspection of
the product. – www.answer.com
A system for achieving or maintaining the desired level of quality in
a manufactured product by inspecting samples and assessing what
changes may be needed in the manufacturing process.
– msn.encarta.freedictionary

The quality control is the process of checking and monitoring the process
and products with an intention of preventing non-conforming materials from
going to the customer. Various result areas are identified for each process
and studies are conducted to verify whether those results are being achieved.
Normally a separate set of people designated as quality controllers conduct
various studies and tests and highlight the deviations. It is the responsibility
8 A practical guide on quality management in spinning

of production and maintenance people to take actions and correct the

deviations. It is normal practice to refer the quality standards.

● Quality control and standards are one of the most important aspects
of the content of any job.
● By a quality standard we mean the establishment of the threshold at
which level of severity a defect becomes unacceptable, i.e., a fault.
● It is the equivalent of tolerances applicable to measurable factors.
The control section normally has two separate sections: one for testing
the product quality at different stages of production and also of final
product, normally termed as inspection and testing, and the second one
for studying the process, normally called as process control studies.
Normal tests done in a spinning laboratory are as follows:
Cotton – length, Micronnaire, strength, trash, neps level, colour,
honeydew content, UV absorbency
Lap – trash%, fibre length, neps
Sliver – trash, neps, U%, hank variation
Roving – U%, hank variation. Some mills have developed system for
measuring roving strength similar to Lea strength testing of yarns.
Yarn – count, count variation, TPM, Lea strength, single thread strength,
U%, imperfections, Classimat faults, appearance, snarling tendency and
hairiness

1.6 Quality assurance

A planned and systematic pattern of all actions necessary to provide
adequate confidence that the product optimally fulfils customers’
expectations, i.e., that it is problem free and well able to perform the
task it was designed for. – www.dictionary.die.net
Quality assurance concentrates on identifying various processes, their
interactions and sequence, defining the objectives of each process,
identifying the key result areas and measures to measure the results,
establishing the procedures for getting the required results, documenting
the procedures to enable everyone to follow the same, educating the people
to implement the procedures, preparing standard operating instructions to
guide the people on work spot, monitoring and measuring the performance,
taking suitable actions on deviations and continuously improving the
systems.
The involvement of all in the organization starting from the top
management to the lowest worker is essential to assure the quality products
and services to customers at all the times. In quality control we check a
small sample and take a decision about the quality of the product, and
 Introduction to quality management 9

allow it to go to customer, whereas the customer consumes everything, it

means the customer checks 100% of the products supplied by actually
working it throughout its life. The customers can judge the ability of a
company to provide them the required quality in a better way than the in-
house quality control people. We need to understand this and make all
efforts to assure customers that the products supplied by us perform as per
their expectations.
Periodic quality audits are done to ensure that everyone is following
the laid out procedures, which is very essential for the consistency in
quality. It is essential to do the linking exercises7 during quality audits to
verify organization wide implementation.

1.7 Quality improvement

Systematic approach to reduction or elimination of waste, work-back
flow, rework and losses in production process.
– www.businessdictionary.com
All quality improvement occurs on a project-by-project basis and in
no other way.” – Juran
Quality improvement is a never ending process. The customer’s needs
and expectations are continuously changing depending on the changes in
technology, economy, political situation, ambitions and dreams,
competition, etc. One needs to go on analyzing the facts and identify
potential problems in advance and take necessary precautions to survive
in the competitive world. We need to consolidate all steps we take for
improving a situation and implement them uniformly organization wide to
get consistent improvement. We need to be always on the toe for facing
challenges, benchmark the best and try to re-engineer the activities and
the products to beat the competition. The use of Five Golden Questions1
for self assessment and evaluation of the maturity of implementation of
quality management system2 are essential to have continual improvement
in quality.

1.8 Five Golden Questions

The Five Golden Questions1 explained here are very simple questions, but
highly effective if we make sincere efforts to evaluate self and work for
improvement. The questions are applicable to all the activities of any
organization or person. The questions are as follows:
1. Do we have a procedure?
2. How do we ensure it as the best?
3. How did we implement?
10 A practical guide on quality management in spinning

4. Did we get the result as anticipated?

5. How do we compare ourselves with our competitors?
These questions need to be asked again and again in quality management
as and when we achieve some results. It will avoid complacency and
indicate as to where we need concentration. We should always understand
that there is no limit for achieving quality, but the competitor’s performance
is the judging factor, as to whether our quality is acceptable or not.
 2
Product quality objectives

2.1 Introduction
As already indicated in previous chapter any product manufactured should
have an objective. It is true for yarns also. The producer should know the
purpose for which the yarn is being used. The spinner should be aware as
to what is expected out of the yarn, in what way the yarn is supposed to
work, how it should contribute for the success of the end product to do its
functions or meet the customer needs and expectations. These are called
as quality objectives. If the quality objectives of the product are clear it
helps in deciding the specifications.
According to ISO 9000 3, quality objectives are not static and need to
be updated in view of the business climate and other continual
improvement activities. The quality objectives of a business must be
defined; they must reflect the quality policy, be coherent, and align with
the overall business objectives, including customer expectations. The
quality objectives must have a meaningful result. Similarly the product
quality objectives are also to be defined and communicated down the
line to the people involved in producing the product, so that they are
always alert while producing. This helps in producing the right products
right at first time.
Sead Jahic 4 quotes Kotler in his article stating that when a company
plans to offer a product to its target group/market, it should take into
consideration five levels of product, viz., potential product, augmented
product, expected product, basic product and core benefit. In order to
set the objectives of quality of products it is also essential to be familiar
with “Dimensions of Quality of Products” as given by David A. Garvin.
These dimensions are classified by Philip Kotler as the attributes of
product differentiation. David A. Garvin suggests different dimensions
of quality as:
● Performance
● Characteristics/attributes
● Reliability

11
12 A practical guide on quality management in spinning

● Durability
● Service
● Esthetics
● Tangible quality – adjustments towards standards

When we talk of quality objectives of yarn, the dimensions shall be the

working performance on the next machine, the hand and feel of the final
fabric, the appearance of the fabric, the durability, comfort of wear, the
functional aspects in case of technical application, etc. Sead Jahic explains
three phases of setting Product quality objectives as follows:

● Phase 1 – Defining the objectives of quality of the product based on

customer demand, preferences, previous experience, organization and
positioning strategy
● Phase 2 – Defining the objectives of quality of the inputs/raw
materials and setting clear objectives of the quality for the materials
depending on internal standards or other means
● Phase 3 – Defining the objectives of quality of the marketing elements
considering the three elements of marketing mix: price, distribution
and promotion
It is found that for some products the goals of product quality are defined
according to previously established standards as ISO, EN or National
Standards. However, the business entities have an option, in line with their
objectives, to set higher and more demanding standards as well as to
establish a scale for new ones. This is normally seen in yarn quality
specifications. People want to be competitive and hence try to take the
best as benchmark and make efforts to out-beat it.
When new products are being developed, the existing international
standards might not be of help for the materials to be procured. We might
have to design a new material and give precise specifications. These are
truer while designing protective materials, textiles for industrial
applications, technical textiles, smart textiles, aviations, etc. We need to
understand the requirement of end user and design the product to meet the
requirement. If yarns are used as raw material, we need to clearly define
the yarn parameters needed to make the final product a success.
In some cases where buyers have matured systems of quality
management, and have clear and well defined product quality objectives
of products in their portfolio, as well as raw materials they use, a firm
can adapt the same directly or define according to its own abilities in
agreement with its buyer. In some industries, especially in specialty
products manufacturing and processing industries, organizations have
their own experiences and GMP, i.e., good manufacturing practices.
While setting of objectives for individual processes in a process industry
 Product quality objectives 13

we must take into account the need of all stakeholders. This imposes the
linking of quality objectives at all levels and also consider attributes of
side effects.
Setting the objectives of product quality is an obligation as per the
guidelines of ISO 9001. This is needed for both the products being
manufactured and the services being provided. The quality objectives
also represent another essential motive to allocate resources and time
which is in the interest to any organization. The greatest obstacle in setting
these objectives of product quality is multidisciplinary nature of this
matter.
By going more in detail, one can work out the quality objectives more
precisely and fix the parameters, which are measurable. The quality
objectives of a product must address the following:
● For what end use the customer is asking for this material?
● What are the critical quality requirements of the end product?
● What is the intended application of the product with ultimate
consumer?
● On what machines our product is likely to work, i.e., high-speed
machines, super high-speed machines, slow-speed machines,
automatic machines, etc.
● What is the work environment at customer’s place, i.e., humidity
and temperature, dust level, skill of operatives, the management
culture, etc.?
● What are the applicable regulatory requirements for the product from
the point of view of product safety, user safety, trade regulations,
etc.?
Let us have some discussions on the quality objectives of yarns for
different purposes. The discussions in this chapter are complementary to
the discussions in Chapter 3, where we discuss the impact of various yarn
features at the customer’s end depending on the end use. It is suggested
for the spinner to prepare the quality objectives for each type of yarn spun
by discussing with the marketing personnel and the customers wherever
possible.

2.2 Quality objectives of yarns

The quality objectives of the yarn being produced should be specified by
the concerned market contact persons and the internal customers of the
yarn like winder, weaver, knitter, dyer, etc. The spinners normally have
the freedom of selecting the raw materials, adjusting the speeds and
settings, bypassing certain machines, etc., but have no say on the
specifications and the tolerances. Sometimes the customers specify the
14 A practical guide on quality management in spinning

raw material to be used, and in such cases, we need to use that material
only. Spinner should discuss with the customers, internal as well as
external, understand their requirements, prepare a sample and get approved.
Afterwards, it should be only matching to the samples, unless otherwise
the customer suggests a change depending on the performance at
customer’s end. Let us discuss some examples.

2.2.1 Combed yarns

Combed hosiery yarns: Combed hosiery yarns are used for various purposes
like T-shirts, baby socks, socks for sick and elderly people, banians, sports
socks, candle wick, etc. Further they might work on different types of
machines at different speed ranges. The yarns supplied by us should
perform on the machines that are installed at the customer’s end. Hence
we need to define minimum strength and strength variations acceptable
along with the figures of elongation. The actual count to be maintained
depends on the culture of the customer and market. In some markets, people
prefer the fabric to be denser, whereas someone wants to produce more
length of fabric from the given quantity of yarn. The actual count to be
maintained should be decided by discussing with customer and an
agreement is to be made. When we talk of socks for babies and elderly
people, the softness and comfort becomes more important, and hence we
need a softer twist; whereas for sports socks, abrasion resistance is very
important. The consistency in colour and dyeability is very important when
the yarns are used for external wear like T-shirts, whereas it is not that
important when used for banians. The banians are normally made by
bleached fabrics that are either knitted using bleached yarns or bleached
after knitting. In case of socks, the colour variation between lots of cottons
do not create any problem as normally very less number of cones are used
to knit socks, like one cone, two cones or four cones. Further the length of
fabric in socks is also very small compared to the knitting done on circular
knitting machines for T-shirts. Let us discuss the quality objectives of yarns
for some specific end uses.
Combed yarns for T-shirts: The T-shirts are outer wear materials, might
be used as a casual wear, party wear or for playing certain games like golf.
People also use T-shirts made by using combed yarns for morning walking.
The appearance is more important where combed yarns are demanded.
The count should not be finer than specified as slightly higher GSM is
preferred by customers. For this reason, normally in T-shirts, slightly
coarser count is accepted but not a fine count. Count variations should be
as low as possible. Higher count CV% can lead to barre and streaks that
are not liked by the customer. Twist should be slightly more than that is
used for banians and baby socks, but lesser than that required for socks. A
 Product quality objectives 15

twist multiplier (TM) of 3.6–3.7 is suggested for T-shirts depending on

the speed of working and the cotton used. The fabric should give the feel
expected by the customers. Some customers insist of masculine feel
whereas some opt for feminine feel. Hence, a spinner needs to discuss this
point in detail with the customer. Normally high-speed circular knitting
machines are used for producing T-shirts with combed yarns. The yarn
should be strong enough to run on those machines. A minimum RKM of
16 is normally demanded. The U% should be low and with lower
imperfections. A higher U% with repeated short-term variations can give
streaky effect on the fabric. Uniform length of yarn on cones is an important
factor to avoid wastage of remnant yarns on cones.
Combed yarns for socks: The socks made by using combed yarns may
be used for various purposes like baby socks, executive socks, patient’s
socks, old people’s socks, sports socks, etc. In all cases the count should
be as per specification. This is because the weight of socks and also the
dimensions vary as per the count. The variation in count should be as low
as possible to avoid sock to sock variations in size. Twist should be as low
as possible for baby socks, say 3.4–3.5 TM, whereas for elderly people
and patients, a TM of 3.5–3.6 should be acceptable. If the socks are for
regular office wear a TM of 3.6–3.7 shall be required, and if we want the
socks for sports purpose, a TM of 3.7–3.8 is suggested. Normally the
tension applied is less in socks knitting compared to T-shirt knitting.
Therefore, strength is not a critical requirement. Short-tem unevenness
gives a diamond effect on the socks, or a barre effect. The long-term
variations result in irregular shape of socks. If the socks have art works
like prints or other designs, the imperfections are not critical, but the slubs
can create breakages and holes.
Combed yarns for towels: It is a normal understanding that the towel
yarns need to have good absorbency. This is true for towels with honey
comb weave or Huck-a-back weaves where there shall be one set of warp
yarn and one weft. When we talk of Terry towels, there shall be two warp
beams; one for base cloth and the other for piles. Nowadays terry towels
are being manufactured on high-speed shuttle-less looms. Therefore, the
yarn should be strong enough. Hence normal warp yarns with 3.9–4.0 TM
are used. In case of yarns going for pile, we need higher absorbency and
hence low twist is recommended. For weft, a low twist is always good
provided it is strong enough to run on loom. Evenness is not a critical
criterion as the designs are seen prominently rather than yarn variations or
defects by the customers while selecting a towel. The count is important
to maintain the weight of towel, or else it is needed to stabilize the weight
by playing with the pile heights, which is not good. It can spoil the complete
feel or design of the towel and hence is not accepted.
Combed yarns for warp: The combed yarns are normally used for
16 A practical guide on quality management in spinning

shirting, sarees, dhotis, dress materials, satins, etc. The warp yarns require
higher strength and lower hairiness compared to the yarns used in weft.
Normally an RKM of 18 is demanded for combed warp yarns. The count
should be as per the agreement with least variation. The twist needs to be
given as required by the final product. In case of voiles, we need to give
high twist. Sometimes, fabrics made out of combed yarns are used as liner
cloth for making Rexene. Uniformity of the yarn becomes a main criterion
in such case. After the introduction of compact system, the compact yarns
are preferred compared to normal ring spun yarns because of lower
hairiness, higher strength and savings in the sizing ingredients. Uniform
length on cones is an important factor to avoid wastage of costly combed
yarn.
Combed yarns for weft: The combed yarns in weft are used mainly where
softness is a criterion. The count normally is tolerated if is slightly coarser,
but not finer. The twist becomes a very important factor. It should be as
low as possible if the fabric is going for raising application. Again the TPI
is an important criterion when the yarn is used for towels. The TM of a
weft yarn used for shirting needs be much higher compared to the weft
used for towel of raising cloth. The twist in weft also depends on the method
of weft insertion used on loom. Very low twist might find it difficult to
work on air jet looms, as there are chances of the yarn getting opened up,
but the same problem will not come with rapier or gripper looms.
Importance of evenness depends on the finish and other processes adapted
in wet processing. If the fabric is undergoing printing operation, the
imperfections in the weft shall not be critical, but there should be no
objectionable faults. Consistency in cotton colour with in lots and between
lots is very important to avoid the problems of weft bars. The problem of
weft bar is more in combed weft rather than in carded weft.
Combed yarns for embroidery: Normally the combed yarns used for
embroidery are doubled, singed, mercerized and dyed. Uniformity in twists
and absence of imperfections are demanded. A higher imperfection can
result in uneven singeing. People are even ready to pay higher rates for
using very superior mixing. For example 100s combed mixing for yarns of
Ne 10s or 20s. The strength is not an important factor, but the count is
important. Variations in count can lead to cork screw effect which is not
accepted. In a number of cases, embroidery yarns are either multifold or
cabled with a low twist.
Combed yarns for candle wicks: Candle wicks require a very uniform
yarn coarse yarn with low twist. The count variations might not give any
problem, but the unevenness is not accepted. The yarn should be clean
without any kitties or trash, and hence combed yarns are preferred.
 Product quality objectives 17

2.2.2 Carded yarns

Carded yarns for hosiery: Carded yarns are used for making T-shirts
and socks. Normally for underwear carded yarns are not preferred. If a
carded hosiery yarn is taken for producing single jersey on a high-speed
knitting machine, the quality objectives demanded shall be something
as follows:
● Evenness to get a uniform appearance of the fabric.
● Sufficient and uniform strength to work on high-speed knitting
machine without excessive breaks.
● Minimum lint generation while knitting at high speeds.
● Free-form dead cottons and immature fibres to get a uniform depth
of dyeing.
● Flexible and smooth to move freely in the needles.
● Uniformity with a low twist to have smooth feel and without spirality.
● Uniform density of cones to have uniform tension and even knitting.
● Equal length of yarn on cones to have lower wastages.
● Count as required to get the GSM as specified by the ultimate
customer.
Carded yarns for socks: Carded yarns in socks are used mainly for daily
wear, school uniforms, sports wear and in security services. The carded
yarns are taken because they are cheap. As carded yarns do not give a soft
feel like combed yarns, they are not used for baby socks and for the patient’s
socks. Short-term unevenness is a major complaint regarding carded yarns,
which give diamond type effect on the socks. The count variations result
in uneven sizes of the socks, and much time is wasted in pairing the socks.
Therefore, the count variations should be maintained as low as possible,
and also the average count should be as specified.
Yarns for woven apparels: The apparels need a good appearance, and
hence presence of long-term or short-term unevenness, imperfections and
faults are not accepted. People go for carded yarns to save the cost, but
expect an appearance similar to a combed yarn. Therefore, if the spinner
is clear that the yarn is going for apparel end use, can take suitable measures
like selecting good cards that give good nep free web, set the blow room
to extract the trash and kitties to the maximum extent, take more flat strips
than normal, etc.
Yarn for canvas belt: The canvas belts are very heavy fabrics designed
to withstand a high tension. However the exact load the belt has to
withstand depends on the part it is supposed to drive. To withstand higher
tensions, the tensile and elongation properties of the yarn should be very
good. Therefore, normally cabled or multifold yarns are used. This belt
has to drive flat pulleys of machines and hence it should have a grip. The
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