1

B
Explanation:
Photosynthesis (Option B) is the process by which carbon dioxide in the air is converted to
carbon compounds in green plants.
Respiration releases carbon dioxide (Option A), and decomposition by decomposers (Option
C) also releases carbon dioxide.
Transpiration is the process by which water is drawn up the stem of a plant to the leaves
where it evaporates (Option D) and is not involved directly in the carbon cycle.

2
B
Explanation:
A community is a group of populations living and interacting in a shared habitat (biotic
factors). The abiotic factors for this community have not been described but could be the
depth of the water, light intensity and the nutrients available for phytoplankton.
A population (Option A) is a group of organisms of the same species living in the same area
at the same time which can interbreed.
A habitat (Option C) refers to the environment in which a species normally lives.
An ecosystem (Option D) is a group of populations living and interacting in a common habitat
and includes both biotic and abiotic factors.

3
D
Explanation:
A group of individuals living in a defined area is not a biological definition (Option A). A group
of individuals of the same species living in a given area at the same time who are interacting
with each other is a population (Option B) and the environment in which they live is a habitat
(Option C). It is only when they can interbreed to produce fertile offspring that they can be
considered a species. (Option D).

5
B
Explanation:
When organisms respire, they lose energy in the form of heat. This form of energy cannot be
recovered and is finally lost from the system.
Initially, during photosynthesis, energy is captured from light (Option A). Carbon dioxide is
not a form of energy (Option C), and chemical energy (Option D) is held in the bonds of
organic molecules made during photosynthesis.

6
C
Explanation:
Autotrophs are producers (Option A) which synthesize their own organic compounds.
Consumers gain their nutrition by feeding (Option B) on other organisms. Detritivores
consume dead organic matter (Option C) by ingestion. Saprotrophs break down food outside
their bodies (Option D) by secreting enzymes and then ingesting the digested compounds.

7
C
Explanation:
Forests receive higher annual precipitation than 25 cm, thus option A and B are incorrect. A
tundra biome would not reach 40 °C, thus option D is incorrect. The desert biome reaches
very cold temperatures at night, especially in winter. There is very little precipitation and as a
result, there is very low NPP. Thus option C is the correct answer.

8
One of the following:
 photosynthesis
 chemosynthesis
[1 mark maximum]
Sample answer:
Photosynthesis (✓✓)
9
B
Explanation:
Autotrophs are producers and form the base of food chains. They carry out photosynthesis
and get their energy from the Sun.
The most abundant organisms (Option A) are usually the producers but there are exceptions.
Energy always enters the food chain via the autotrophs, not consumers (Option C).
The flow of energy (Option D) is from producers to primary to secondary to tertiary
consumers.
10
The following:
 Desert
[1 mark maximum]
Sample answer:
The desert biome (✓✓).

11
C
Explanation:
Option C is correct as quadrats are laid down in one place and thus are not useful or
accurate in sampling creatures that can easily enter or leave a sample square. Each of the
other three options are used specifically for moving creatures.

12
B
Explanation:
An ecosystem refers to an area where organisms interact with each other and with the
physical environment.
A habitat (Option A) refers to the environment in which a species normally lives. A population
(Option C) is a group of organisms of the same species living in the same area at the same
time which can interbreed. A community (Option D) is a group of populations living and
interacting with each other in the same habitat.

13
One of the following:
 along the mainland coast and the south coast of the UK
 along the coast in the south and east
 in the most shallow parts
[1 mark maximum]
Sample answer:
Salinity is lowest in the shallow areas (✓✓).

14
The following:
 Tropical rainforest
[1 mark maximum]
Sample answer:
Most of Indonesia was part of the tropical rainforest biome (✓✓).
15
B
Explanation:
A Secchi disk is used to measure the turbidity of freshwater, so option B is correct. If you can
still see the Secchi disk when it is deeper, it means that the water has less material floating in
it: the turbidity is low.
The knots or marks on the rope that is used to lower the Secchi disk in the water indicate
depth. However, their purpose is to indicate at which depth it is no longer possible to
distinguish between the black and white areas on the disk. Option A is, therefore, incorrect.
There are various methods to measure pH, but the Secchi disk is not one of them. Option C is
incorrect.
Turbidity of water is caused in part by particles in the water, but we do not generally measure
these. We do measure the size of soil particles using a sieve. Option D is incorrect.

16
A
Explanation:
March is the third month of the year, so choose the third column, which represents average
rainfall.

17
The following:\
 Rainforest ecosystems have the highest levels of biodiversity (on land)
AND
deserts have the lowest levels of biodiversity (on land).
[1 mark maximum]
Sample answer:
Rainforests have high amounts of biodiversity, however deserts have low amounts of
biodiversity (✓✓).

18
19
B
Explanation:
Option B is the correct option as the flow arrow coming from it goes directly to plants. All the
other options must go through other processes in bacteria to become useful to plants.

20
Any one of the following:
 Rainforests have more plants and/or trees than deserts;
 Rainforests get more rainfall than deserts, allowing more plants to grow;
[1 mark maximum]
Sample answer:
More rain in the Amazon means that more trees can grow there than in the Sahara desert
(✓✓).

21
D
Explanation:
Autotrophs are producers (Options A, B). They are self-feeding whereas heterotrophs are
organisms that gain nutrition by feeding on other organisms (Options C, D). Detritivores
consume dead organic matter by ingestion (Option C) whereas saprotrophs break down food
outside their bodies by secreting enzymes into the environment.

22

23
A
Explanation:
All the statements show how DDT, when added to water bodies, can be transferred to the top
carnivores in an ecosystem. It is concentrated in the tissues of organisms along the transfer,
and this process is called biomagnification.

24
Any of the following:
 Tertiary consumer
 Fourth trophic level
[1 mark maximum]
Sample answer:‾Sample answer:
Fourth trophic level (✓✓)

25
C
Explanation:
All the statements are correct and applicable to the term ‘‘zonation’’.

26
Any one of the following:
 temperate forest
 savannah grassland
[1 mark maximum]
(It actually is classified in both.)
Sample answer:
Buenos Aires is found in the savannah grassland biome (✓✓).

27
C
Explanation:
A population that is not limited will experience exponential growth, as shown at A. Once the
population reaches the stage that can be supported sustainably by the area (carrying
capacity, shown at B), any further growth as shown at C is an ‘‘overshoot'. This is usually
followed by a decrease in population size. This is known as ‘‘dieback' as shown at D. The
population fluctuates around carrying capacity in a steady state equilibrium.

28
A
Explanation:
Since the experiment is about testing the temperature; the temperature would be the
independent variable, not the controlled variable. A water bath would be used in this
experiment to set up different increments of the independent variable.
When investigating the effect of temperature on photosynthesis, the other limiting factors
(concentration of carbon dioxide and light intensity) must be controlled. The light intensity
can be controlled by placing the test tube containing the Elodea at a constant distance from
the same light source for each trial (option C) to make sure that the light intensity is the
same for all trials.
Using the same volume and concentration of sodium hydrogen carbonate solution (option
B and option D) ensures that the source of carbon dioxide is controlled, and it is not a
limiting factor.

29
A
Explanation:
Niche: the set of resources, abiotic and biotic factors in which a species can survive and the
interactions that it has with them.
Abiotic factors: physical parts of an environment, e.g. altitude, salinity, precipitation and
temperature.
Biotic factors: living parts of an environment, e.g. predators, prey, herbivores, competitors,
and parasites amongst others.
Genetics: determines how a species looks and acts but does not describe the environmental
conditions with which a species interacts.
Photosynthesis: the process by which plants convert sunlight into chemical energy. It is an
amazing ability of plants but does not describe the environmental conditions with which a
species interacts.
Speciation: the process by which a new species is formed. It does not describe the
environmental conditions with which a species interacts.

30
C
Explanation:
The item in the picture is a quadrat square, so option C is the correct choice. Option A is a
sampling method using a long line cutting across the sample space and is often used together
with quadrats. Option B is an identification key used to distinguish between a set of
organisms based on paired choices in their observable characteristics. Option D is a grid on
paper and is used for mathematics.

31
A
Explanation:
Ducks and fish are consumers (Options B, C and D), which is a type of heterotroph,
whereas Azolla and rice can carry out photosynthesis and are, therefore, autotrophs (self-
feeding).

32
B
Explanation:
Energy from the sun (Option B) is used to form carbon compounds through the process of
photosynthesis. Heat (Option A) is a form of energy that cannot be converted to chemical
energy by living things.
Chemical energy (Option C) is held in the bonds of organic compounds which are produced
by photosynthesis, or comes from hydrothermal vents deep in the oceans. Even though it is
an energy source, it is not the main source of energy for the carbon cycle.
Energy stored in chemical bonds is released (Option D) during respiration which is used to
power the cells processes.

33

34
The following:
 desert[1]
[1 mark maximum]
Sample answer:
The desert biome has the greatest range (✓✓).

35
C
Explanation:
Most of the energy present in each trophic level does not pass to the next level in large part
because of respiration. Producers usually have the largest amount of biomass and greatest
amount of energy and form the base of the stepped pyramid. Typically only 10%% of the
energy is moved from one trophic level to the next which is why the upper levels are
generally smaller than lower levels.

36
37
A
Explanation:
Heat and pressure from the Earth’s crust decompose the remains of dead plants and animals
over millions of years to form oil, natural gas or coal (fossil fuels).
Respiration (Option B) takes place in a relatively short time as does photosynthesis which
requires light to synthesize organic compounds (Option C). Forest fires (Option D) often
occur naturally and release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Global warming has
increased the number of wildfires.

38
B
Explanation:
The flatworm is a parasite (Option B) of the human as it feeds on the human without
providing a benefit to the human.
In mutualism (Option A) both organisms would benefit, e.g. the honeybee (Apis mellifera)
and the appletree (Malus domestica), where the bee gets nectar from the tree and the
appletree gets pollinated.
While Schistosoma does actually cause the serious disease schistosomiasis, ‘‘disease'
(Option C) does not describe an interaction between species.
In predation (Option D), one organism kills and eats another one, e.g. polar bear (Ursus
maritimus) killing and eating ringed seals (Pusa hispida).

39
C
Explanation:
Photosynthesis is a process where organic compounds are produced in cells using light
energy, carbon dioxide and water. A product of photosynthesis is oxygen gas. Hence, the rate
of photosynthesis can be measured by the rate of carbon dioxide gas uptake or by the rate of
oxygen gas production (Option A).
At xx, this is known as the optimum temperature. The rate of photosynthesis is the highest
here. In other words, xx is the temperature where the maximum rate of carbon dioxide
absorption and oxygen production occurs.
At yy, light intensity and carbon dioxide concentration are not the limiting factors because,
beyond the optimum temperature, the graph does not plateau but instead, it slopes
downwards (Option D). At yy, the rate of photosynthesis decreases because the temperature
is affecting the enzymes involved in photosynthesis (Option B). Hence, the rate of
photosynthesis does not just increase with temperature, it also decreases above the optimum
temperature.

40
B
Explanation:
Photograph I exhibits mutualism as the sea anemone benefits is the clownfish cleans the
anemone of parasites and the sea anemone protects the clownfish from predators.
Photograph II is an example of competition with both bucks competing for a mate.
Photograph III is an example of mutualism as the butterfly pollinates the flower and the flower
feeds the butterfly nectar.
Photograph IV is an example of parasitism where the tick benefits but the host is harmed.
Therefore, II and IV are not examples of mutualism.

41
A
Explanation:
Algae is a producer, (Option B), but the arrows show the flow of energy in the wrong
direction. The food chain cannot start with insects (Option C) as it is not an autotroph. Algae
do not eat ducks and ducks do not eat humans (Option D).

42
The following:
 Gross Primary Productivity is the amount of energy that is absorbed from solar
radiation by producers while Net Primary Productivity is what is left of the Gross
Primary Productivity after energy is used for respiration by producers;
[1 mark maximum]
Sample answer:
GPP is the total amount of solar energy that is absorbed by producers in photosynthesis (
✓✓), while NPP is the GPP - respiration energy lost by those producers (✓✓).

43
(i) One of the following:
 It decreases.
 It is halved.
[1 mark maximum]
(ii) The following:
 It would decrease because a higher fishing effort will result in a catch above the MSY
and cause the populations of fish to collapse.
[1 mark maximum]
Sample answer:
(i) It is reduced (✓✓).
(ii) There would be no more fish left to catch because fishing above the MSY will decrease the
population so much that there will be too little left to catch (✓✓). They may even go extinct!
44
C
Explanation:
A direct measurement measures the presence of a pollutant or the absence of something
needed for organisms to survive. An indirect measurement measures the effect of a pollutant
(or absence of something essential).
While measuring phosphates or nitrogen in various forms is a direct way of measuring water
quality, measuring the amount of carbon is not. Option A is, therefore, incorrect.
We can measure the BOD to estimate water quality, but this is an indirect measurement
which measures the amount of organic matter. Option B is thus incorrect since we are asked
for a direct measurement.
Temperature is crucial in determining water quality as it determines which organisms can live
in it and has an effect on how easily gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide can dissolve in
it. Option C is correct.
Counting species found is not sufficient as a measure of water quality. One needs to look at
the specific species found, as well as at their abundance. An indicator species is one that
reacts clearly to a pollutant. A biotic index combines data on various species that show
variability in their reactions to pollutants. Moreover, using indicator species or a biotic index is
an indirect measurement of water quality. Option D is thus incorrect.

45
D
Explanation:
Net secondary productivity = Gross Secondary Productivity – Respiration
The organisms lose some energy at the secondary level as heat by respiration and therefore
NSP is less than GSP.
Option A is wrong because GPP - R will give a value for NPP, net primary productivity, energy
or biomass available at the level of the producers for the primary consumers.
Option B is wrong because GSP = food eaten – fecal loss. This is the energy or biomass taken
up by consumers from producers before losses due to respiration.
Option C is wrong, net secondary productivity is obtained by removing losses for respiration
from gross secondary productivity.

46
B
Explanation:
Options A, C, and D all describe aspects of photosynthesis, which is represented by this
equation.
Option B is a process that is basically the opposite of this chemical reaction, producing
carbon dioxide and water from the breakdown of simple sugars.
47
B
Explanation:
In a food chain, the producer is at the start, and in this case, there is only one producer, the
phytoplankton. Options C and D are, therefore, incorrect. Energy for the food chain comes
from photosynthesis, and the phytoplankton is, therefore, at the start. It is the only organism
that can carry out photosynthesis.
In the food chain, the energy flows from the producers to the consumers, and the direction of
the arrow → shows the flow of energy. The direction needs to show energy flow from producer
to herbivores to consumers.

48

49
D
Explanation:
The reindeer in option A cannot all interbreed because they are separated by large distances
and oceans.
The chimpanzees in option B cannot interbreed because they are separated by the river,
which they do not cross.
The clownfish in option C cannot interbreed because there are about 30 species of clownfish.
The Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve is not very large so the individuals of red-eyed tree
frogs in option D are likely to be able to interbreed.

50
D
Explanation:
The length of food chains tends to be shorter than 6 organisms, even including parasites and
detritivores. When energy is passed from one organism to the next, most of the energy is
generally lost as heat which means that less and less energy is available to higher trophic
levels.
All other statements are true.

51
C
Explanation:
The equations show correctly the transformations of matter that take place in both
photosynthesis and respiration (respectively).
Option A is not correct since both matter and energy are transformed in the processes.
Option B is not correct since glucose is made during the process of photosynthesis in the
presence of sunlight by green plants.
Option D is not correct because respiration takes place in all organisms.

52
A
Explanation:
No two species may occupy the same niche at the same time. Ultimately, the better-adapted
species will out-compete the other species and exclude it (competitive exclusion). This would
happen with the tick and the louse. However, by feeding at different times of day, both barn
owls and sparrow hawks may coexist.

53
D
Explanation:
Option D describes a storage in the nitrogen cycle where the nitrogen is changed, but it is
not in flow. The other 3 options are all terms that describe nitrogen moving through the cycle
and undergoing a transformation.

54
55
D
Explanation:
All the statements above are true. In most ecosystems, light energy from the sun is captured
by producers via photosynthesis and transferred to consumers through feeding. As organisms
respire, they lose energy in the form of heat which cannot be reused by organisms. There is a
constant input of energy from the sun.

56
Any two of the following:
 Species richness refers to the number of different species present.
 Species evenness refers to the relative abundance of each species.
 Simpson’s Diversity Index accounts for both by using N to represent the total number of
individuals in the survey and n to represent the number of individuals of each species.
[2 marks maximum]
Sample answer‾Sample answer:
Species richness is a measurement of how many different species there are (
✓✓). Species evenness is how many individuals of each species were actually counted in the
survey (
✓✓).
57
D
Explanation:
As energy moves from producers to consumers, only about 10%% is transferred to the next
trophic level. So only about 0.1%% of the energy produced by the producers reaches the
tertiary consumers. All other options (Options A, B, C) are not correct. Looking at the values
in the diagram, producers start with 20 000 units of energy and tertiary consumers receive
only 25 units. 25 divided by 20 000 is approximately 0.1%%.

58
D
Explanation:
Process I is photosynthesis and shows the capture of energy by phytoplankton from the Sun.
Process II is respiration, whereby carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere. Process III
shows the movement of carbon when the organisms are eaten by members of the next
trophic level, and process IV is death and further decomposition of dead organisms by
bacteria and other decomposers which eventually causes the release of carbon dioxide
(through respiration).
All other choices (Option A, Option B and Option C) do not identify the processes correctly.

59
Any two of the following:
 Old-growth forests provide a larger variety of habitats than second-growth forests.
 Second-growth forests generally have a monoculture of their climax forest species
while old-growth forests are more biodiverse.
 Old-growth forests are harder to regenerate if they are harvested or experience natural
wildfires.
 Old-growth forests capture far more carbon than second-growth forests.
[2 mark maximum]
Sample answer:
Old growth forests differ from second-growth forests in that they have a greater biodiversity (
✓✓) of plants, habitats (
✓✓) and animal species. This also allows them to capture significantly more carbon than
second-growth forests (
✓✓).

60
C
Explanation:
Okapi is a herbivore (II) because it only eats plants. Okapi is a species (III) since it can
interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
They are not a hybrid of a giraffe and a zebra (I), even though they look like one.

61
C
Explanation:
Arctic cod feeds on herbivorous zooplankton which is a primary consumer which makes Arctic
cod a secondary consumer. Arctic cod also consumes carnivorous zooplankton which is a
secondary consumer, making Arctic cod both a tertiary and secondary consumer.
Harbour seals (Option A), polar bears (Option B) and capelins (Option D) are all tertiary
consumers, not secondary consumers.

62
A
Explanation:
Many types of classifications have been used to map the terrestrial biomes, but the most
useful one was developed by ecologist Robert Whittaker, who classified the biomes according
to physical factors of temperature and average annual precipitation. Using these factors to
classify different ecosystems around the world puts similar ones in groups together - the
biomes.
The pattern of distribution of biomes is linked to latitude (which has varying amounts of
insolation leading to temperature differences) and patterns of atmospheric circulation cells
(which determine rainfall).
Factors described in options B, C and D do vary between the biomes but are not the most
robust in classifying the biomes as they also show some variation within a biome.

63
A
Explanation:
Zooxanthellae make carbon compounds from carbon dioxide, water and energy from sunlight.
So, zooxanthellae are autotrophs (organisms that make their own food). The coral feed on the
carbon compounds produced by zooxanthellae. So, the corals are heterotrophs (organisms
that must obtain carbon compounds from other organisms).
Detritivores feed on dead organic matter (Options B and D).
Option C has the nutrition of these organisms backward.

64
The following:
Sampling method [1 max]
 Random sampling
Reason [1 max]
 The quadrats are not evenly spaced apart.
 There is no line seen to create a transect.
 There is no pattern to how the quadrats are placed.
[2 marks maximum]
Sample answer:
You can see that the student used random sampling (
✓✓) to collect their data because the quadrats are scattered around without any clear pattern
(
✓✓).

65
D
Explanation:
Process I is photosynthesis and shows the capture of energy by phytoplankton from the Sun.
Process II is respiration where carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere. Process III
shows the movement of carbon when organisms are eaten by members of the next trophic
level, and process IV is the decomposition of dead organisms by bacteria which eventually
causes a release of carbon dioxide.
All other options do not identify the processes correctly.

66
A
Explanation:
Option B does describe these organisms it is a more general term that includes saprotrophs.
It is correct, but not the best way to describe earthworms.
Option C describes organisms that feed on living things, so it is incorrect.
Option D describes organisms like mushrooms that do not ingest the material but secrete
digestive enzymes onto it and then absorb nutrients, so it is incorrect.
Option A is the term that best fits the description.

67
The following:
 Biomagnification
[1 mark maximum]
Explanation‾Explanation:
Bioaccumulation is the term used to describe the build-up of a pollutant in one organism. The
pollutant enters the organism by way of feeding, drinking, breathing or otherwise, and the
organism does not have a way to get it out of the body.
Biomagnification describes the more rapid build-up of a pollutant in consumers through the
consumption of food that has already accumulated the pollutant. This occurs most rapidly in
top consumers and can more easily lead to lethal levels than bioaccumulation.
Sample answer :
Biomagnification (✓✓)

68
The following:
  The large number of islands provide places where populations can be isolated from
each other, leading to speciation.
 The islands have very different habitats, leading to adaptation to these habitats and
thus speciation.
 The small number of mammal predators and competitors leaves niches available that
paleognaths were able to adapt to and occupy
[1 mark maximum]
Sample answer:
Oceania has the highest number of species because each of the islands it is made of has a
distinct habitat. Organisms adapt to these habitats and new species thus form (✓✓).

69
A
Explanation:
Fifteen of the squares in the quadrat have one or two small yellow flowers in them. There are
100 squares in total. Thus, option A is correct.

70
C
Explanation:
Options A, B and D are all statements that are true of pyramids of biomass. Option C is true
of pyramids of energy as 90% of the energy is lost at each trophic level.

71

72
The following:
 build-up of persistent OR non-biodegradable pollutants within an organism or trophic
level
[1 mark maximum]
Sample answer‾Sample answer:
Bioacculumation is when pollutants build up in an organisms because they are not broken
down (
✓✓).
73
A combination of the following:
Visible features [2 max]
 Stripes vs spots
 Spots vs circles
 Fur color
 Ear tufts OR pointed ears
 Long chin hair
Structure of key [1 max]
 Dichotomous (yes/no questions or opposite statements)
AND
Sentences OR a branching diagram
AND
Clear direction to the next step or question
[3 marks maximum]
Sample answer:
 1.1. Does the cat species have stripes on its sides? (✓✓)
Yes = Bengal Tiger
No = Go to 2.
 1.1. Does the cat species have tufts of fur sticking up from the ears? (✓✓)
Yes = Eurasian Lynx
No = Snow Leopard
(✓✓)

74
1. The following:
Uttar Pradesh
[1 mark maximum]
Sample answer:
Uttar Pradesh (✓✓)
2. Any two of the following:
 Increased levels of sewage OR solid domestic waste discharged into the Ganges
 Over-extraction from the river
 Habitat degradation
 Increased deforestation
 Loss of biodiversity
 Increased levels of fertilisers and pesticides discharged into the Ganges
[2 marks maximum]
Sample answer:
Higher amount of untreated sewage being dumped in the Ganges (✓✓).
Too much water taken out of the river for humans (✓✓).

75
D
Explanation:
In order to know what organisms are found in the world around us, we have created
identification keys to help us in this task.
The most efficient way to set up a key is to split the group of possible species into two at each
step. As you answer each question you are guided to the next one and eventually end up with
the name of the organism you are trying to identify. This key uses leaves to identify trees as
each species of tree has a particular shape of leaves.
We start at question 1. The stem is shorter than 2 cm, so we go to question 3. The leaf is
more than 2 times as long as it is wide, so it is species D.

76
A
Explanation:
A transfer of matter from one store to another occurs when the chemical makeup of the
matter is unchanged. In example I, CO22 is dissolving into the ocean, which just means it is
mixed in between the water molecules.
A transformation of matter occurs when there is a chemical change occurring in the matter. In
example II, CO22 is taken apart and transformed into glucose during the process of
photosynthesis.

77
Any three from the following:
 Resilience is the ability of an ecosystem to recover after a disturbance.
 Higher levels of biodiversity lead to greater resilience in ecosystems.
 Higher levels of biodiversity lead to more complex food webs because there are more
species to interact with.
 More complex food webs are able to avoid collapse because there are more food
sources available for each organism.
 If one species dies out or migrates away, then other species are more able to adapt to
the change because there are other organisms present to fill their niche.
 Ecosystems with high biodiversity are better able to recover after a disturbance or
disaster (like a fire) because there are more species that can return and re-establish
the area.
[3 marks maximum]
Sample answer:
Ecosystems with more biodiversity are more (✓✓) resilient, or better able to recover (
✓✓), from disasters like wildfires. This is because more biodiversity means that more things
are living there, so there are more possible species that can come back and help the area to
recover (
✓✓).

78
B
Explanation:
Negative feedback is when an initial change to a system leads to a response that reduces that
change and brings the system back to the original state. Negative feedback is important in
maintaining a stable equilibrium.
Option A is incorrect as there is clearly a relationship between predator and prey, as we can
see that when one goes up or down the other does so too.
Positive feedback does not bring the system back to equilibrium, but takes it away from the
initial equilibrium, sometimes to a tipping point. Options C and D are therefore incorrect.

79

80
Any four of the following:
 DDT is banned for agricultural uses OR as a pesticide on crops…
 …by the Stockholm Convention of 2001, taking effect in 2004.
 DDT is a persistent organic pollutant (POP).
 DDT can bioaccumulate in an organism.
 DDT can biomagnify through the food chain.
  DDT was shown to have negative effects on non-target species such as other insects
and birds.
 DDT was found to cause infertility or low birth weight in humans.
 DDT was found to be carcinogenic (cancer causing).
 DDT breakdown products were found in food crops.
[4 marks maximum]
Sample answer:
The use of DDT was banned for agricultural use (✓✓
) in many countries in the 1970s because it is a persistent organic pollutant (✓✓
) that stays in the environment for a long time. It was shown to have negative effects on non-
target species like other insects and birds (✓✓
). DDT breakdown products can be found in food crops (✓✓
) and can bioaccumulate in the systems of the consumers that eat it (✓✓).

81
Any two of the following:
 Removal of these species could lead to overpopulation of the prey species they
consume.
 Competitors of the prey species would face increased competition as the numbers of
the prey species increase.
 Producers could be overgrazed if primary consumers become overpopulated due to
lack of predation.
 Other secondary consumers may change their preferred food if they experience
decreased competition due to the removal by overfishing.
 Tertiary consumers in these ecosystems could die off due to a lack of food (e.g. Bears
who eat salmon).
[2 marks maximum]
Sample answer:
Removing a large number of secondary consumers such as tuna or salmon could lead to an
increase in their prey species, due to a lack of predation (✓✓
). If these species become too numerous and are primary consumers, they could cause a
reduction in the ecosystem's producers (✓✓).

82
C
Explanation:
The root system is shallow; the trees have large buttresses that help support this system.
Buttress roots are roots that grow out of tree trunks and generally prevent trees from falling
over.
83
Any four of the following:
 Tree-beating can be used to cause insects OR other small animals to fall to the ground
where they can be collected.
 Sweep nets can be used to trap and collect insects in grasses.
 Sweep nets can be used to trap and collect small aquatic organisms in the water.
 A plankton tow net can be used to collect the smallest of animals that can be found in
the water.
 Nets can be used to trap fish.
 Mist nets can be used to catch birds.
 Pooters can be used to isolate insects from leaf litter.
 Pitfall traps can be used to capture small animals that fall in.
 Cage traps can be used to capture small mammals like mice.
 Light traps can be used to attract insects at night so they can be collected.
 Camera traps can be used to document larger animals.
[4 marks maximum]
Sample answer:
There are many different ways that animals in an ecosystem can be collected for research.
You can use sweep nets and pitfall traps to collect insects (
✓✓) and small animals (
✓✓). Light traps can be used to attract insects at night (
✓✓). Mist nets can be used to trap birds (
✓✓), but they need to be checked regularly.

84

85
86
D
Explanation:
In the nitrogen cycle, soil bacteria convert ammonia to nitrates which can then be taken up by
plants. This is part of the natural cycle of nitrogen and not a human-induced effect on the
nitrogen cycle.
Industrial production and use of fertilizers increase the amount of nitrogen in the soil and
water bodies of agricultural regions (Option A).
The use of fertilizers can lead to runoff of water containing nitrogen into neighboring water
bodies, leading to eutrophication (Option B).
Burning of fossil fuels releases not only carbon but also nitrogen as nitrogen oxides, which can
react with water to form nitric acid, decreasing the pH of streams and rivers (Option C).

87
C
Explanation:
Denitrifying bacteria are not involved in nitrogen fixation so option C is the correct answer.
All other options (A, B and D) are true of denitrifying bacteria.
Nitrogen fixation is carried out by bacteria that convert atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia
(NH3) or ammonium (NH4+) which can be used by some plants. An example would be
Rhizobium living in nodules in the roots of leguminous plants like peas, beans and lentils.
Denitrification is essentially the reverse.

88
Any two of the following:
 Fish stop eating when they feel full from plastic, so the fisheries could collapse.
 Toxins from plastics in the fish could disrupt their reproduction, causing fisheries to
collapse.
 Toxins from the plastic can enter fish tissues and enter humans eating them.
 Plastic in fish for human consumption is an indicator of how much plastic is in the entire
ecosystem.
[2 marks maximum]
Sample answer:
Humans should be concerned about the plastic in the fish because if toxins get into the fish
from the plastic then it could get into people when they eat fish (
✓✓). The plastic might also cause the fisheries to collapse because the fish die from
starvation when they feel full from plastic (
✓✓), reducing the human food supply.

89
C
Explanation:
Producers are at the base of the pyramid. The steps becoming smaller show that the numbers
decrease in this ecosystem from producers to herbivores to consumers like the lions. The lions
can have a number of ticks and other parasites living on them and therefore the step at the
top becomes much larger in area.
All other options are not correct for showing the pyramid of numbers with parasites on a
consumer.

90
C
Explanation:
Option C is correct. Sharks decrease as one of their food sources (sea turtles) becomes
scarce, and zooplankton will increase because jellyfish populations that eat zooplankton will
rise with a decrease in predation by sea turtles.
Option A is incorrect as if the sea turtles increase, the jellyfish increase and would consume
more zooplankton; Sharks would decrease with fewer sea turtles to eat.
Option B is incorrect as zooplankton would increase with fewer jellyfish.
Option D is incorrect as jellyfish increase with less predation by sea turtles.

91
C
Explanation:
Option C is correct as it is the best description, even though it is not a typical mutualistic
relationship. Detritivores play an important role in breaking down dead matter, such as plant
and animal remains. This process provides them with nutrition and releases nutrients into the
surroundings. These nutrients become available to primary producers. Hence this relationship
is beneficial to both the detritivores, as they get food energy from eating dead matter, and
the other organisms, as they get the nutrients to grow well.
Option A is incorrect. Detritivores cannot hunt organisms.
Option B is incorrect. Detritivores do not thrive on living organisms.
Option D is incorrect. Detritivores only eat dead organic matter and hence do not compete
with herbivores.

92
Any four pairs of the following:
r-strategists K-strategists

Shorter life span Longer life span

Rapid growth in offspring Slower growth in offspring

Early maturity Later maturity

Numerous, but small, offspring Few, but larger, offspring

Little parental care Extensive parental care

Small body size Large body size

Common in pioneer ecosystems Common in climax ecosystems

Commonly prey species Most predator species

Niche generalists Niche specialists

Possible examples: grasses, mouse, fruitfly, Possible examples: elephant, parrot,

[4 marks maximum]
Sample answer:
Survival strategies for r- and K-strategists differ in several ways. An r-strategist tends to
mature quickly, while a K-strategist needs a longer time to reach sexual maturity (✓✓
). K-strategists have only a few babies, while r-strategists have many at a time (✓✓
). The offspring of r-strategists are left to fend for themselves, whilst baby K-strategists get
fed and taken care of for a while until they can do so themselves (✓✓
). Pioneer ecosystems usually have r-strategists, while K-strategists will be more successful in
a climax community (✓✓).

93
B
Explanation:
The release of nitrates causes an excess in the nitrogen cycle that can get into waterways,
possibly contributing to eutrophication. The release of nitrous oxides from the combustion of
fossil fuels can lead to the formation of acids in the atmosphere, causing acid precipitation.
The release of ammonium is a necessary transformation of nitrogen in the cycle that occurs
naturally. Option B is the correct choice.

94
C
Explanation:
Statement I is correct as sunlight is a limiting factor in aquatic ecosystems.
Statement II is true, but makes aquatic food production systems more efficient than
terrestrial food production systems. The skeletons, horns, fur, and other structures of land
animals are often inedible and become waste. The same thing happens with plants, a large
part of the stems and roots are not ingested. This does not occur in marine ecosystems where
most of the phytoplankton is consumed, and typically predators ingest the entire body of the
prey.
Statement III is correct. Most of the fish we consume are carnivores and occupy a trophic
level 4 or higher; because energy is lost at each trophic level, the efficiency of this food
production system is lower.
With respect to statement IV, dietary choices are cultural, economic and sometimes
religious decisions, but they are not related to the energy efficiency of the system.

95
C
Explanation:
In a pyramid of numbers the first level (producers) is represented as a much smaller portion
(number), so it most likely represents a tree. The second trophic level represents primary
consumers. Option C is the only possible correct solution because the producers in options
A, B, and D would all have larger numbers, energy, or biomass than their primary consumers,
thus not fitting the pyramid structure shown in the figure.

96
One of the following:
 The dandelion (species A) was more than 50%50% outside of the quadrat while the
yarrow (species D) was more than 50%50% inside the quadrat.
 The majority of the yarrow was inside of the quadrat the majority of the dandelion plant
was outside of it.
[1 mark maximum]
Sample answer:
In quadrat figure, you can see that plant of species A (dandelion) was mostly outside of the
quadrat and species D plant (yarrow) was mostly inside of the quadrat (
✓✓), so D was counted and A was not.

97
D
Explanation:
Quadrats can provide information that can determine all three of the indicated values. Option
D is the correct choice.

98
The following:
 Secondary succession
[1 marks maximum]
Sample answer:
Secondary succession (
✓✓) will happen there because the fire did not remove the soil that was built up in primary
succession.
99
The following:
 tropical rainforest
[1 mark maximum]
Sample answer:
The tropical rainforest biome has the most biodiversity (✓✓).

100
One of the following:
identification: [1 max]
 It is a pyramid of numbers OR biomass…
reasoning: [1 max]
 …because it has an inverted shape.
 …because it could not be a pyramid of energy or productivity since energy is lost at
each trophic level, so each higher level in a pyramid of energy or productivity is more
narrow.
 …because it captures the situation at one moment in time, so it could be possible for
there to be e.g. less phytoplankton than zooplankton since it grows (and gets eaten) so
quickly, or there could be large numbers of newly hatched small fishes (which will get
eaten soon).
[2 marks maximum]
Sample answer:
Pyramid A must be a pyramid of numbers (✓✓
), since it could not be a productivity pyramid because energy is lost at each trophic level so
these types of pyramids cannot have an inverted shape (✓✓).

101
A combination of the following:
identify: [1 max]
 Ecological pyramids represent communities.
outline: [1 max]
 Communities are groups of different populations that occupy the same habitat in the
same time period.
 Habitat refers to the physical space where communities live and includes abiotic
components.
 Ecosystems are the sum of the communities plus the habitat.
[2 marks maximum]
Sample answer:
Ecological pyramids represent communities (✓✓
), that is, groups of organisms of different species that occupy a certain environment in a
certain time period. They do not give information about the habitat (✓✓
), that is, the physical space and its abiotic conditions. The ecosystem, which includes the
communities plus the habitat, is also not entirely represented in an ecological pyramid (✓✓).

102
Any two of the following:
 Latitude
 Elevation
 Soil composition
 Wind
 Humidity
 Insolation
[2 marks maximum]
Sample answer:
latitude (✓✓
) and soil composition (✓✓)

103
B
Explanation:
Although options A and C point out problems with the investigation, the reason that best
explains the result is option B. There were only two species (low richness), and one of the
species was more abundant than the other, indicating a lack of evenness, which shows that
the diversity is relatively low in the mangrove area as compared to the others.
It was not possible to count all the different species by using just one quadrat in each and
every site (Option A).
Sample size was limited by using only one quadrat measurement, so data obtained could be
skewed (Option C).
It is true that all the sites were at different distances, but this does not influence the low
diversity obtained at the mangroves, since the same methodology was used at every site
(Option D).

104
105
A
Explanation:
Pyramids of energy follow the rule of 10% due to the second law of thermodynamics. This
means that only 10% of the energy from a trophic level is available to the next level as 90% is
used for things like respiration and movement. As a result, if the sun provided 5000000J,
according to the 10% rule:
5,000,000J → 500,000J (phytoplankton) → 50,000J (zooplankton) → 5000J (small fish)
Option A is correct.

106

107
A combination of the following:
General: [1 max]
 Succession is the change in an ecosystem over time.
Similarities: [4 max]
  Both involve the development of more ecological complexity over time.
 Both begin with pioneer species OR a majority of r-strategists.
 Both may end in a relatively stable community OR climax community.
 Both are long processes that can take hundreds of years.
 Both experience increasing productivity.
 Both involve increasing biodiversity.
 Both rely on abiotic factors to support increasing biodiversity.
Differences: [3 max]
 Primary succession occurs on land that has not had a previous ecosystem on it, whilst
secondary succession occurs on land that already hosted a community but which
underwent a major disturbance.
 Primary succession begins with no soil, while secondary succession has soil to begin
with.
 Secondary succession can have a “head start” with some organisms or seeds that have
survived. Primary succession begins with no organic matter.
 Secondary succession often produces a community similar to what went before, while
primary succession is more open-ended due to very little organic material to begin the
process with.
[7 marks maximum]
Sample answer:
Ecological succession is the orderly change in the composition of an ecosystem over time (✓✓
). When that occurs on new land we call that primary succession, while if it occurs after a
major disturbance like a forest fire destroys an ecosystem we call that secondary succession
(✓✓
). These processes are similar in many ways. Both begin with pioneer species that are
generally r-strategists (✓✓
), and both may end in a climax ecosystem (✓✓
). Both of these processes show increasing biodiversity over time (✓✓
). However, primary succession begins with no soil, while secondary succession starts on soils
that are left over from a previous ecosystem (✓✓
). Finally, primary succession begins without any organic material, while secondary succession
can have seeds or organisms that survived the disturbance (✓✓
). Both processes are important for the development of biodiverse, complex climax
ecosystems.

108
D
Explanation:
All the statements are true. A mesocosm is a stable, small representation of an ecosystem
and can be used to study how one factor in an ecosystem affects other factors in an
ecosystem. In all ecosystems, energy is lost and autotrophs such as algae or green plants
generate the energy needed for the ecosystem. Saprotrophs are necessary for nutrient
cycling, which is why no external addition of nutrients is generally required. Herbivores are
not necessary for mesocosms to be stable as autotroph abundance is also regulated by the
availability of resources such as nutrients and light.
The only option that includes all three statements is Option C. All other options (A, B and C)
are therefore incorrect.

109
B
Explanation:
In this food web, birds are tertiary consumers.
All other options are correct; the organism has been assigned its correct mode of nutrition.
Decomposers eat dead organic materials (Option A).

110
B
Explanation:
Only 1% to 2% of the Sun’s energy is available to plants; the rest is absorbed by non-living
things or reflected. And only part of that percent is captured in photosynthesis.

111
B
Explanation:
Malaria has been a major cause of death for thousands of years. DDT was so effective in
killing the mosquitoes that transmit malaria that it has saved millions of lives since it was first
made about 150 years ago (Statement I).
DDT is sprayed on plants. It bioaccumulates in the insects that eat those plants. Then it gets
biomagnified along the food chain as the insects get eaten by secondary consumers and they
in turn may get eaten by tertiary consumers (Statement II).
DDT is a persistent organic pollutant (POP) that was used as an insecticide to protect crops
and kill the mosquitoes that transmit malaria (Statement III).

112
Any one of the following:
 As top consumers, whales regulate population numbers in other trophic levels, keeping
the ecosystem in balance.
 Whales feed at depth and defecate at the surface, thus cycling nutrients and enhancing
the productivity of phytoplankton, which then supports the entire food chain.
 Whales feed at depth and defecate at the surface, thus enhancing the productivity of
phytoplankton, which captures carbon and helps mitigate the impacts of climate
change on the ocean.
  When a whale dies, it sinks to the bottom, storing a large amount of carbon for a long
time, and thus helps mitigate the impacts of climate change on the ocean.
[1 mark maximum]
Sample answer:
Whales act as top consumers in the marine food web and keep the marine ecosystem in
balance by controlling lower trophic levels (✓✓).

113
D
Explanation:
Option A refers to the amount of toxins that build up in one creature over their lifetime.
Although bioaccumulation needs to occur for biomagnification to occur, bioaccumulation is
not shown in the figure.
Option B refers to an extreme increase in nutrients in an aquatic ecosystem that interrupts
the stability of the ecosystem.
Option C refers to the process where something becomes more acidic.
Option D is correct as it refers to the increased levels of a toxin as we move up the trophic
levels of a food chain. This is seen in both examples in the figure and the short description
provided.

114
C
Explanation:
There is sufficient prey for the wolf, and no competition, so option A is incorrect. Option B is
incorrect because hunting wolves is illegal. Wolves have a high reproductive rate, so option
D will not limit growth. The Netherlands is a small country with mostly urban and agricultural
areas. This will limit the number and size of territories for the wolves, so option C is correct.
Currently, the wolf population in the Netherlands is only growing slowly due to accidental road
kills.

115
A
Explanation:
Option B does not yield a valid result. Option C would give you the value of the net
secondary productivity. Option D can be used to find gross secondary productivity. Option
A is the correct choice.

116
117
Any seven of the following:
 Organisms interact with their environment.
 Abiotic factors are part of a habitat OR niche.
 Light intensity affects the amount OR rate of photosynthesis OR productivity.
 Light influences the behaviour of organisms.
 Temperature affects the type of biome or ecosystem that can exist somewhere.
 Soil pH can impact what types of plants can grow.
 Soil type can impact what types of plants can grow.
 Soil nutrients can impact what types of plants can grow.
 Soil moisture can impact what types of plants can grow.
 Soil profile affects what plants can grow.
 Soil depth affects what plants can grow.
 Soil drainage affects what plants can grow.
 Groundwater levels affect what plants can grow.
 Wind speed can make it difficult for seeds to settle, affecting the plants that can grow
there.
 Rainfall affects the type of biome or ecosystem that can exist somewhere.
 Seasonal differences determine migratory behaviour OR reproductive behaviour OR
other adaptive behaviour.
 Daily differences will affect behaviour.
 Slope OR gradient can impact what types of organisms can exist somewhere.
 Altitude affects the temperature OR amount of oxygen present, impacting what can
survive in an ecosystem.
[7 marks maximum]
Sample answer:
In a terrestrial ecosystem, there are many abiotic factors that are important to measure
because they can affect the biotic factors of the ecosystem (
✓✓). Temperature and rainfall are probably the most important because these are the factors
that will determine what type of ecosystem is in a specific place (
✓✓) (
✓✓). Soil moisture will affect the plants that can live there (
✓✓), as will soil pH levels (
✓✓). It is also important to check the light intensity because that will have an impact on how
much photosynthesis the plants can do (
✓✓). Changes in these factors throughout the day will affect productivity and behaviour (
✓✓). Lastly, the soil type will affect the types of plants that can live in the ecosystem and how
well they can grow (✓✓).

118

119
Two of the following:
 Photography can be useful for identifying species of corals and other sessile organisms.
 Pitfall traps and sweep nets could be used to capture small mobile organisms, for
example insects.
 Faeces can be collected for animals that are difficult to trap.
 DNA analysis can help determine which species a specimen belongs to.
 Biological keys could be useful to identify species in their correct taxonomic category.
[2 marks maximum]
Sample answers:
The technique used to count the number of species will depend mostly on the mobility of
organisms, for example for sessile animals such as corals, underwater photographs (✓✓
) can be taken to later identify them using an identification key (✓✓).

120
D
Explanation:
We generally discuss the genetic diversity within one species, which does not impact either
species or habitat diversity; thus, options A and C are incorrect.
An increase in the number of different species will not increase the number of places for other
organisms to live (habitat diversity); thus option B is incorrect.
An ecosystem or biome that offers a variety of places to live can provide a larger number of
species with a place to live. Thus option D is the correct answer.
121
A combination of the following:
General [max 2]
Some characteristics will lead to small population sizes...
 Small populations are more vulnerable to extinction because they are more susceptible
to random events…
 …and they have low genetic diversity, which means they have less variation to help
them adapt to environmental change.
Morphological characteristics [max 4]
Large-bodied animals...
 …have large nutritional needs OR large habitat requirements…
 …since they need to find enough food to support themselves.
 A large area is more likely to be affected adversely OR is more difficult to protect…
 …so the usable area is decreased, leading to smaller population sizes.
A species that is eaten by humans OR is a herd animal...
 …will face more pressure from its predators…
 …because humans are efficient killers OR predators have easy access.
 This increased pressure will reduce population sizes.
Reproductive characteristics [max 4]
Low reproductive rates OR a long gestation period...
 …means a species has few offspring per year
 …and thus a low population growth rate…
 …which means that a species cannot recover easily from population decline.
A slow growth rate...
 …means that it takes longer to reach reproductive age…
 …which means a population would have a lower growth rate…
 …which means that a species cannot recover easily from population decline.
[7 marks maximum]
Sample answer:
A species with a large body will need a large area to live in since it needs to find enough food
(✓✓
). However, it is difficult to make large nature reserves (✓✓
), so population sizes of large animals will often be small (✓✓
). The problem with small populations is that the whole population can suddenly be affected
by something random, like a landslide that wipes out all individuals, thus leading to extinction
(✓✓).
If a species only has a few offspring a year (✓✓
), this could also lead to a small population. With only a few offspring a year, the population
growth rate is low (✓✓
), which means a population cannot quickly recover from an event that caused the population
to decline (✓✓
). The chance of extinction is higher in such a situation.

122
Any two from the following:
 Deserts have a thinner ‘‘O' horizon than rainforests or may have none at all.
 Desert soils are not as deep as rainforest soils.
 Surface soil (horizon A) is looser and moves more easily in deserts than in rainforests,
making its depth variable (deep in sand dunes, shallow other areas).
 Subsoil (horizon B), substratum (horizon C), or bedrock (horizon R) are likely to be
closer to the surface in deserts.
[2 marks maximum]
Sample answer:
Rainforests have more organic matter than deserts, so their horizon O will be thicker or
deeper (
✓✓). While in the desert, horizon A can get blown around more easily, forming deep areas like
sand dunes in some places (
✓✓), rainforests will have basically the same thickness of horizon A everywhere.

123
A
Explanation:
Ecosystem resilience is the ability of an ecosystem to recover from a disturbance. Ecosystems
with higher average temperatures and higher annual rainfall amounts are more resilient than
those with lower temperatures and annual rainfall, as these tend to be more complex
ecosystems. High biodiversity imparts resilience to an ecosystem as does a high number of
interspecific interactions. K-strategists have low reproductive rates, while r-strategists have
high reproductive rates; this is one way that r-strategists contribute positively to the
resilience of an ecosystem.

124
D
Explanation:
The net primary productivity of the tundra and desert biomes are relatively lower than the
rainforest and savanna biomes. The biomass of herbivores is therefore lower in the tundra
and desert biomes as compared to the savanna and rainforest biomes.
Option D is correct, since the biomes at the lower end of the graph have low productivity and
lower biomass of herbivores (tundra) and the biomes at the higher end have higher
productivity and higher biomass of herbivores (savanna).

125
Two of the following:
Primary productivity decrease [[2 max]]
 Primary productivity determines how much energy enters the system so it determines
the carrying capacity for the fish.
 Some fishing practices (trawling) destroy the seabed, thus affecting primary
productivity. It is behaviour we can change.
 Construction (of oil platforms, wind turbines) harms parts of the seabed, thus affecting
primary productivity. It is behaviour we can change.
 Dredging for sand and gravel destroys the seabed, thus affecting primary productivity.
It is behaviour we can change.
 Pollution harms primary productivity. It is behaviour we can change.
Marine mammal increase to carrying capacity [[2 max]]
 Marine mammals and fisheries both want the same fish, so this may affect how many
the fishermen can catch.
 Harbour porpoises are an indicator species, so if they are doing well, the rest of the
ecosystem is probably doing well.
Outputs [[2 max]]
 The catch determines how much fishermen will earn.
 The effort needed will determine how many boats should fish.
 Biomass in the water is of interest to both fisheries and conservationists.
[2 marks maximum]
Sample answer:
Fishermen want to know how much fish they will catch (
✓✓) because if affects how much they will earn. Primary productivity is affected by things we
can change, such as trawling, which destroys the seabed and therefore decreases primary
productivity (
✓✓).

126
D
Explanation:
We have no information about the gender of the rabbits.
The population grew exponentially until year 8. Tapeworms and hawks would have slowed
down this growth.
Around year 8, the population reached its carrying capacity. The resources the rabbit
population required were rapidly depleted, causing a population crash.

127
Two of the following:
 High species richness and evenness indicate high biodiversity and therefore high water
quality OR low species richness and evenness indicate low water quality.
 If either species richness OR evenness is low, this indicates low water quality.
 Other factors besides water quality also influence species richness and evenness.
 If only pollution-tolerant organisms are present, this also indicates poor water quality.
[2 marks maximum]
Sample answer:
The freshwater areas with high water quality contain high richness and high evenness (✓✓
). If there are few species, even if there are many individuals of each, this may still indicate
low water quality (✓✓).

128
B
Explanation:
Option B shows continuous fluctuations in population numbers due to random occurrences in
the environment at all stages. Once the population hits the environment's carrying capacity
for that species, population growth will slow down and collapse to below carrying capacity
before growing again. Population size continues to fluctuate around the carrying capacity.
Option A is a theoretical model that shows exponential growth that slows down due to
limiting factors as the population size approaches and then reaches the carrying capacity.
Real life is not this simple, but the model helps us understand what influences population
growth.
Option C shows the population eventually settling at the carrying capacity. In reality, the
fluctuations will continue.
Option D does not show a normal sequence of events. Usually, the ‘‘dieback' occurs only
when the population exceeds carrying capacity, not as shown here.

129
A
Explanation:
Option A is correct because it involves a change of state, water is lost by evaporation. All
other choices are a movement of matter from one place to another.
Transfer of matter refers to the change in location, and transformation of matter refers to a
change in state for example from liquid to gas or solid to liquid.

130
Any two of the following:
 Low biodiversity
 Low NPP OR productivity
 Short growing season
 Permafrost layer
 Infertile soil (that is mostly bedrock)
 Producers include mosses, grasses, shrubs
 Species present are adapted to the cold
 Found in the far, far north and south, and very high on mountains everywhere
[2 marks maximum]
Sample answer:
The tundra is characterized by low biodiversity (✓✓
) due to a harsh climate. For example, the only producers found in this biome are mosses,
grasses and shrubs (✓✓
) that are able to grow in poor soils and harsh conditions.

131
C
Explanation:
Biodiversity increases as more producers and consumers colonise the area.
GPP increases as the biomass of producers increases.
NPP decreases because the respiration of the producers increases, and NPP = GPP - R.

132
B
Explanation:
Option A is incorrect because heterotrophs consume complex organic food compounds.
Option B is correct as these are producers that make their own food from inorganic
compounds. However, they do not use sunlight and use oxygen.
Option C is incorrect because although photoautotrophs make their own food, they need
sunlight to do so. In the Figure, sunlight is not an input. Moreover, oxygen is an output of
photosynthesis, instead of an input as shown in the Figure.
Option D is incorrect as the system indicates a process that only producers would be able to
complete.
133
C
Explanation:
One of the reasons to take multiple readings of the same factor is the variability that is to be
expected in that factor. If there is a large range of values for a characteristic, then it is
important to take more readings in order to capture the entire range.
There is great variability amongst organisms within a species, so a large number of readings
is necessary to ensure that the data obtained is reliable. Think of young and old trees, trees
growing in more favourable circumstances than others, and even leaves within a tree, as
some will be newer (and smaller) than others. Option C is correct.
Air temperature (option A) will vary during the day, and flow velocity (option D) will vary in
different seasons, but the statements define at which time of day or year they are to be
measured, thus limiting the variability.
The soil on the savanna in the Serengeti (option B) is likely to be well-mixed and uniform
throughout the ecosystem, thus needing relatively few readings.

134
B
Explanation:
Food chain lengths tend to be longer in aquatic systems as compared to terrestrial systems.
In general, energy is transferred more efficiently in aquatic systems. Phytoplankton are the
producers and the zooplankton that eat them are very efficient.
Species abundance is the number of individuals per species, and they tend to be high at the
level of the producers (Option A).
Decomposers are consumers that get their energy from dead remains of animals and waste
products called detritus (Option C)
In a food web, many different herbivores may feed on the same plant species, and each
herbivore may feed on more than one type of plant species (Option D)

135
Both of the following:
 Europe’s emissions decreased significantly between 1980 and 2000, because
legislation was implemented to combat the drastic consequences of acid rain that were
affecting the continent.
 Asia has shown a significant increase in emissions over that period due to the growth of
manufacturing and industry that had developed throughout large parts of the
continent.
[1 mark maximum]
Sample answer:
Asia and Europe experienced near opposite trends between 1980 and 2000. Asia saw
continued increases in emissions due to industrialisation (✓✓
), while Europe showed a significant decline between 1980 and 2000. This is because laws
were adopted to decrease the level of acid rain on the continent (✓✓).
136
A combination of the following:
similarities [3 max]
 Both are examples of energy conversions.
 Both are part of the carbon cycle.
 Both are examples of chemical reactions that occur within living beings OR both are
examples of transformations (flows).
 Both processes occur in autotrophic organisms (producers).
differences [3 max]
 Respiration occurs in all living organisms, while photosynthesis occurs only in
autotrophs.
 In (aerobic) respiration, O2 is a reactant and CO2 is released as waste, while in
photosynthesis CO2
is used and O2 is released as a waste product.
 Respiration does not need light, while photosynthesis depends on the presence of light.
 The main objective of respiration is to release energy, while the objective of
photosynthesis is to capture energy from sunlight.
 Respiration involves the breakdown of organic molecules, while photosynthesis involves
the synthesis of organic molecules.
[4 marks maximum]
Sample answer:
In both photosynthesis and respiration, one type of energy is transformed into another (✓✓
). In system diagrams, they are flows represented with arrows (✓✓
). Regarding the differences, respiration occurs in all living organisms, while photosynthesis
occurs only in photosynthetic organisms (✓✓
) that occupy the role of producers in food chains. On the other hand, photosynthesis releases
oxygen and captures carbon dioxide, while cellular respiration releases carbon dioxide as a
waste product and takes oxygen from the air (✓✓).

137
D
Explanation:
Statement I is not supported because the value here is per capita for only one source of
emissions. Both of these countries have high populations and are world leaders
on CO2COX2 emissions, releasing emissions from other sources.
Similarly, statement II is not supported because the value here is per capita for only one
source of emissions. Besides this, Luxembourg had less than 1 million people so their total
emissions would be expected to be lower than most.
Statement III is not supported as the populations of France and Spain are different, so total
emissions due to deforestation for food production would be different even though the value
per capita is the same.
As a result, option D is the correct answer.

138
A
Explanation:
When organisms are first introduced to an area with unlimited resources, the population is
likely to undergo exponential growth, as in B, which is a J-curve.
Once they reach carrying capacity, the curve will look like the curve in C, which is an S-curve.
If there are no predators to keep the population in check, it will grow beyond the carrying
capacity, resources become severely limited and the population will crash, as in graph A.

139

140
A
Explanation‾Explanation:
The first law of thermodynamics states that energy is not created or destroyed in an isolated
system, so statement VI is correct.
The second law of thermodynamics states that disorder (entropy) increases over time,
so statement V is correct.
Producers, which are the lowest trophic level, are the least efficient as they only convert
about 1%% of the sunlight they receive into biomass, so statement III is correct.
The other statements are incorrect.

141
Two of the following pairs:

Primary production
Mammals up to carrying capacity
reduced

Total biomass reduced Total biomass increased

Biomass of all 4 species Biomass of 2 fish reduced, one equal, shrimp

Biomass of shrimp greatly

Biomass of 3 fish species Biomass of 3 fish species equal or reduced a small

[2 marks maximum]
Sample answer:
While the biomass of all species was reduced when decreasing primary productivity, the total
biomass actually increased when marine mammals increased to carrying capacity (
✓✓). Interestingly, the biomass of shrimp decreased the most when primary productivity was
reduced, but increased the most when there were more marine mammals (✓✓).
142
D
Explanation:
The first three statements are correct. In the final stages or the climax community, GPP has
reached the maximum and the communities are at carrying capacity, GSP is at a maximum
and food chains are fully developed. There is no net productivity or gain in biomass at the
climax stage.

143
D
Explanation:
Curve C is an S-curve, which we see when a population is new to an area or is recovering from
a disaster.
Curve B shows a steady state. In real life populations fluctuate around the carrying capacity.
A and D show a cyclic population curve, typical of a stable predator/prey relationship. As the
population of rabbits increases, the population of foxes will increase due to more available
food. Such a fox increase will cause the rabbit population to decrease from increased fox
predation. Foxes will then have less food with fewer rabbits causing their population to
decrease. This then allows the population of rabbits to increase.
Curve D shows natural variation that occurs in a population, whereas curve A is a theoretical
model where the population hits the same highs and lows every time.

144

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