The most expected and top-rated questions
for the CSS-2026 (Optional Subjects)
Prepared by: Dr Nasir Khan
1. POLITICAL SCIENCE
Paper 1
Section I
Western Philosopher
Q.No.1. Analyze Plato’s political philosophy, explaining his theory of justice in both the state and the
individual, the educational foundations and qualities of the philosopher-king, and the principal criticisms that
challenge his ideal polity.
Q.No.2. Examine Aristotle’s political philosophy with reference to his works Nicomachean Ethics and
Politics. How does Aristotle connect the pursuit of eudaimonia (human flourishing) with the structure and
purpose of the state? Discuss how his classification of governments, emphasis on the middle class, and
preference for stability and moderation reflect his conservative outlook on politics.
Q.No.3. Assess Machiavelli’s political realism in, explaining the interplay of virtù and fortuna in gaining and
maintaining power, the preference for fear over love, and the broader claim that he separates ethics from
politics evaluating whether this amounts to a license for authoritarian rule.
Q.No.4. Analyze Montesquieu’s doctrine of separation of powers in The Spirit of the Laws, showing how
checks and balances safeguard liberty; relate his typology of governments and their governing principles
to modern constitutional design, and critically appraise major objections, including climate determinism and
feasibility concerns.
Q.No.5. Critically examine the theories of the State of Nature and Social Contract as developed by Thomas
Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. How do their differing conceptions of human nature,
freedom, and authority shape their respective views on the origin, purpose, and legitimacy of the state?
Discuss their similarities, contrasts, and lasting influence on modern political thought.
Q.No.6. Evaluate Jeremy Bentham’s political philosophy of utilitarianism, with special reference to the
principle of utility and the hedonic calculus. Discuss its strengths for legislation and public policy as well as
key objections concerning rights, measurability of happiness, “tyranny of the majority,” and short- vs long-
term consequences.
Q.No.7. Discuss Hegel’s political philosophy with reference to self-consciousness, the master–slave
dialectic, and the state as the realization of ethical life. How does the dialectical method ground his
conception of freedom through recognition, and what are the major critiques and legacies of this view for
modern political theory?
Q.No.8. Assess Karl Marx’s critique of capitalism through historical materialism and the theories of
alienation and communism. Explain how class struggle, base–superstructure dynamics, and surplus value
underpin his prognosis of revolution and a classless society, and evaluate the relevance and limitations of
Marx’s framework today.
Q.No.9. Critically examine René Descartes’ contribution to political philosophy in light of his rationalist
method and the dictum “Cogito, ergo sum” (“I think, therefore I am”). How did his emphasis on reason, self-
awareness, and skepticism toward authority influence Enlightenment thought, challenge absolute
monarchy, and lay the intellectual foundations for modern liberalism and constitutional governance?
Muslim Philosophers
Q.No.10. Critically examine Ibn Khaldun’s concept of Asabiyyah and his cyclical theory of the rise,
consolidation, and decline of states. Evaluate its explanatory power for both pre-modern dynasties and
selected modern contexts (nationalism, organizations, digital movements).
Q.No.11. Discuss Shah Waliullah’s political philosophy regarding imamate/leadership, social justice and
welfare, the role of the Ulama, consultation (Shura), resistance to tyranny, and the interplay of Sufism with
politics. Assess his reform agenda in the context of Mughal decline and its relevance today.
Q.No.12. Explain Allama Muhammad Iqbal’s political thought by explaining Khudi (selfhood), his critique of
Western democracy, advocacy of Ijtihad, and vision of an Islamic polity (including the Allahabad Address
and the Two-Nation idea). What is the contemporary significance of his program for Muslim political
renewal?
Q.No.13. Compare the political philosophies of Al-Farabi and Al-Ghazali, focusing on their views regarding
the ideal state, the role of religion and reason in governance, and the qualities of a just ruler. How do their
differing approaches reflect the tension between philosophy and theology in Islamic political thought?
Section II
Q.No.1. Critically examine the evolution of the nation-state system from the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) to
the 21st century. How has globalization, supranational institutions, and emerging transnational challenges
such as migration, climate change, and digital governance transformed the traditional concept of the nation-
state in contemporary world politics?
Q.No.2. Discuss the concept of sovereignty in modern international relations. To what extent have
humanitarian interventions, global trade regimes, and the rise of international organizations (such as the
UN, EU, and WTO) redefined or eroded the classical notion of absolute state sovereignty in today’s
interconnected world?
Q.No.3: Examine the interrelationship between political socialization, political culture, and political
development. How do patterns of socialization and cultural values shape the process of political
development in contemporary societies, particularly in developing democracies?
Q.No.4. Analyze the role of public opinion in shaping political decision-making and democratic governance.
How have modern factors such as mass media, social media, misinformation, and digital algorithms
transformed the formation, expression, and manipulation of public opinion in contemporary politics?
Q.No.5. What is the role of political parties in modern democratic systems? How have globalization,
populism, social media, and declining party loyalty transformed their traditional functions of representation,
governance, and political mobilization in the 21st century?
Q.No.6. Discuss the nature and evolution of civil-military relations in Pakistan. How do different theoretical
perspectives explain the persistent imbalance between civilian and military institutions? In your view, what
practical reforms are necessary to achieve a sustainable balance of power and strengthen democratic
governance in Pakistan?
Q.No.7. Compare and contrast the unitary, federal, and confederal forms of government. How do these
systems differ in the distribution of power and authority, and what are their implications for governance,
national unity, and regional autonomy in the modern world?
Q.No.8. Differentiate between the Presidential and Parliamentary forms of government, highlighting their
structural features, advantages, and drawbacks. Discuss how these systems have been implemented in
Pakistan’s political history, and analyze which form is more suitable for ensuring political stability and
effective governance in the country.
Q.No.9. Compare and contrast the core principles of Capitalism, Marxism, and Socialism. How do these
ideologies differ in their views on economic equality, ownership, and the role of the state? Discuss their
relevance and application in the contemporary global economic and political order.
Q.No.10. Explain the main features and ideological foundations of Fascism. How did it emerge as a political
movement in the 20th century, and in what ways do its elements or tendencies manifest in contemporary
global politics today?
Q.No.11. Define the concept of Local Self-Governance and explain its significance in promoting democracy,
accountability, and grassroots development. Discuss the evolution, challenges, and effectiveness of local
government systems in Pakistan, highlighting their role in strengthening democratic institutions and public
participation.
Political Science Paper 2
Q.No.1. France’s semi-presidential system combines both presidential and parliamentary elements.
Evaluate its strengths and weaknesses in terms of political stability, accountability, and executive
effectiveness.
Q.No.2. The U.S. Senate is often called the ‘cooling saucer’ of American politics. Examine this metaphor,
and compare the power of the U.S. Senate with the Second Chambers of UK and Germany.” Also discuss
the Check and Balance in USA political system.
Q.No.3. Globalization has altered the nature of state sovereignty. To what extent is the classic Westphalian
model of sovereignty still viable in the 21st century?
Q.No.4. Why has SAARC failed to replicate the successes of the European Union? Analyze the structural,
political, economic, and cultural impediments to regional integration in South Asia.
Q.No.5. Assess the role of the WTO and IMF in shaping global economic governance. What criticisms are
leveled against them by developing countries, and how valid are those critiques?
Q.No.6. Compare and contrast the political systems of Turkey and Iran; focusing on the balance of power
between executive, legislature, and religious institutions.
Q.No.7. Discuss the transformation of China’s political system since the 1970s. How does modern China
differ from classic Soviet-style communism?
Q.No.8. Examine the evolution of Muslim nationalism in British India. In particular, analyze the role of Sir
Syed Ahmad Khan, Allama Iqbal, and Mohammad Ali Jinnah in the Pakistan Movement.
Q.No.9. A comparative and critical analysis of the 1956, 1962, and 1973 Constitutions of Pakistan;
strengths, weaknesses, and their legacy in contemporary politics.
Q.No.10. Examine the impact of the 18th Amendment on centre–province relations, political parties’
behavior, and the federal structure of Pakistan.
Q.No.11. Foreign policy of Pakistan is shaped by both domestic and external factors. Describe the major
determinants of Pakistani foreign policy and illustrate how public opinion and the media influence decision-
making.”
2. PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Q.No.1. Analyze the Relationship Between Democracy and Bureaucracy, Politics and Administration, and
Efficiency and Equity in the Practice of Public Administration. How Do These Tensions Impact Governance?
Q.No.2. Explain the classical and modern approaches to Public Administration. How do they differ in terms
of governance and administration?
Q.No.3. Discuss the key features of the ‘Scientific Management’ theory, theory of bureaucracy, and New
Public Management (NPM) approach and their applicability in public administration.
Q.No.4. What is public policy, and how does the policy formulation process unfold in democratic systems?
In what ways does public administration influence policy implementation, and how does this impact social
development? Also, evaluate the importance of governance in modern public administration, highlighting
the key challenges it faces.
Q.No.5. What are administrative reforms, and what challenges do develop countries face in implementing
them? Also, examine the role of technology in modernizing public administration and discuss the pros and
cons of digital governance.
Q.No.6. What are the principles of budgeting in government, and how are different types of budgets
(lineitem, performance, program, zero-based, outcome-based) applied in Pakistan? Discuss their
significance in public financial management.
Q.No.7. Discuss the main challenges in adopting Human Resource Management (HRM) practices in the
public sector. Also explain the advantages and disadvantages of a spoil system versus a merit system in
public employment.
Q.No.8. Evaluate the role of the civil service in Pakistan, focusing on its historical background, structure,
and reforms. How does the civil service contribute to good governance in Pakistan?
Q.No.9. What are the key theories and types of administrative reforms, such as privatization,
decentralization, and business re-engineering? How have these reforms been implemented in Pakistan,
and what challenges have they faced?
Q.No.10. Discuss the organizational structure of Pakistan’s government at the federal, provincial, and local
levels, analyzing the distribution of powers and responsibilities. How does the administrative culture shape
governance efficiency, and what challenges exist in inter-governmental relations between the federal and
provincial governments? Suggest reforms to enhance administrative coordination and service delivery.
3. CRIMINOLOGY
Section I
Q.1: Differentiate between crime and deviance. Discuss the history, nature, and significance of criminology.
Q.2: Explain at least three major perspectives on crime, with relevant examples from Pakistan.
Q.3: Write brief notes on:
a. White-Collar Crime
b. Criminal Law in Pakistan
c. Typologies of Crime
Section II
Q.4: What is meant by Juvenile Delinquency? Explain its causes in detail and describe the Juvenile Justice
System of Pakistan.
Q.5: Write short notes on the following:
a. Recidivism
b. Probation and Parole
c. Rehabilitation of Juveniles
Section III
Q.6: Define Criminal Investigation. Discuss the procedure and major principles of criminal investigation,
with reference to examples from Pakistan.
Q.7: Write detail notes on:
a. Forensic Investigation
b. Interpol
c. Europol
d. Tools and Methods of Criminal Investigation
Section IV
Q.8: What is meant by Modern Law Enforcement and Crime Prevention? Explain the concept of
Intelligence-Led Policing.
Q.9: Write analytical notes on the following:
a. Money Laundering
b. Cybercrime
c. Role of NAB and FIA
4. Gender Studies
Q. No. 1: Gender inequality is deeply rooted in Pakistan. Discuss the significance of Gender Studies in this
context. Also, provide logical arguments about the Autonomy versus Integration debate.
Q. No. 2: Are gender roles socially constructed or biologically determined? Present your viewpoint using
various theoretical perspectives.
Q. No. 3: Women have faced oppression and suppression for decades. How do different feminist theories
explain the causes of this oppression, and what solutions do they offer to overcome it? Support your answer
with relevant examples from Pakistan.
Q. No. 4: The feminist movements in the West have significantly influenced women across the globe.
Discuss the history, objectives, and achievements of the three waves of feminism. Also, explain the impact
of these movements on women in Pakistan.
Q. No. 5: The Modernization Theory and World Systems Theory offer contrasting perspectives on gender
roles, rights, and responsibilities. Discuss the status of women globally in light of these theories.
Q. No. 6: Gender-based violence is a curse and a widespread crime in Pakistan. It reinforces women’s
oppression and helplessness. Discuss both structural and direct forms of gender-based violence with real-
life examples. Also, explain the causes and remedies for this issue.
Q. No. 7: The leadership qualities of women are often undermined in Pakistan. Discuss this phenomenon
with appropriate examples and analysis.
Q. No. 8: Discuss the colonial and capitalist perspectives of gender, explaining how colonialism and
capitalist economic systems have shaped gender roles, identities, and power relations in society.
Q. No. 9: Discuss the major health, education, and employment issues faced by women in Pakistan.
Provide relevant examples, and suggest policies and recommendations to address these challenges
effectively.
Q. No. 10: Write note on the following:
a) WID, WAD, and GAD
b) Political quota of women in Pakistan
c) United Nations World Conferences on Women
d) Multidisciplinary Nature of Gender Studies
5. Sociology
Q. No. 1: Man, and society are interdependent and essential for each other’s existence. Discuss this
statement in light of different theoretical perspectives of Sociology.
Q. No. 2: Differentiate between material culture and non-material culture, and explain this distinction in the
context of cultural lag. Also, discuss the concepts of ethnocentrism and xenocentrism in relation to cultural
relativism.
Q. No. 3: Urbanization has become one of the major contributors to climate change. Discuss this issue with
reference to air pollution in Pakistan, and suggest remedies to address and reduce this problem.
Q. No. 4: Define social mobility as the movement of individuals, families, or social groups between different
positions within the social stratification system of a society. Explain this concept with relevant examples.
Q. No. 5: What is the mechanism of social control? Discuss the concepts of anomie and alienation in
relation to social control. Also, explain how religious leaders can play a role in promoting social integration
in Pakistan.
Q. No. 6: Discuss the determinants of socio-cultural change in Pakistan in light of the theories of social
change. How can Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and media contribute to bringing about
this change?
Q. No. 7: How are public opinions formed? Discuss the role of propaganda in shaping public opinion, and
explain the current public perception regarding socio-political instability in Pakistan.
Q. No. 8: Social institutions are the fundamental organs of society. Explain the functions of education,
economy, and politics, with reference to the current scenario of Pakistan.
Q. No. 9: What is sociological research? Differentiate between quantitative and qualitative research
methods with examples. Describe the steps of sociological research, and explain the concepts of research
design and case studies with relevant examples.
Q. No. 10: Discuss the following theories in detail:
a. Theory of Suicide – Émile Durkheim
b. Asabiyyah (Social Solidarity) – Ibn Khaldun
c. Theory of Bureaucracy – Max Weber
d. Conflict Theory, and Theory of Alienation – Karl Marx
e. Theory of Evolution – Herbert Spencer
f. Law of Three Stages – Auguste Comte
g. Theory of Social Action – Talcott Parsons
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