CH 4015

Comprehensive Design Project 1

Interim Report 2
Precipitated Calcium carbonate Production Process

Supervised by: Dr. H.H.M.P. Rathnayake

Group Members: 190015J – ABEYSUNDARA A.M.A.L.

190407M – NANAYAKKARA M.N.T.M.
190588P – SHELANTHA A.A.J.
190503E – RANATHUNGA M.I.
190537K – SACHIN H.L.
190450L – PERERA H.A.S.S

10/2023
Department of Chemical & Process Engineering
University of Moratuwa
Contents
1 Mass Balance ........................................................................................................................... 6
1.1 Kiln ................................................................................................................................... 6
1.2 Mixing Reactor ................................................................................................................. 8
1.3 Coarse Particle & CaCO3 Screener .................................................................................. 9
1.4 Carbonation Column ...................................................................................................... 10
1.5 Filter Press ...................................................................................................................... 12
1.6 Rotary Dryer ................................................................................................................... 13
1.7 Pulverizer ....................................................................................................................... 14
1.8 Screener .......................................................................................................................... 15
2 Energy Balance ...................................................................................................................... 17
2.1 Note ................................................................................................................................ 17
2.2 Simultaneous Energy Balance for Kiln and Coal Burner .............................................. 17
2.2.1 Note ......................................................................................................................... 17
2.2.2 Data: ........................................................................................................................ 18
2.2.3 Calculation .............................................................................................................. 19
2.3 Lime Slaking Reactor ..................................................................................................... 22
2.3.1 Data and Calculations for the Reactor .................................................................... 22
2.3.2 Slaking Reactor Cooling Jacket .............................................................................. 23
2.4 Carbonation Column ...................................................................................................... 23
2.4.1 Data ......................................................................................................................... 23
2.4.2 Calculations for the Reactor.................................................................................... 24
2.4.3 Calculations for the Reactor Cooling Jacket ........................................................... 24
2.5 Dryer............................................................................................................................... 24
2.5.1 Calculations............................................................................................................. 24
2.6 Heat Exchangers and Heat recovery Systems ................................................................ 25
2.6.1 CaO cooler .............................................................................................................. 26
2.6.2 Limestone – Cyclone Preheating System ............................................................... 27
2.6.3 Dryer Air Heater ..................................................................................................... 28
2.6.4 Ca(OH)2 Cooler ...................................................................................................... 29
2.6.5 Cooling Tower......................................................................................................... 30
2.6.6 Slaking Reactor - RO Water Heater ........................................................................ 30

1
 2.7 Assumptions made During Energy Flow sheeting ......................................................... 31
2.8 Utilities ........................................................................................................................... 32
2.9 Energy Flowsheet ........................................................................................................... 33
2.10 Electricity Requirement.................................................................................................. 35
2.10.1 Electricity Requirement for Pumps ......................................................................... 35
2.10.2 Electricity Requirement for Fans ............................................................................ 36
3 Site selection .......................................................................................................................... 37
3.1 Developing a scoring system to evaluate the site selection elements: ........................... 37
3.1.1 Weighting factors. ................................................................................................... 37
3.1.2 Criteria ranking scores. ........................................................................................... 38
3.2 Selecting potential sites for the establishment of the plant. ........................................... 39
3.3 Evaluating the selection elements for the selected estates. ............................................ 40
3.3.1 Transportation cost .................................................................................................. 40
3.3.2 Cheap land acquisition ............................................................................................ 40
3.3.3 Land availability for future expansion .................................................................... 41
3.3.4 Availability of labor ................................................................................................ 41
3.3.5 Availability and cost of utilities .............................................................................. 42
3.3.6 Selecting the most suitable estate. .......................................................................... 43
4 Economic Feasibility ............................................................................................................. 44
4.1 Costing ........................................................................................................................... 44
4.1.1 Capital costs ............................................................................................................ 44
4.1.2 Working Capital ...................................................................................................... 45
4.1.3 Production Cost....................................................................................................... 47
4.2 Financial feasibility study .............................................................................................. 50
4.3 Cash Flow and Simple Payback Period.......................................................................... 52
4.3.1 NPV – Net Present Value ........................................................................................ 53
4.3.2 Rate on Investment (ROI) ....................................................................................... 53
4.4 IRR (Internal rate of return) ........................................................................................... 54
4.5 Conclusion...................................................................................................................... 54
5 Health, Safety and Environmental Analysis .......................................................................... 55
5.1 Health assessment .......................................................................................................... 55
5.1.1 Toxicity ................................................................................................................... 55

2
 5.1.2 Noise ....................................................................................................................... 57
5.1.3 Vibration ................................................................................................................. 58
5.1.4 Ergonomics ............................................................................................................. 59
5.2 Safety assessment ........................................................................................................... 59
5.2.1 Safety inventory keeping ........................................................................................ 59
5.2.2 Storage and handling information ........................................................................... 59
5.2.3 Spill cleaning .......................................................................................................... 60
5.2.4 Reactivity ................................................................................................................ 60
5.2.5 Fire and Explosion .................................................................................................. 61
5.2.6 Safe usage of utilities .............................................................................................. 62
5.2.7 Thermal hazard ....................................................................................................... 63
5.3 Environmental Impact Assessment ................................................................................ 65
5.3.1 Existing environmental conditions of the selected site ........................................... 65
5.3.2 Air emission ............................................................................................................ 66
5.3.3 Liquid emissions ..................................................................................................... 66
5.3.4 Solid and hazardous waste disposal considering ecological damage ..................... 66
5.3.5 Noise and Vibrations ............................................................................................... 67
5.3.6 Socio – economic impacts ...................................................................................... 68
5.3.7 Leopold Matrix for Environmental Impact Assessment ......................................... 68
6 Plant Layout ........................................................................................................................... 69
6.1 Plant Layout drawing ..................................................................................................... 70
7 Process Flow Diagram (PFD) ................................................................................................ 71
7.1 Legend ............................................................................................................................ 72
8 References ............................................................................................................................. 74

List of Figures
Figure 1-1 - Kiln Material Balance ................................................................................................. 6
Figure 1-2 - Mixing Reactor Material Balance ............................................................................... 8
Figure 1-3 - Screener Material Balance ........................................................................................ 10
Figure 1-4 - Carbonation Column Material Balance .....................................................................11
Figure 1-5 - Filter Press Material Balance .................................................................................... 12
Figure 1-6 -Rotary Dryer Material Balance .................................................................................. 14
Figure 1-7 - Pulverizer Material Balance...................................................................................... 15
Figure 1-8 - Screener Material Balance ........................................................................................ 16

3
Figure 4-1 - Prices of PCC in 2023............................................................................................... 51
Figure 5-1 - Leopold Matrix ......................................................................................................... 68

List of Tables
Table 1-1 - Material Balance for Kiln ............................................................................................. 7
Table 1-2 - Material Balance for Mixing Reactor ........................................................................... 8
Table 1-3 - Material Balance for Particle Screener ......................................................................... 9
Table 1-4 - Material Balance for Carbonation Column .................................................................11
Table 1-5 - Material Balance for Filter Press ................................................................................ 13
Table 1-6 - Material Balance for Rotary Dryer ............................................................................. 13
Table 1-7 - Material Balance for Pulvarizer.................................................................................. 14
Table 1-8 - Material Balance for Screener .................................................................................... 16
Table 2-1 - Energy Balance for Kiln and Burner .......................................................................... 18
Table 2-2 - Data for energy balance of Kiln ................................................................................. 18
Table 2-3 - Energy Balance Calculation ....................................................................................... 19
Table 2-4 - Energy requirement by the flame ............................................................................... 19
Table 2-5 - Coal burner energy calculation ................................................................................... 20
Table 2-6 - Inputs and compatibility check of energy balance ..................................................... 21
Table 2-7 - Data for Lime slaking reactor ..................................................................................... 22
Table 2-8 - Energy Balance for the reactor ................................................................................... 22
Table 2-9 - Slaking reactor cooing jacket. .................................................................................... 23
Table 2-10 - Carbonation column data.......................................................................................... 23
Table 2-11 - Calculation for the Carbonation Reactor .................................................................. 24
Table 2-12 - Calculations for the reactor cooling jacket ............................................................... 24
Table 2-13 - Dryer Calculations .................................................................................................... 25
Table 2-14 - CaO Cooler Energy Balance .................................................................................... 26
Table 2-15 - cyclone preheating system energy balance............................................................... 27
Table 2-16 - Dryer air heater energy balance ................................................................................ 28
Table 2-17 - Ca(OH)2 Cooler energy balance .............................................................................. 29
Table 2-18 - Cooling tower energy balance .................................................................................. 30
Table 2-19 - Slaking reactor RO water energy balance ................................................................ 31
Table 2-20 - Utilities ..................................................................................................................... 32
Table 2-21 - Energy Flow Sheet ................................................................................................... 33
Table 2-22 - Electricity Requirement for pumps .......................................................................... 35
Table 2-23 - Electricity requiremnt for fans ................................................................................. 36
Table 3-1- Weighting Factors ........................................................................................................ 38
Table 3-2 - Site selection criteria .................................................................................................. 38
Table 3-3 - Criteria ranking scores ................................................................................................ 38
Table 3-4 - Available Sites ............................................................................................................ 39
Table 3-5 - Scoring........................................................................................................................ 40
Table 3-6 - Land Acquisition ........................................................................................................ 41
Table 3-7 - Land availability for future expansion ....................................................................... 41

4
Table 3-8 -Availability of Labor ................................................................................................... 42
Table 3-9 - Cost of utilities ........................................................................................................... 42
Table 3-10 - Selecting the most suitable estate ............................................................................. 43
Table 4-1 - Capital Cost Breakdown ............................................................................................. 46
Table 4-2 - Material Cost .............................................................................................................. 47
Table 4-3 - Imported Material Cost .............................................................................................. 48
Table 4-4 - Utility Cost ................................................................................................................. 48
Table 4-5 - Labor and Supervision Cost ....................................................................................... 49
Table 4-6 - Total Production Cost ................................................................................................. 49
Table 4-7 - Cash Flow ................................................................................................................... 52
Table 5-1 - Safety Inventory ......................................................................................................... 59
Table 5-2 - Chemical Handling ..................................................................................................... 59
Table 5-3 - Fire and Explosion Hazard ......................................................................................... 61
Table 5-4 - Tolerance Limits ......................................................................................................... 66
Table 5-5 - Permissible noise Levels ............................................................................................ 67

5
1 Mass Balance

It is assumed that the system is in steady state conditions and the material balance is applied for
the system as below,
𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛 + 𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑂𝑢𝑡 + 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
The purity of the PCC (Precipitated Calcium Carbonate) in the market is between 98-99% and the
proposed plant can produce PCC up to 99%. The material balance for the plant equipment is
performed as reverse material balance initiating from the dryer.
The expected capacity of the production plant is determined as 1000 kg/hr which is obtained in
interim report 1.
1.1 Kiln
In the kiln, milled limestone with 96% purity is calcined at around 900ºC.

Limestone CO2

1160.71 kg/h 485.381 kg/h

Impurities

46.428 kg/h CaCO3

CaO
11.143 kg/h
617.758 kg/h

To Mixing Reactor

KILN
Figure 1-1 - Kiln Material Balance

6
Assumptions
• Kiln works at 99% conversion rate.
Calculations
Table 1-1 - Material Balance for Kiln

Kiln
Feed Output
Component
kg/hr % kg/hr %
CaO (s) - - 617.758 0.53
CO2 (g) - - 485.381 0.42
CaCO3 1114.281 0.96 11.143 0.01
Impurities 46.428 0.04 46.428 0.04

Total 1160.710 1 1160.710 1

7
1.2 Mixing Reactor
1:4 Solid water ratio is kept inside the reactor for optimum mixing conditions.

From Kiln Impurities

CaCO3
46.428 kg/h
11.143 kg/h
CaO
H2O
CaO 650.271
kg/h 2867.294
32.514 kg/h
kg/h
From Screener

Ca(OH)2 H2O
816.322 Unreacted
2668.729 kg/h
kg/h CaO
Impurities CaCO3
32.514 kg/h
46.428 kg/h 11.143 kg/h
To Screener

MIXING REACTOR

Figure 1-2 - Mixing Reactor Material Balance

Assumptions
• 95% conversion is assumed in the reactor.
Calculations
Table 1-2 - Material Balance for Mixing Reactor

Mixing Reactor
Feed Output
Component
kg/hr % kg/hr %
CaO (s) 650.271 0.182 32.514 0.009
H2O (l) 2867.294 0.802 2668.729 0.746

8
 Ca(OH)2 (s) - - 816.322 0.228
Impurities 46.428 0.013 46.428 0.013
CaCO3 11.143 0.003 11.143 0.003

Total 3575.136 1 3575.136 1

1.3 Coarse Particle & CaCO3 Screener

In this, coarse particles from the mixer and CaCO3 that didn’t get calcined are screened. Coarse
particles are sent back to the reactor.
Assumptions
• The screener works 100% accurately.
Calculations
Table 1-3 - Material Balance for Particle Screener

Particle Screener
Feed Output
Component
kg/hr % kg/hr %
CaO(s) 32.514 0.01 32.514 0.0091
H2O (l) 2668.729 0.75 2668.729 0.7465
Impurities 46.428 0.01 46.428 0.013
Ca(OH)2 (s) 816.322 0.23 816.322 0.2283
CaCO3 11.143 0.003117 11.143 0.0031

Total 3575.136 1 3575.136 1

9
 From Mixer
Impurities
CaCO3
46.428 kg/h
11.143 kg/h
Ca(OH)2 H2O

To Mixing
CaO 816.322 2668.729

Reactor
kg/h kg/h
32.514 kg/h

CaO Particles
32.514 kg/h

11.143 kg/h
CaCO3 Particles

Ca(OH)2 H2O

816.322 2668.729 kg/h

kg/h

To Carbonation Column
Impurities

46.428 kg/h
SCREENER

Figure 1-3 - Screener Material Balance

1.4 Carbonation Column

Different additives are used to produce Aragonite and Calcite. According to literature utilizing
additives produce 100% of the required morphology. Impurities and unreacted Ca(OH)2 travels
along with the product as an aqueous solution which will be removed along with water in the filter
press.
Assumptions
• 90% conversion is assumed in the column.
• 1% percentage is taken as the waste that cannot be recovered during the operation.

10
Calculations
Table 1-4 - Material Balance for Carbonation Column

Carbonation Column
Feed Output
Component
kg/hr % kg/hr %
PCC (s) 0.000 0.00 991.833 0.2469 0.25
H2O (l) 2668.729 0.66 2847.438 0.7089 0.72 Soild-Liquid Stream
Ca(OH)2 (s) 816.322 0.20 81.632 0.0203 0.02 output composition
Impurities 46.428 0.01 46.428 0.0116 0.01
Gas stream output
CO2 (g) 485.381 0.12 48.538 0.0121 1
composition
PCC (s) Waste - - 0.992 0.0002

Total 4016.861 1 4016.861 1

From Screener
CO2
Impurities
Ca(OH)2 H2O 485.381 kg/h
46.428 kg/h
816.322 kg/h 2668.729 kg/h CO2

48.538 kg/h

Impurities Ca(OH)2
PCC waste
46.428 kg/h 81.632 kg/h
PCC H2O 0.992 kg/h

991.833 kg/h 2847.438 kg/h

PCC to Filter Press

CARBONATION COLUMN
Figure 1-4 - Carbonation Column Material Balance

11
1.5 Filter Press
This is used to reduce the moisture level from 72% to 30%.

PCC from Carbonation Column

Ca(OH)2
Impurities PCC H2O
81.632 kg/h
46.428 kg/h 991.833 kg/h 2847.438 kg/h

Impurities Ca(OH)2 H2O PCC waste

46.428 kg/h 81.632 kg/h 2426.575 kg/h 9.820 kg/h
PCC H2O
982.013 kg/h 420.863 kg/h

PCC to Rotary Dryer

FILTER PRESS

Figure 1-5 - Filter Press Material Balance

Assumptions
• 1% percentage is taken as the waste that cannot be recovered during the operation.
• Incoming water content is assumed as 72% and it is adjusted to keep a 1:4 ratio in the
mixing reactor for optimum mixing conditions.
• Ca(OH)2 and impurities are washed along with water that is forced out of the filter press
and a negligible Ca(OH)2 and impurities amount is carried with PCC.

Calculations

12
 Table 1-5 - Material Balance for Filter Press

Filter Press
Feed Output
Component
kg/hr % kg/hr %
PCC (s) 991.833 0.25 982.013 0.2475 0.7
H2O (l) 2847.438 0.72 420.863 0.1061 0.3 Soild-Liquid Stream
output composition
H2O (l) - - 2426.575 0.6116 0.95
Ca(OH)2 (s) 81.632 0.02 81.632 0.020576 0.03
liquid stream output
Impurities 46.428 0.01 46.428 0.006678 0.02
composition
PCC (s) Waste - - 9.820 0.0025

Total 3967.331 1 3967.331 1

1.6 Rotary Dryer

Material that is partially dewatered is dried in the rotary dryer to remove moisture from 30% to
2%.
Assumptions
• The minor impurities are negligible.
• No solute is dissolved in the water evaporated from the dryer.
• 0.1% percentage is taken as the waste that cannot be recovered during the operation.

Calculations
Table 1-6 - Material Balance for Rotary Dryer

Rotary Dryer
Feed Output
Component
kg/hr % kg/hr %
PCC (s) 982.013 0.70 981.032 0.699 0.98 Soild-Liquid Stream
output composition
H2O (l) 420.863 0.30 20.000 0.014 0.02
H2O (g) - - 400.863 0.286
PCC (s) Waste - - 0.981 0.001

Total 1402.875 1 1402.875 1

13
 PCC from Filter Press

H2O
PCC
420.863 kg/h
982.013 kg/h
H2O

400.863 kg/h

PCC waste

0.981 kg/h

PCC H2O

981.032 kg/h 20 kg/h

PCC to Pulverizer

ROTARY DRYER

Figure 1-6 -Rotary Dryer Material Balance

1.7 Pulverizer
As the material that comes out is not according to the desired particle size, a pulverizer is used to
mill PCC until it comes out to the required size. Oversized particles from the screener is
recirculated back to the pulverizer to mill it further.
Assumptions
• 95% mass percentage is attainable to the desired particle size.
• 0.1% percentage is taken as the waste that cannot be recovered during the operation.
Calculations
Table 1-7 - Material Balance for Pulvarizer

Pulvarizer
Feed Output
Component
kg/hr % kg/hr %
PCC (s) 1032.611 0.98 1031.579 0.980

14
 H2O (l) 20.000 0.02 20.000 0.019
PCC particles wasted
PCC (s) Waste - - 1.032 0.001
in the operation

Total 1052.61 1 1052.61 1

PCC from Rotary Dryer

Recycled Coarse PCC

from the screener.
PCC H2O
51.579 kg/h
981.032 kg/h 20 kg/h

PCC waste

1.032 kg/h
PCC H2O

1031.579 kg/h 20 kg/h

To Screener

PULVERIZER

Figure 1-7 - Pulverizer Material Balance

1.8 Screener
Pulverized material is sent through the screener to sort out the desired particle size material. Coarse
particles from the pulvarizer are screened in this step and the coarse particles are sent back to the
pulvarizer to mill it further.
Assumptions

15
 • It is assumed that the screener works at 100% accuracy.
• Water carried along with the recycled coarse PCC particles, is neglected.
• No material waste is generated on the screener surface.
Calculations
Table 1-8 - Material Balance for Screener

Screener
Feed Output
Component
kg/hr % kg/hr %
PCC (s) 1031.58 0.98 980 0.932
H2O (l) 20.000 0.02 20.00 0.019
PCC (s) Coarse Particles - - 51.579 0.049

Total 1051.58 1 1051.58 1

PCC from Pulverizer

Pulverizer
PCC H2O

1031.58 kg/h 20 kg/h

51.579 kg/h

Coarse PCC
Particles

PCC H2O

980 kg/h 20 kg/h

PCC

1000 kg/h

SCREENER

Figure 1-8 - Screener Material Balance

16
1.9 Mass flow sheet
2 Energy Balance

2.1 Note
• Enthalpy values for gases are obtained from the Thermodynamic Property Tables which
has the reference temperature at 0 K [1].
• CaO(s) enthalpy-temperature curve is generated by using specific heat capacity values in
different temperatures.
• Enthalpy values for water is taken from the same Thermodynamic Property Tables and
considered saturated water properties in each application.
• Enthalpy values for steam is taken from the same Thermodynamic Property Tables [1].
• For Limestone, Coal, Ca(OH)2 and PCC, the enthalpy value was calculated assuming the
specific heat capacity (Cp)is constant w.r.t the temperature.
• All the enthalpy values are considered w.r.t the reference temperature of 0 K (absolute zero
temperature) [1].

2.2 Simultaneous Energy Balance for Kiln and Coal Burner

2.2.1 Note
• Coal Burner flame is directed inside the limestone calcination kiln.
• CO2, unburnt O2 and atmospheric N2 are then go inside the kiln.
• Generated CO2 inside the kiln and input CO2 from the burner are altogether collected,
purified and stored as a raw material for further downstream processing.
• Therefore, coal is working as a utility and also as a raw material.
• Simultaneous energy and material balance is required for the kiln and coal burner due to
that reason.
• Anthracite coal is used.
• The amount of Hydrogen in the coal is neglected.
• Air to fuel ratio of the burner is optimized for maximum energy recovery in the downstream
processing while providing adequate CO2 emission from the burner.

17
 Table 2-1 - Energy Balance for Kiln and Burner

Specific heat
Molar mass
Component Phase capacity
(kg/mol) Cp (J/kg.K)
PCC solid 0.1 880
H2O liquid 0.018
CO2 gas 0.044
Ca(OH)2 solid 0.074
CaO solid 0.056
CaCO3 solid 0.1 909
C solid 0.012 711
O2 gas 0.032
N2 gas 0.028

2.2.2 Data:
Table 2-2 - Data for energy balance of Kiln

Reaction CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

Reaction Temperature 950 oC
Reaction Presssure 1 atm
Reaction Enthalpy 172 kJ/mol Endothermic
Conversion 0.98
CaO mass flowrate 0.172 kg/s
CO2 generation rate 485.381 kg/hr
Heat consumption 527.1 kW
rate by reaction
Kiln energy efficiency 0.9

18
2.2.3 Calculation
Table 2-3 - Energy Balance Calculation

Kiln

Feed Output
Component
Rate Temp. Enthalpy E. flowrate Rate Temp. Enthalpy E. flowrate
o o
kg/hr C kJ/kg kW kg/hr C kJ/kg kW
CaCO3 1114.281 900 1066.257 330.03 11.143 950 1111.707 3.44
CaO 0 - - 0.00 617.758 950 969.7873 166.41
CO2 912.08 1744.70 442.03 1397.46 950 1249.47 485.02
O2 103.3333 1300 1632.00 46.84 103.33333 950 1223.81 35.13
N2 2523.675 1781.03 1248.54 2523.675 950 1337.57 937.66
Total 4653.373 2067.445 4653.3737 1627.673

Calculation of Energy requirement by the flame:

Table 2-4 - Energy requirement by the flame

E1+E2+R ------------> E3+E4+E5+E6 Energy balance Equation

Energy input by coal burner E1

Radiation energy input R
Energy input by Limestone E2 330.03 kW
Energy Consumption by the reaction E3 527.1 kW
Energy waste from the kiln E4
Energy outlet with exhaust stream E5 1457.82 kW
Energy outlet with the solid stream E6 169.86 kW

Total energy out + Consumption E3+E5+E6 2154.73 kW

Energy waste E4 239.4143 kW
Required energy input by flame E1 2064.11 kW

Energy waste is taken as 10% of energy input in the kiln.

19
Then the coal burner energy calculation using Ms Excel:
Table 2-5 - Coal burner energy calculation

Coal Burner

Feed Output
Component
Rate Temp. Enthalpy E. flowrate Rate molar Temp. Enthalpy E. flowrate
molar ratio
kg/hr o
C kJ/kg kW kg/hr ratio o
C kJ/kg kW
C 250 1 25 211.878 14.71 1.25 0.005 1118.40 0.39
CO2 - - - - 0.00 912.08 0.995 1744.70 442.03
1300
O2 766.66667 1.15 423 90.08 103.33 0.155 1632.00 46.84
150
N2 2523.675 4.3263 423 296.53 2523.675 4.3263 1781.03 1248.54
Total 3290.3417 401.329 1737.803

Here, the Coal input is an input variable. It leads to change the energy input, air requirement (inlet),
air outlet due to presence of O2 and N2, and finally change both inlet and outlet enthalpies and
energy flowrates.

Following table represents the inputs and compatibility check of energy balance with the variation
of coal inlet flowrate and variation of excess air flowrate.

Additionally, the air supply to the burner is heated using the heat emission by CaO cooler as an
energy recovery consideration.

20
 Table 2-6 - Inputs and compatibility check of energy balance

Reaction C + O2 + N2 → CO2 + N2 + O2 + C
Excess air 15 % *input variable
o
Reaction Temperature 1300 C 1573K
Reaction Presssure 1 atm
Reaction Enthalpy 25 MJ/kg Exothermic
Conversion 0.995
C mass flowrate 0.069 kg/s

Energy Equation:
Enthalpy in + Enthalpy Gen. = Enthalpy out + Radiation emission
Heat generation rate by
1.7 MW
reaction
Burner energy eff. 1.0

Radiation emission 390.96 kW

Total energy output 2128.76 kW [R]

Trial and Error Method for Cell O6 : Coal mass flowrate

Coal input rate to the burner 250 kg/hr *Selecting optimum coal input rate
Coal reaction rate 0.069097 Coal: kg/hr

Total energy released with the flame 2128.759 kW

Total energy required for the kiln 2064.11 kW *check the compatibility
Deficiency of energy -64.65 kW *minus value indicate : compatible

*Excess air percentage is also a controlable variable ----> causes significant impact on coal requirement

Required air inlet flow 3290.342 kg/hr

kg/hr o
Air flow given by CaO cooler 3290.34 at temperature of 150 C

21
2.3 Lime Slaking Reactor
2.3.1 Data and Calculations for the Reactor
Table 2-7 - Data for Lime slaking reactor

Reaction CaO + H2O ------> Ca(OH) 2

Reaction enrgy balance In + Generation = Out + Waste + Work done
Reaction Temperature 75 oC
Reaction Presssure 1.031 bar
Reaction Enthalpy -63.7 kJ/mol Exothermic
Conversion 0.95
CaO molar reaction rate 0.172 kg/s

Heat generation rate by = CaO molar flowrate x reaction enthalpy / CaO molar mass
195.1941 kW
reaction * calculating w.r.t CaO consumption rate
Heat missionn rate by
1.655 kW
the reactor * work done on or by the system is neglected

Table 2-8 - Energy Balance for the reactor

Lime Slaker

Feed Output
Component
Rate Temp. Enthalpy E. flowrate Rate Temp. Enthalpy E. flowrate
kg/hr % o kJ/kg kW kg/hr % o kJ/kg kW
C C
CaO (s) 650.271 0.185 25 126.12 22.78 32.514 0.009 75 164.657 1.487
H2O (l) 2867.294 0.815 34 143 113.90 2668.729 0.759 75 317.62 235.456
Ca(OH) 2 (s) - - - 0.000 816.322 0.232 75 411.34 93.273
Total 3517.565 1 136.677 3517.565 1 330.216

Since the reactor should be kept in optimum temperature in order to happen the reaction in
favorable conditions, the heat emission should be controlled. Although the reaction is exothermic,
the heat production is not enough to heat up the reactor to 75 Celsius degrees. Therefore, the water
stream is heated to 34 C and send into the reactor. The water inlet temperature is also found using
dame above calculation table. (water temperature is an input variable in a trial-and-error procedure
and found the required water temperature as 34 C) in case of temperature rise due to the exothermic
behavior inside the reactor, cooling jacket water can be supplied. For existing status of the reactor,
following cooling jacket water requirement is calculated.

22
2.3.2 Slaking Reactor Cooling Jacket
Table 2-9 - Slaking reactor cooing jacket.

Water out Water in Energy

Cooling Jacket : Water
Temp. Enthalpy Rate flowrate
o
Heat emission rate 1.655 kW C kJ/kg kg/s kg/hr kW

If Cooling is needed
Jacket efficiency 0.9 25 104.83 #DIV/0! #DIV/0! #DIV/0!
Water in - Temp 25 oC 30 125.74 0.088 316.5482 11.05632
Water in - enthalpy 104.83 kJ/kg 35 146.64 0.044 158.3119 6.448573
Water out: pressure 1.031 bar 40 167.53 0.029 105.5665 4.912656
45 188.44 0.022 79.16543 4.143871
*no cooling or heating medium required 50 209.34 0.018 63.33386 3.682864
*but in case of heat rise; cooling jacket is used 55 230.26 0.015 52.77064 3.375269

2.4 Carbonation Column

2.4.1 Data
Table 2-10 - Carbonation column data

Reaction Ca(OH) 2 + CO2 ------> PCC + H2O

Reaction Energy balance In + Generation = Out + Waste + Work done
Reaction Temperature 37 oC
Reaction Presssure 2 bar
Reaction Enthalpy -113.2 kJ/mol Exothermic
Conversion 0.9
Ca(OH) 2 mass flowrate 0.204081 kg/s
CO2 conversion rate 0.121345 kg/s

Heat generation rate by

312.1881 kW
reaction
Heat generation rate by *work done on or by the system is neglected
158.995 kW
the reactor

23
2.4.2 Calculations for the Reactor
Table 2-11 - Calculation for the Carbonation Reactor

Carbonation Column

Feed Output
Component
Rate Temp. Enthalpy E. flowrate Rate Temp. Enthalpy E. flowrate
kg/hr % o kJ/kg kW kg/hr % o kJ/kg kW
C C
PCC (s) 0.00 - - 0.00 991.83 37.00 272.80 75.16
In 1 H2O 10000.00 25.00 104.83 291.19 10000.00 37.00 169.00 469.44
Out 1
H2O 2668.73 45.00 191.81 142.19 2847.44 37.00 169.00 133.67
In 2
Ca(OH) 2 816.32 45.00 375.88 85.23 81.63 37.00 366.42 8.31
CO2 1187.84 25.00 212.81 70.22 751.00 0.22 37.00 222.89 46.50
In 3 O2 103.33 25.00 271.31 7.79 103.33 0.03 37.00 282.19 8.10 Out 2
N2 2523.68 25.00 309.60 217.04 2523.68 0.75 37.00 321.92 225.67
Total 4577.556 813.660 3378.01 966.853

Excess RO water is used for:

1. Fulfill required dilution
2. Obtain suitable reaction temperature

2.4.3 Calculations for the Reactor Cooling Jacket

Table 2-12 - Calculations for the reactor cooling jacket

Cooling Jacket : Water

Heat emission rate 158.995 kW

Jacket efficiency 0.95
Water in - Temp 25 oC
Water in - enthalpy 104.83 kJ/kg
Water out Water in
Water in energy 839.06 kW Temp. Enthalpy Rate
o
Water out energy 1006.42 kW C kJ/kg kg/s
Heat absorbing 159.00 kW 25 104.83 #DIV/0! x
Compare U10 : U3 30 125.74 8.003991 Selected
*selected water in rate is suitable 35 146.64 4.002953 x

2.5 Dryer
2.5.1 Calculations
Dryer operating temperature and pressure was assumed.

24
Maximum temperature inside the dryer should not be exceed 400 oC since at 400 oC, the
morphology of the aragonite changes. Therefore 100 oC at atmospheric pressure were selected as
the dryer operating conditions in order to minimize equipment usage and power consumption
hence vacuum or pressurized dryer costs more [2].
Table 2-13 - Dryer Calculations

Dryer (Indirect Heat)

Inlet Outlet
Component
Rate Temp. Enthalpy E. flowrate Rate Temp. Enthalpy E. flowrate
kg/hr o kJ/kg kW kg/hr o kJ/kg kW
C C
PCC 982.01 25 262.24 71.53 981.03 100 328.24 89.448
H2O(l) 420.86 25 101 11.81 20.00 100 419.06 2.328
Steam - - - 0 400.86 100 2675.6 297.930
83.34 389.71
Air 7200 292.36 565.36 1130.71 7200 100 373 746.000
1130.71 746.000
Energy efficiency of the dryer 0.85
Duty 306.36 kW
Required energy for drying 360.43 kW

Dryer pressure 1 atm

Water boiling point 100 oC *Input variable

Trial & Error Calc for Air flowrate

Air flowrate 2 kg/s *manual input variable

Required Air in energy 1106.43 kW
Required Air in enthalpy 553.21 kJ/kg
Air in temperature 565.36 K 292.36 oC

Hot source can produce 384.71 kW

Supply With the Efficiency of 0.85 327.01 kW
Demand Cold source require 306.36 kW *compatible

2.6 Heat Exchangers and Heat recovery Systems

Energy transfer reaction:
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚
= 𝐻𝐸 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 × 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚

25
2.6.1 CaO cooler
CaO powder coming out from the kiln is at around 950 oC. It should be cooled down to a moderate
temperature prior to the storage in silo. CaO properties should be preserved in order to have better
reaction inside the slaking reactor. The moisture content cannot be high. Therefore, direct cooling
method is not applicable .

Consideration:
CaO is cooled down to 40 oC using a rotary cooler with indirect heat transfer mechanism.
Ambient air at 25 oC and 1 atm is used as the coolant.
Heated air is supplied to the coal burner as the air requirement. Assume air is leaving the
Heat exchanger at 150 oC.
Table 2-14 - CaO Cooler Energy Balance

CaO Cooler : E-12

Inlet Outlet
Component
Rate Temp. Enthalpy E. flowrate Rate Temp. Enthalpy E. flowrate
o o
kg/hr C kJ/kg kW kg/hr C kJ/kg kW
Hot stream CaO (s) 617.76 950.00 969.78 166.41 760.49 40.00 160.00 33.80
Cold stream Air 3290.34 25.00 298.18 272.53 3290.34 150.00 423.00 386.62

Energy efficiency of the HE 0.9

Duty 132.61 kW

Capable max Energy supply by hot stream 119.35 kW

Energy demand by cold stream 114.08 kW *check the compatibility

*counter current heat exchanger

26
2.6.2 Limestone – Cyclone Preheating System

Table 2-15 - cyclone preheating system energy balance

Limestone Cyclone Preheater : E-7,8,9,10

Inlet Outlet
Component
Rate Temp. Enthalpy E. flowrate Rate Temp. Enthalpy E. flowrate
o o
kg/hr C kJ/kg kW kg/hr C kJ/kg kW
Cold stream CaCO3 1119.88 25 270.88 84.27 1114.28 900 1066.26 330.031
Hot stream Kiln Exhaust 4024.47 950 1304.06 1457.82 4024.473 756.10 1029.25 1150.61

System CaCO3 waste 0.5 %

System energy efficiency 0.8
Design Consideration: Limestone powder is heated upto 900oC during the preheating procedure
Duty 245.77 kW

The exhaust stream of the kiln is at around 950 oC and consist of huge energy. As a energy recovery
process, this energy is used to preheat the limestone dust. Cyclone preheating system is used to
heat the limestone dust. 4 or 6 cyclones can be used for the purpose. For now, in this process, we
have considered 4 cyclones as a system of energy transfer.

27
 2.6.3 Dryer Air Heater
The same exhaust stream coming out from the kiln still has large amount of energy inside the gas
stream even after heating the limestone dust. Therefore, this energy was used to provide hot air
supply to the PCC dryer.

Table 2-16 - Dryer air heater energy balance

Dryer Air Heater : E-25

Inlet Outlet
Component
Rate Temp. Enthalpy E. flowrate Rate Temp. Enthalpy E. flowrate
kg/hr o kJ/kg kW kg/hr o kJ/kg kW
C C
Exhaust 4024.47 756.10 1029.25 1150.61 4024.47 57
CO2 1397.46 57 340.22 132.068
Hot stream
O2 103.3333 57 300.63 8.629
N2 2523.675 57 342.75 240.275
1150.61 4024.473 380.972
Cold stream Air 7200 25 298.18 596.36 7200 292.36 553.21 1106.429

Energy efficiency of the HE 0.9

Energy Release by hot fluid 769.639 kW

Energy Absorption by cold fluid 510.069 kW Theoretical requirement

Energy Absorption by cold fluid 692.6749 kW Actually capable of giving

*counter current heat exchanger

*assume the exhaust stream has the enthalpy properties of ideal gas
*assume the AC6: Outlet exhaust temperature is dropped to 57C
*this section is corelated to the Drying

28
2.6.4 Ca(OH)2 Cooler
Table 2-17 - Ca(OH)2 Cooler energy balance

Ca(OH)2 Cooler : E-30

Inlet Outlet
Component
Rate Temp. Enthalpy E. flowrate Rate Temp. Enthalpy E. flowrate
o o
kg/hr C kJ/kg kW kg/hr C kJ/kg kW
CaO (s) 0.00 75 164.657 0.00 0.0 45 160 0.0
Hot stream H2O (l) 2668.73 75 317.620 235.46 2668.73 45 192 142.191
Ca(OH) 2 (s) 816.32 75 411.336 93.27 816.322 45 375.876
3485.05 328.73 3485.05 142.19
Cold stream H2O (l) 6480 25 104.83 188.694 6480 207.43 373.37

Energy efficiency of the HE 0.99

Duty 186.538 kW
Water
Water flowrate : Trial & Error Temp. Enthalpy
o
C kJ/kg
Water mass flowrate 1.8 kg/s *input variable 25 104.83
Required outlet water energy 373.37 kW 30 125.74
Required outlet water enthalpy 207.43 kJ/kg 35 146.64
Outlet water temperature *select from below data table 40 167.53
45 188.44
*Counter current heat exchanger 50 209.34
55 230.26

Slaking reactor is operated at 75 oC and 1 atm. But the Carbonation column should be operated at
lower temperatures. Therefore the Ca(OH)2 slurry should be cooled down. Otherwise, the cooling
jacket water requirement can be further increased and causes very high pump capacity.

Consideration: Ca(OH)2 is cooled down to 45 oC in a counter current heat exchanger

Cooling water flowrate was taken as the input variable to obtain the minimum water flowrate
which is capable of fulfilling the HE duty.

Outlet water temperature was found to be 50oC.

29
2.6.5 Cooling Tower
Cooling water used for various equipment and stream cooling within the process plant can be
recirculated inside the plant. Therefore, produced hot water should be cooled down to ambient
temperature in order to reuse them.

For now, stream-52 (where the hot water generated from Ca(OH)2 stream cooler) with 50oC
temperature is cooled down using the cooling tower. And is capable of handling higher
temperatures or flowrates.

Ambient air is used at 25 oC and 1 atm. Flow was optimized using the Excel sheet.
Table 2-18 - Cooling tower energy balance

Cooling Tower : E-19

Inlet Outlet
Component
Rate Temp. Enthalpy E. flowrate Rate Temp. Enthalpy E. flowrate
kg/hr o kJ/kg kW kg/hr o kJ/kg kW
C C
Hot stream Water 6480.00 45.00 188.44 339.19 6480.00 30.00 160.00 288.00
Cold stream Air 15840.00 25.00 298.18 1311.99 15840.00 35.00 308.00 1355.20

Energy efficiency : cooling tower 0.9

Duty 51.19 kW

Energy supply 46.07 kW

Energy demand 43.21 kW *check the compatibility

Air flowrate 4.4 kg/s *input variable

*Consideration: Cooldown the water as much as possible: to recirculate within the precess plant cooling water system
*mass loss of water as a vapor is neglected
*counter current streams

2.6.6 Slaking Reactor - RO Water Heater

Slaking reactor should be operated at 75 oC for better reaction kinetics. There should be a method
to obtain this temperature. Since this energy requirement wasn’t considerable high, the kiln exhaust
stream’s remaining energy was checked for the application.

30
Table 2-19 - Slaking reactor RO water energy balance

Slaker RO water heater : E-31

Inlet Outlet
Component
% Rate Temp. Enthalpy E. flowrate Rate Temp. Enthalpy E. flowrate
kg/hr o kJ/kg kW kg/hr o kJ/kg kW
C C
Cold stream RO Water 2867.29 25.00 104.83 83.49 2867.29 34.00 143.00 113.90

Exhaust
CO2 0.3472 1397.3 57.00 340.22 132.0526 1397.3 37.00 222.88 86.50841
Hot stream
O2 0.0257 103.3212 57.00 300.625 8.628037 103.3212 37.00 282.19 8.098947
N2 0.6271 2523.379 57.00 342.75 240.2467 2523.379 37.00 321.93 225.6531
1 4024 380.9273 320.2605

Energy efficiency of heat exchanger 0.85

Duty 30.40 kW

*assume exhaust air outlet is at 37oC : considering HE temperature profiles

Exhaust maximum intake 4024 kg/hr *coming from cell AC6

Energy demand 35.77 kW

Capable maximum energy supply 60.66685 kW
*therefore this exhaust stream can be used to heat up the RO water for desired level.

And found to be the stream’s energy is adequate to produce hot water in desired enthalpy.
2.7 Assumptions made During Energy Flow sheeting
• 0.05% material loss in pulverizer.
• 15% recirculation in screeners.
• 0.5% of limestone powder loss in cyclone preheating system.
• RO reject is 5% of RO inlet.
• SOx and NOx gas content in the exhaust streams are neglected.
• 15% of CO2 in the stream is absorbed inside the wet scrubber along with all SOx and NOx
gases.
• Unreacted Ca(OH)2 in the carbonation column is dissolved in the water inside the PCC
settling tank and 90% of them are removed along with the discharge water stream.
• The work done on the system by agitators is neglected during the energy balance
calculations.

31
2.8 Utilities
Table 2-20 - Utilities

Utility type Unit Operation Quantity

Cooling water (25oC,1

atm) Reactor cooling jacket, Stream cooling 35399.93 kg/hr
Distilled water (25oC,1
atm) Reactor dilution & cooling 10000.00 kg/hr
Water (25oC,1 atm) Wet scrubber 15878.34 kg/hr
Hot air (290oC,1 atm) Rotary dryer 7200.00 kg/hr
Coal burner, Cooling tower, stream
Air (25oC,1 atm) cooling 19130.34 kg/hr
Coal (25oC,solid) Coal burner fuel 250.13 kg/hr
Electricity Pumps 235.36 kWh
Electricity Blowers and Fans 246.50 kWh

32
 2.9 Energy Flowsheet
Basis: 1 hour, 0 K (absolute zero temperature)
Table 2-21 - Energy Flow Sheet

Component flowrate (kg/hr)

Total mass Stream Stream Energy
Stream Enthalpy
flowrate temperature Pressure Phase flowrate
number Ca(OH)2 (kJ/kg)
Ca(CO)3 Coal (s) Air (g) CO2 (g) O2 (g) N2 (g) CaO (s) H2O (l) H2O (g) PCC (s) (kg/hr) (oC) (bar) (kW)
(s)

S-1 - 250.13 - - - - - - - - - 250.13 25.0 1.013 solid 211.88 14.72

S-2 - 287.64 - - - - - - - - - 287.64 25.0 1.013 solid 211.88 16.93
S-3 - 250.13 - - - - - - - - - 250.13 25.0 1.013 solid 211.88 14.72
S-4 - 37.52 - - - - - - - - - 37.52 25.0 1.013 solid 211.88 2.21
S-5 - 250.00 - - - - - - - - - 250.00 25.0 1.013 solid 211.88 14.71
S-6 - 1.25 - 912.08 103.33 2523.68 - - - - - 3540.34 1300.0 1.013 gas 1767.09 1737.80
S-7 - - - 1397.46 103.33 2523.68 - - - - - 4024.47 950.0 1.013 gas 1304.06 1457.82
S-8 1119.88 - - - - - - - - - - 1119.88 25.0 1.013 solid 270.88 84.27
S-9 1287.86 - - - - - - - - - - 1287.86 25.0 1.013 solid 270.88 96.91
S-10 167.98 - - - - - - - - - - 167.98 25.0 1.013 solid 270.88 12.64
S-11 1119.88 - - - - - - - - - - 1119.88 25.0 1.013 solid 270.88 84.27
S-12 1114.28 - - - - - - - - - - 1114.28 900.0 1.013 solid 1066.26 330.03
S-13 5.60 - - 1397.46 103.33 2523.68 - - - - - 4030.07 756.0 1.108 gas 1029.12 1152.07
S-14 - - - - - - - - - - - optional vary vary liquid vary vary
S-15 5.60 - - 1397.46 103.33 2523.68 - - - - - 4030.07 756.0 1.113 gas 1029.12 1152.07
S-16 - - - - - - - - - - - optional vary vary gas vary vary
S-17 - - 3290.34 - - - - - - - - 3290.34 25.0 1.018 gas 298.18 272.53
S-18 - - 7200 - - - - - - - - 7200.00 25.0 1.018 gas 298.18 596.36
S-19 - - 7200 - - - - - - - - 7200.00 292.4 1.013 gas 565.36 1130.71
S-20 11.14 - - - - - 617.76 - - - - 628.90 950.0 1.013 solid 972.30 169.86
S-21 11.14 - - - - - 617.76 - - - - 628.90 40.0 1.013 solid 193.48 33.80
S-22 - - 3290.34 - - - - - - - - 3290.34 150.0 1.013 gas 423.00 386.62
S-23 - - 3290.34 - - - - - - - - 3290.34 150.0 1.018 gas 423.00 386.62
S-24 11.14 - - - - - 617.758 - - - - 628.90 25.0 1.013 solid 126.12 22.03
S-25 5.60 - - 1397.46 103.33 2523.68 - - - - - 4030.07 57.0 1.113 gas 340.32 380.97
S-26 5.60 - - 1397.46 103.33 2523.68 - - - - - 4030.07 37.0 1.113 gas 286.08 320.26
S-27 - - - - - - - - 13544.52 - - 13544.52 25.0 5.153 liquid 104.83 394.41
S-28 - - - - - - - - 12867.29 - - 12867.29 25.0 1.013 liquid 104.83 374.69
S-29 - - - - - - - - 677.23 - - 677.23 25.0 1.013 liquid 104.83 19.72
S-30 - - - - - - - - 6480 - - 6480.00 25.0 2.547 liquid 104.83 188.69
S-31 - - - - - - - - 28814.37 - - 28814.37 25.0 3.013 liquid 104.83 839.06
S-32 - - - 1397.46 103.33 2523.68 - - - - - 4024.47 37.0 1.013 gas 286.08 320.26
S-33 - - - - - - - - 15878.34 - - 15878.34 25.0 1.113 liquid 104.83 462.37
S-34 - - - vary - - - - 15878.34 - - 15878.34 25.0 2.013 liquid 104.83 462.37
S-35 - - - vary - - - - 15878.34 - - 15878.34 25.0 1.013 liquid 104.83 462.37
S-36 - - - 1187.84 103.33 2523.68 - - - - - 3814.85 25.0 3.513 gas 286.08 320.26
S-37 - - - 1187.84 103.33 2523.68 - - - - - 3814.85 25.0 4.013 gas 400.00 423.87
S-38 - - - - - - - - 2867.29 - - 2867.29 25.0 2.513 liquid 104.83 83.49
S-39 - - - - - - - - 10000.00 - - 10000.00 25.0 3.013 liquid 104.83 291.19
S-40 - - - 751.00 103.33 2523.68 - - - - - 3378.01 37.0 1.013 gas 298.69 280.27
S-41 - - - - - - - - 105.57 - - 105.57 40.0 1.013 liquid 167.53 4.91
S-42 11.14 - - - - - 32.51 816.32 2668.73 - - 3528.71 75.0 1.013 slurry 336.89 330.22
S-43 - - - - - - 32.51 - - - - 32.51 75.0 1.013 solid 164.66 1.49
S-44 - - - - - - - 816.32 2668.73 - - 3485.05 75.0 4.513 slurry 243.23 235.46
S-45 - - - - - - - 816.32 2668.73 - - 3485.05 45.0 3.013 slurry 314.99 304.93
S-48 - - - - - - - - 28814.37 - - 28814.37 30.0 1.013 liquid 125.74 1006.42
S-49 - - - - - - - 81.63 12847.44 - 991.83 13920.90 37.0 1.013 slurry 177.55 686.58
S-50 - - - - - - - 73.47 10000.00 - - 10073.47 25.0 1.013 liquid 105.91 296.37
S-51 - - - - - - - 8.16 2847.44 - 991.83 3847.43 25.0 13.013 slurry 145.32 155.31
S-52 - - - - - - - - 6480.00 - - 6480.00 50.0 1.047 liquid 209.34 376.81
S-53 - - - - - - - - 6480.00 - - 6480.00 30.0 1.013 liquid 160.00 288.00
S-54 - - 15840.00 - - - - - - - - 15840.00 25.0 1.018 gas 298.18 1311.99
S-55 - - 15840.00 - - - - - - - - 15840.00 35.0 1.013 gas 308.00 1355.20
S-56 - - - - - - - - 420.86 - 982.013 1402.88 25.0 1.013 slurry 214.77 83.69
S-57 - - - - - - - 8.16 2426.58 - 9.82 2444.56 25.0 1.013 liquid 104.41 70.90
S-58 - - 7200 - - - - - - - - 7200.00 100.0 1.013 gas 373.00 746.00
S-59 - - - - - - - - 20.00 - 981.03 1001.03 100.0 1.013 solid 330.05 91.78
S-60 - - - - - - - - 20.00 - 980 1000.00 60.0 1.013 solid 294.96 81.93
S-61 - - - - - - - - - - - 1000.00 25.0 1.013 solid 263.96 73.32

34
 S-62 - - - vary - - - - vary - - vary 25.0 1.013 liquid vary vary
S-63 - - - - - - - - 2867.29 - - 2867.29 34.0 1.013 liquid 143.00 113.90
S-64 - - - - - - - - 105.57 - - 105.57 40.0 1.713 liquid 167.53 4.91
S-65 - - - - - - - - - 400.86 - 400.86 100.0 1.018 gas 2675.60 297.93
S-66 - - - - - - - - 1.05 - 51.579 52.63 80 1.013 solid 312.36 4.57

2.10 Electricity Requirement

2.10.1 Electricity Requirement for Pumps
Table 2-22 - Electricity Requirement for pumps

System Pressure Required Operating

Pump Stream Required Pump Power
Stream details Material Density Flowrate pressure Elevation drop due to pump hours per
Index temperature pump head efficiency usage
difference friction power day

oC kg/m3 kg/hr kPa m kPa m W hr kWh

P-1 Fuel oil supply from storage to burner Light fuel oil 25 860.00 - - - - *pump is for backup purpose only - -
P-2 Cooling water supply for the Slaker water 25 997.00 105.57 0.0 6.0 170 23.38 0.70 9.61 20.0 0.19
P-3 RO water supply water 25 997.00 13544.52 414.0 2.0 100 54.55 0.70 2876.42 20.0 57.53

P-4 Ca(OH)2 cooling water supply water 25 997.00 6480.00 0.0 2.0 250 27.56 0.70 695.24 20.0 13.90
Cooling water supply for the Carbonation
P-5 water 25 997.00 28814.37 0.0 10.0 170 27.38 0.70 3071.38 20.0 61.43
column
P-6 Wet scrubber make-up water supply water 25 997.00 15878.34 3.4 8.0 100 18.57 0.70 1147.97 20.0 22.96
P-7 Wet scrubber recirculating water supply water 30 995.65 15878.34 0.0 8.0 100 18.24 0.70 1127.34 0.0 0.00

P-8 Ca(OH)2 carrying to the carbonation column Ca(OH)2 slurry 75 1184.00 3528.71 100.0 6.0 350 44.74 0.70 614.62 20.0 12.29

P-9 RO water supply to the slaker water 30 997.00 2867.29 0.0 6.0 250 31.56 0.70 352.28 20.0 7.05
P-10 RO water supply to the Carbonation column water 25 997.00 10000.00 100.0 10.0 100 30.45 0.70 1185.32 20.0 23.71
P-11 Settling tank water discharging water 25 997.00 10073.47 0.0 -2.0 100 8.22 0.70 322.51 10.0 3.23
P-12 PCC slurry pump PCC slurry 25 1200.00 3847.43 1200.0 0.0 100 110.43 0.70 1653.99 20.0 33.08
Total daily electricity requirement for the pumps 235.36

Notes:
1 All the elevations are assumed values
2 System pressure drops are based on equipment operating pressure differences which are taken from literature values
3 Pressure drop due to friction is assumed considering pipe minor losses and losses due to equipment barriers
Heat exchanger 1.5 bar
Cooling jacket 0.7 bar
35
 Valves, fittings & minor losses 1 bar
Screener 1 bar
4 Pumps with 70% efficiency are used
5 filter press operates under 12 bar pressure
6 35 mm water pressure drop in nozzle 3.4 kPa
7 60 psi operating pressure for RO (reverse osmosis) 4.14 bar

2.10.2 Electricity Requirement for Fans

Table 2-23 - Electricity requirement for fans

System Operating
Stream Pump Required
Fan Index Stream details Material Pressure Density Flowrate pressure hours per Power usage
temperature efficiency power
difference day

oC bar kg/m3 kg/hr Pa W hr kWh

F-1 Burner Air supply Ambient air 25.0 1.013 - - *fan is for backup purpose only - -
F-2 CaO cooler air supply Ambient air 25.0 1.013 1.168 3290.34 500.0 0.80 489.08 20.0 9.78
F-3 Dryer air preheater - air supply Ambient air 25.0 1.013 1.168 2426.58 500.0 0.80 360.69 20.0 7.21
F-4 Kiln exhaust carrier Kiln Exhaust 756.0 1.108 0.3429 4030.07 500.0 0.80 2040.44 20.0 40.81
F-5 Kiln exhaust carrier Kiln Exhaust 37.0 1.113 1.138 4030.07 500.0 0.80 614.82 20.0 12.30
F-6 Kiln exhaust carrier to the cyclone preheater Kiln Exhaust 950.0 1.013 0.2887 4024.47 500.0 0.80 2420.14 20.0 48.40
F-7 Kiln exhaust suction from cyclone preheater Kiln Exhaust 756.0 1.108 0.3429 4030.07 500.0 0.80 2040.44 20.0 40.81
F-8 Burner Air supply Hot ambient air 150.0 1.018 0.834 3290.34 500.0 0.80 684.94 20.0 13.70
F-9 Dryer air outlet Hot ambient air 100.0 1.013 0.947 7200.00 500.0 0.80 1319.96 20.0 26.40
F-10 Cooling tower air supply Ambient air 25.0 1.018 1.168 15840.00 500.0 0.80 2354.45 20.0 47.09
Total daily electricity requirement for the pumps 246.50

Assumptions: Every fan provides 500 Pa pressure elevation

Ambient air gas properties are applicable for kiln exhaust gas

36
3 Site selection

Selecting a suitable site for a precipitated calcium carbonate (PCC) plant in Sri Lanka involves
careful consideration of several factors. Site selection is an important aspect of a project which
affects its profit, the public, and environmental safety.
Common criteria that are considered when selecting a suitable site for the establishment of the
plant are as follows [3]:
1. Location, with respect to the marketing area.
2. Raw material supply.
3. Transport facilities.
4. Availability of labor.
5. Availability of utilities: water, fuel, power.
6. Availability of suitable land.
7. Environmental impact, and effluent disposal.
8. Local community considerations.
9. Climate.
10. Political and strategic considerations.
Based on the above factors and considerations of the designers, the following site selection
elements were selected to choose a suitable site for the establishment of the plant.
1. Transportation cost
2. Cheap land acquisition
3. Land availability for future expansions
4. Availability of labor
5. Availability of utilities

3.1 Developing a scoring system to evaluate the site selection elements:

3.1.1 Weighting factors.

Since there are many factors to be taken into account when choosing a site, the designers created
a score system to carefully assess the site selection factors. In this scoring system, weighing criteria
were identified and assigned weights based on their relative relevance.
 Table 3-1- Weighting Factors

Weighting factor Weightage

Not very important 1
Somewhat important 2
Important 3
Very important 4
Critical 5

Each aspect of the site selection process was given a weighting factor based on its relative
relevance. The value of this exercise was determined during a group discussion that included all
of the group's designers. The debate focused heavily on operational expense and safety; therefore,
elements and priority were assigned taking into account their impact.

Table 3-2 - Site selection criteria

Site selection element Level of importance Weightage

Transportation cost Critical 5
Cheap land acquisition Very important 4
Land availability for future expansions Important 3
Availability of labor Very important 4
Availability and cost of utilities Critical 5

3.1.2 Criteria ranking scores.

To evaluate the site selection criteria, scores were created once weights were established. In this
case, a score of 1 to 5 was assigned depending on how well the site met the criteria for the site
selection aspect.
Table 3-3 - Criteria ranking scores

Level of satisfaction Score

Very poor 1
Poor 2
Fair 3
Good 4

38
 Excellent 5

3.2 Selecting potential sites for the establishment of the plant.

Industrial Estates located in Sri Lanka[4]:

❖ Ekala, Horana, Wavulugala and Panaluwa - Western Province

❖ Pallekelle, Kaludewala and Kotagala – Central Province
❖ Pannala and Lunuwila – Northwestern Province
❖ Galigamuwa and Pussella – Sabaragamuwa Province
❖ Baddegama and Beliatta – Southern Province
❖ Negampaha and Mihintale – North Central Province
❖ Poonthoddam and Atchchuveli – Northern Province
❖ Buttala – Uva Province

In the analysis of these industrial estate, there is no vacant area in Ekala, Horana, Wawulugala,
Panaluwa, Pallekale, Lunuwila, Galigamuwa, Baddegama and Beliatta.

For our plant, we hope to get limestone from Aruvakkalu limestone quarry in Puttalam,
Northwestern Province. We have to get a lot of limestone for our products. So, we tried to choose
a place close to Aruwakkalu limestone quarry [5], [6].

Table 3-4 - Available Sites

Distance between Aruwakkalu limestone

Available Industrial Estate
quarry and Industrial Estate (Km)
Kaludewala 207
Kotagala 230
Pannala 136
Pussella 211
Negampaha 129
Mihintale 124
Poonthoddam 168

39
 Atchchuveli 297
Buttala 207

When these data are observed, it is possible to remove the industrial estates of Kaludewala,
Kotagala, Pussella, Chhalweli and Buttala. Because the distance between Aruvakkalu limestone
quarry and Industrial Estate is more than between these industrial estates.

Therefore, we can choose Pannala, Negampaha, Mihintale and Poonthoddam industrial estates
to choose the most suitable industrial estate [4].

3.3 Evaluating the selection elements for the selected estates.

3.3.1 Transportation cost
Major raw materials for the proposed Precipitated Calcium Carbonate plant are taken from
Aruwakkalu limestone quarry. Hence it would be ideal if the plant could be located close to the
Aruwakkalu limestone quarry. By that means the transportation cost for the raw materials and
products can be minimized. This is a considerable reduction in long-term operating costs. Hence
this factor was considered as a critical factor when giving weightages. Distance from the closest
Aruwakkalu limestone quarry was considered when allocating scores for the selected sites.

Table 3-5 - Scoring

Distance from the

Estates Rating Score
quarry (Km)
Pannala 136 Poor 2
Negampaha 129 Fair 3
Mihinthale 124 Excellent 5
Poonthoddam 168 Very poor 1

3.3.2 Cheap land acquisition

Land acquisition directly affects the capital cost of the plant, hence considered as a very important
aspect when allocating weightage. Land premium was considered when scoring the sites.

40
 Table 3-6 - Land Acquisition

Estates Value of a perch (Rs.) Rating score

Pannala 750000 Very poor 1

Negampaha 250000 Good 4
Mihinthale 450000 Fair 3
Poonthoddam 75000 Excellent 5

3.3.3 Land availability for future expansion

However, the designers plan to grow their company in the future, thus the choice of location took
future development plans into account as well. While not a crucial condition, vacant areas at each
estate were taken into account while evaluating the plots.

Table 3-7 - Land availability for future expansion

Estates Vacant area (Acres) Rating score

Pannala (2 vacant area) 0.3 Very poor 1

Negampaha (7 vacant area) 1.02 Good 4
Mihinthale (6 vacant area) 0.96 Fair 3
Poonthoddam (6 vacant area) 1.32 Excellent 5

3.3.4 Availability of labor

Even though the majority of the plant's machinery is designed to run automatically, manpower is
still necessary for a number of jobs (such as maintenance, inspection, cleaning, etc.). Consequently,
it is important to carefully take into account the element of labor availability. For the facility to
run, both experienced and unskilled people are needed. As a result, this element was given
significant weight for determining weightages. When rating the locations, the worker population
in the pertinent region was taken into account.

41
 Table 3-8 -Availability of Labor

Estates Work population Rating score

Pannala Kurunegala - 1625720 Good 4
Negampaha Anuradhapura - 836586 Fair 3
Mihinthale Anuradhapura - 836586 Fair 3
Poonthoddam Vavuniya - 102906 Very poor 1

3.3.5 Availability and cost of utilities

The operation of the facility depends on utilities. For the economics and the plant's smooth
functioning, there must be a constant supply of utilities at a reduced cost. As a result, this element
was taken into account while determining weights. Water and power are supplied to all four
locations. When rating the sites, water costs and electrical supply capabilities were taken into
account [7].

Table 3-9 - Cost of utilities

Water charges Electrical supply capacity

Estates Rating score
(per m3) (GWh)
Pannala 40 + vat 3936 Good 4
Negampaha 40 + vat 3936 Good 4
Mihinthale 40 + vat 3936 Good 4
Poonthoddam 40 + vat 3936 Good 4

42
3.3.6 Selecting the most suitable estate.
Table 3-10 - Selecting the most suitable estate

Applicability of
weight factor
Pannala Negampaha Mihinthale Poonthoddam
Factor

Weightage

Weighted

Weighted

Weighted

Weighted
Score

Score

Score

Score
score

score

score

score
Transportation
cost Critical 5 2 10 4 20 5 25 1 5
Cheap land Very
acquisition important 4 1 4 4 16 3 12 5 20
Land availability
for future 1 3 4 12 2 6 5 15
expansions Important 3
Availability of
Very
labor 4 4 16 3 12 3 12 1 4
important

Availability of
4 20 4 20 4 20 4 20
utilities Critical 5

Total 53 80 75 64

According to the overall weighted scores each site received, the Negampaha industrial estate
came out on top by a margin of 05 points. As a result, it was chosen as the ideal location for
the plant's establishment.

43
4 Economic Feasibility

The following section describes the economic feasibility assessment of the proposed plant with the
purpose of determining the costs, revenue, and profit per annum of the proposed procedure. This
study would help in costing the PCC which is produced following the proposed method and
ultimately decide the viability of the procedure. Furthermore, this section will address the financial
feasibility of the proposed plant in order to interpret the initiating and proceeding of the system
and its stability with the economic status. The costing of the plant will be discussed followed by
the financial feasibility study of the system.

4.1 Costing
4.1.1 Capital costs
With the unstable conditions and fluctuations of LKR the monetary values will be continued with
USD which will favor in finding details. It may be difficult to find the details and costs of the
relevant process equipment since the capacities and designers vary which will cause significant
deviations in costs. In order to avoid the above conditions and maintain the precision in cost
calculations literature and historical data will be utilized to determine the capital cost of the plant
[8]. The fixed capital cost of the PCC production plant will be estimated using the six tenth rule
from which a higher accuracy value can be obtained.

𝑆2 𝑛
𝐶2 = 𝐶1 ( )
𝑆1
C1 = Capital cost of plant with S1 capacity

C1 = Capital cost of plant with S2 capacity

n = 0.9 (As six tenth rule is applicable for solids handling plants)[1]

Data required for the calculations is obtained from the feasibility studies from the existing PCC
manufacturing plant in Croatia [9].

C1 = $ 18,167,242.81 (From the existing reports)

C2 = To be determined

S1 = 96 MT/day (From the existing reports)

44
S2 = 20 MT/h (Proposed PCC production Plant)

20 0.9
𝐶2 = $ 18167242.81 × ( )
96
𝐶2 = $ 4,427,635.971
Therefore, capital cost of the proposed plant (C2) = $ 4,427,635.971

Due to the fluctuations of the monetary values with inflation and other political and social impacts,
the historical data must be adjusted according to the present status. The required values are
obtained from the CEPCI (Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index), and the fixed capital cost will
be obtained for the proposed PCC production plant.

803.2 (𝐶𝐸𝑃𝐶𝐼 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2023)

𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = $ 4,427,635.971 ×
801.3 (𝐶𝐸𝑃𝐶𝐼 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2021)

Fixed Capital cost = $ 4,438,134.546

4.1.2 Working Capital

The required working capital for a particular plant would drive the production of the relevant
output with which revenue can be generated. Basically, working capital includes [10],

• Value of raw material inventory

• Value of product and by product inventory
• Cash on hand
• Accounts receivable
• Spare parts inventory
• Credits for accounts payable

From the literature and chemical engineering costing and project evaluation criteria, the working
capital of a process could span from low 5% and high 30% of the fixed capital for wide range of
process types. Based on the existing PCC production plant values and literature values, here the
working capital is estimated as 13% of the fixed capital of the proposed production plant.

Working capital = $ 576,957.491

The calculated capital for the proposed PCC production plant is rounded up to the nearest 1000
USD for further breakdown of the capital costs.
45
Fixed Capital cost = $ 4,439,000

Working capital = $ 577,000

In order to perform a foxed capital cost breakdown for further analysis, Lang factor method was
performed considering as PCC production process as solid-fluid domination process. The Lang
factors for each cost unit were gained using literature values. The considered cost unit will provide
details regarding the cost of purchase major equipment (PCE) and the total physical plant cost
(PPC).

Table 4-1 - Capital Cost Breakdown

Lang
Item Cost Calculation Cost in USD
Factor
Major Equipment 1 1*PCE 900,405.68
Equipment erection 0.4 0.4*PCE 360,162.27
Piping 0.7 0.7*PCE 630,283.98
Instrumentation 0.2 0.2*PCE 180,081.14
Electrical 0.1 0.1*PCE 90,040.57
Building, process 0.15 0.15*PCE 135,060.85
Utilities 0.5 0.5*PCE 450,202.84
Storage 0.15 0.15*PCE 135,060.85
Site Development 0.05 0.05*PCE 45,020.28
Ancillary buildings 0.15 0.15*PCE 135,060.85
Total physical plant cost (PPC) 3.4 2.4* PCE 3,061,379.31
Design and engineering 0.3 0.3*PPC 918,413.79
Contractor fees 0.05 0.05*PPC 153,068.97
Contingency 0.1 0.1*PPC 306,137.93
Fixed capital cost 0.45 1.45*PPC $ 4,439,000.00

46
4.1.3 Production Cost
The total revenue and the profit gain of the process is directly affected by the production cost of
the desired product hence the production cost must be determined thoroughly to evaluate the
profitability as the ultimate outcome. The production cost consists of the fixed cost and the variable
cost of the product which governs the total production cost while making an impact of the
profitability. The production cost of PCC is obtained as follows:

• Material Cost
• Imported material cost
• Utility cost
• Labor Cost

The material cost is a direct production cost and here a significant amount of water is required for
the PCC production. Since the plant site is located near to a natural water reservoir and exists a
well supply of water throughout the year, water is not included in the material costing. For the
production of PCC, CO2 requirement is supplied by the flue gas from the coal burner which is used
to provide heat to the kiln. Therefore, coal is considered as a utility in calculating production cost.

Table 4-2 - Material Cost

Material Cost

Amount Amount
Amount
required required Cost per MT Total Cost per
Material required per day
per hour per year (USD) year (USD)
(MT)
(kg) (MT)
Limestone 1385.739 27.8 10147 30.05 304,918
Water 3355.333 68 24820 - -
Total material cost 304,918

Imported material should be considered with the CIF value (Cost, Insurance and Freight) which
deals with the imported material when it is transported with respect to the buying price. The VAT
and SSCL taxes are applied regarding the CIF values in order to determine the ultimate cost of the
material.

47
 Table 4-3 - Imported Material Cost

Imported Material Cost

Amount Financial
Buying CIF SSCL VAT Total Tax
Material required per Cost
Price (USD) Value Rate Rate (USD)
year (MT) (USD)
Coal 1,183 182,182 239,205 2.5% 15% 41,860.88 281,065.88
Total material Cost 281,065.88

Utilities also can be identified as a main direct cost of production. Hot air is supplied for the coal
burner in order to increase efficiency [11]. Air is supplied from the atmosphere, and it is not taken
as a utility cost and the electricity requirement to take air and preheat is valued under electricity
cost.

Table 4-4 - Utility Cost

Utility Cost

Amount Amount
Amount
required required
required per Cost per MT Total Cost per
Utility per hour per year
day (kg or (USD) year (USD)
(kg or (kg or
kWh)
kWh) kWh)
Electricity 484 9680 3,533,200 $ 5384 $ 119635.83
Cooling water 61277 1,225,500 447,322,100 - -
Air 26,330 526,600 192,209,000 - -
Total material cost $ 119635.83

When determining the production cost, the labor cost must be also considered since it’s a critical
parameter. In order to obtain the number of operators required for the PCC production plant,
Alkhayat and Gerrard correlation was used [12].

𝑁𝑂𝐿 = (6.29 + 31.7𝑃2 + 0.23𝑁𝑛𝑝 )0.5

Where,

48
NOL – Number of operators per shift

P - Number of processing steps that involve handling, transportation and distribution, particle size
control and removal

Nnp -Number of non-particulate processing steps and includes compression, heating and
cooling, mixing and reaction

The number of supervisors is selected as one supervisor per four of the operators.

Table 4-5 - Labor and Supervision Cost

Labor cost Supervisor Cost

No. of operators 76 No. of supervisors 19

No. of shifts 3 No. of shifts 9
Monthly wage (USD) $ 40 Monthly wage (USD) $ 80
Total Annual operator Labor $ 52,262.00 Total Annual operator $ 1520.00
cost (USD) supervisor cost (USD)

According to the above calculations the fixed and variable costs are as follows.

Table 4-6 - Total Production Cost

Production Cost
Calculation Method
Cost Amount in USD
(Richardson, 2005)
Variable Costs
Raw material Calculated 585,984
Miscellaneous material 10% of maintenance cost 44,390
Utilities Calculated 119,636
Fixed Costs
Maintenance 10% of Fixed capital 443,900
Operating labor cost Calculated 52,262
Lab cost 22% of operating labor 11,498
Supervision Calculated 1,520

49
 Plant overheads 50% of operating labor 26,131
Capital charges 14% of fixed capital 621,460
Insurance 1% of fixed capital 44,390
Royalties 1% of fixed capital 44,390
Local taxes 2% of fixed capital 88,780
Direct Production cost 2,084,340
Other Production cost
Sales expenses
General overheads 25% of direct production cost 521085.12
R&D
Annual Production Cost 2,605,426
Annual Production Quantity (MT) 7300
Production Cost per MT 356.91

4.2 Financial feasibility study

As the ultimate purpose of the financial study of the proposed PCC production plant, it is essential
to conduct a financial feasibility study in order to decide whether to continue with the process or
deny it based on the payback period and break-even point. It is well known that the suggested
production plant requires capital to be invested and the present value of the investment should be
determined based on the projected years. That would suggest whether that investment is worthy to
be made with respect to the gain from the payback. There are several pathways and methodologies
to obtain the financial feasibility of a project in which several parameters are addressed in terms
of capital investment and production cost. Here, the price of PCC in each region of the world is
considered in quarter 3 and quarter 4 of the year 2023 in order to decide a price for the PCC
produced.

50
 Prices of PCC in Q3 and Q4 in 2023

Europe

Middle East

Africa

Latin America

Asia

China

USA

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Q4 Q3

Figure 4-1 - Prices of PCC in 2023

Ultimately, the final PCC product price would decide the profitability of the production plant and
hence it should be determined in a manner from which a net positive cash flow can be maintained.
But when deciding the price, the market value of PCC in Sri Lanka should be considered since the
plant capacity is selected based on the local market demand of PCC. The price of the produced
PCC should not exceed the market price, which would create a consumer surplus. According to
the total production cost, it is estimated that the production cost per MT would be $ 356.91. Since
there are no competitors in the local market, the market price of the PCC in Sri Lanka can be
estimated using the data from Sri Lanka Customs.

The price of PCC per 1 MT ranges within $ 400 in Asia and when considering the CIF charges the
price of PCC per MT can be taken as follows,

CIF price of PCC = 400 × 1.313 = $ 525.20

When setting a competitive price for PCC as the monopoly for PCC it can be decided as the selling
price would be $ 500.

51
 4.3 Cash Flow and Simple Payback Period
Generally, PCC production plants have a life span of between 30-50 years. Here for the
payback period calculations, it is taken 30 years as the lifetime of the production plant based
on the kiln type and its lifetime. Also, it is assumed that the plant is maintained well
according to the standard regulations. The cash flow of the project is as follows by tracing
the cash inflows and outflows from the production cost and revenue per year. It is assumed
that the plant capacity remains constant throughout the calculation period and the discount
per year in Sri Lanka is considered to be 10% in order to determine the present value with
the projected years. The profit from the production of the plant is determined by subtracting
cash outflows from cash inflows under a payment corporate tax of 24% per year.

Table 4-7 - Cash Flow

Product
Capital Cash Net cash Profit after Cumulative
Year Capacity selling Cash inflow
Investment Outflow flow tax net cash flow
price
2023 7300 500.00 5,016,000.00 2,605,425.59 3,650,000.00 1,044,574.41 793,876.55 (4,222,123.45)
2024 7300 550.00 0 2,865,968.15 4,015,000.00 1,149,031.85 873,264.21 (3,348,859.24)
2025 7300 605.00 0 3,152,564.96 4,416,500.00 1,263,935.04 960,590.63 (2,388,268.61)
2026 7300 665.50 0 3,467,821.46 4,858,150.00 1,390,328.54 1,056,649.69 (1,331,618.92)
2027 7300 732.05 0 3,814,603.60 5,343,965.00 1,529,361.40 1,162,314.66 (169,304.25)
2028 7300 805.26 0 4,196,063.96 5,878,361.50 1,682,297.54 1,278,546.13 1,109,241.87
2029 7300 885.79 0 4,615,670.36 6,466,197.65 1,850,527.29 1,406,400.74 2,515,642.62
2030 7300 974.36 0 5,077,237.40 7,112,817.42 2,035,580.02 1,547,040.82 4,062,683.43
2031 7300 1071.80 0 5,584,961.13 7,824,099.16 2,239,138.02 1,701,744.90 5,764,428.33
2032 7300 1178.98 0 6,143,457.25 8,606,509.07 2,463,051.82 1,871,919.39 7,636,347.71
2033 7300 1296.88 0 6,757,802.97 9,467,159.98 2,709,357.01 2,059,111.32 9,695,459.04
2034 7300 1426.56 0 7,433,583.27 10,413,875.98 2,980,292.71 2,265,022.46 11,960,481.50
2035 7300 1569.22 0 8,176,941.60 11,455,263.58 3,278,321.98 2,491,524.70 14,452,006.20
2036 7300 1726.14 0 8,994,635.76 12,600,789.93 3,606,154.18 2,740,677.17 17,192,683.37
2037 7300 1898.75 0 9,894,099.33 13,860,868.93 3,966,769.59 3,014,744.89 20,207,428.26
2038 7300 2088.63 0 10,883,509.27 15,246,955.82 4,363,446.55 3,316,219.38 23,523,647.64

52
2039 7300 2297.49 0 11,971,860.19 16,771,651.40 4,799,791.21 3,647,841.32 27,171,488.96
2040 7300 2527.24 0 13,169,046.21 18,448,816.54 5,279,770.33 4,012,625.45 31,184,114.41
2041 7300 2779.96 0 14,485,950.83 20,293,698.19 5,807,747.36 4,413,887.99 35,598,002.41
2042 7300 3057.96 0 15,934,545.92 22,323,068.01 6,388,522.10 4,855,276.79 40,453,279.20
2043 7300 3363.75 0 17,528,000.51 24,555,374.82 7,027,374.31 5,340,804.47 45,794,083.67
2044 7300 3700.13 0 19,280,800.56 27,010,912.30 7,730,111.74 5,874,884.92 51,668,968.59
2045 7300 4070.40 0 21,208,880.61 29,712,003.53 8,503,122.91 6,462,373.41 58,131,342.01

The simple payback period which is known as the time required to regain the capital
investment is 5 years according to the cash flow by calculating the cumulative net profit.
Since the cumulative net profit of the plant becomes positive in the 8th year it can be
concluded as the simple payback period is 5 years. With the plant lifetime the payback
period can be considered as a healthy time since after 5 years a considerable amount of
profit can be made.

4.3.1 NPV – Net Present Value

Here, a loan is considered as the capital investment feature for the project and the current
standard lending rate of 12% by the Central Bank of Sri Lanka is used as the discount factor
when calculating NPV from the above equation. When assuming the plant lifetime is 30
years,

NPV = $ 6,955,990.61
It can be interpreted as the PCC production plant is feasible since the NPV value is positive.

4.3.2 Rate on Investment (ROI)

The ROI of the plant can be simply calculated as follows,

53
 Cumulative net profit
ROI = ×100%
Plant Life×Initial Investment

Therefore,
𝑅𝑂𝐼 = 92.64%
Here, the rate of investment is a positive value and alternatively a significant high value
which indicates that the rate of investment gain is high for the proposed plant.
4.4 IRR (Internal rate of return)
The profitability of the project can be used to evaluate the profitability by comparing the
IRR value with the discount factor which is used as 12%. IRR is calculated as the discount
factor when NPV value is zero.
𝑛
𝐶𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖
𝑁𝑃𝑉 = ∑ − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 0
(1 + 𝑟)𝑖
𝑖=1

𝐼𝑅𝑅 = 26%
Since IRR is greater than the discount factor it can be interpreted as the project is
economically feasible.
4.5 Conclusion
From the hand of economic analysis, it can be finalized as the proposed plant is economically
feasible since it shows a low payback period as 5 years and the NPV and ROI values are
positive and shows impressively higher values. These values may differ with the inflation in
the country and high rates of change in monetary values. But the overall values suggest that
the plant feasibility is in a good condition. In order to back the final decision of the PCC
production plant a deep analysis of the cash inflows and the capital investment can be
performed with the purpose of having more precise values.

54
5 Health, Safety and Environmental Analysis

A health, safety, and environmental (HSE) study is a thorough examination of the potential hazards
and impacts of health, safety, and the environment in a specific setting, such as a project, industry,
or workplace. The primary aims of HSE analysis are to reduce detrimental environmental
consequences, protect human health and safety, and discover, analyze, and mitigate potential risks.
5.1 Health assessment
5.1.1 Toxicity
Coal – Coal specially coal dust causes eye pain (Category 2B). If exposed regularly or over a
lengthy period of time, it may cause organ damage (Category 2). Specific Target Organ Systemic
Toxicity (STOT). Exposure limit 0.9 mg/m3 [13], [14].

Accidental measurements -

▪ If inhale, remove casualty to fresh air and keep at rest.

▪ If in eyes, carefully rinse with water for a few minutes. Remove contact lenses if they are
present and readily removed. Rinse the dish. Consult a doctor if the irritation in your eyes
persists.
▪ If contact with skin, wash immediately with plenty of water.
▪ If swallowed, do not induce vomiting. seek medical advice immediately and show this
container or label.

Soda ash (Na2CO3) – This can cause serious damage to eyes, irritating to skin and mucous
membranes, risk of sore throat, nose bleeds, Lachrymation and Ingestion may cause
gastrointestinal irritation, nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. Occupational exposure limits 5mg/m3
[15].

Accidental measurements -

▪ If inhale, remove casualty to fresh air and let him blow his nose.
▪ If in eyes, rinse right away for at least 15 minutes with plenty of water, being sure to get
beneath the eyelids as well. Consult with an ophthalmologist immediately in all cases.
▪ If contact with skin, wash immediately with plenty of water.

55
 ▪ If swallowed, Make an urgent call to a doctor. Rinse the person's mouth with water (only
if they are conscious). Don't make someone vomit. Artificial breathing and/or oxygen
treatment may be necessary if the patient is unconscious. Never give anything by mouth to
a person who is unconscious.

Calcium carbonate (PCC) - Hazardous in case of eye contact (irritant). Slightly hazardous in case
of skin contact (irritant). All the first aids are as mentioned above. Exposure limits 10 (mg/m3)
(TLV).

Limestone - Contact can cause long-term injury as well as severe eye burning or irritation. Skin
contact, especially if there is moisture present, can cause severe skin irritation or burning. If
consumed, it may cause significant burning or irritation of the digestive tract. Breathing in anything
can significantly irritate the respiratory tract. Long-term exposure might cause lasting injury. Do
Accidental measurements as mentioned above. Exposure limit 10 mg/m3.

Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) - Skin irritation, Category 2, Serious eye damage, Category 1,
Specific target organ toxicity single exposure, Category 3 [16].

Avoid breathing dust/fume/gas/mist/vapors/spray. Do Accidental measurements as mentioned

above. Exposure limit 5 mg/m3. LD50 value 1,000 to 2,000 mg/kg.

Carbon dioxide - It is not dangerous when carbon dioxide levels in the air are normal. However,
at larger concentrations, CO2 can be harmful. Inhaled high CO2 concentrations can induce
headaches, dizziness, and respiratory problems. Extended exposure to high CO2 levels may result
in more severe health repercussions, including unconsciousness and death [17].

CO2 cannot initiate chemical reactions in the body or act as a poison. Instead, its ability to
replenish oxygen in the atmosphere has negative repercussions since it limits the amount of oxygen
accessible for breathing. Exposure limit 5000ppm [18].

Accidental measurements,

▪ Take the patient outside and place them in a resting position with easy breathing.
▪ If breathing stops, becomes irregular, or a person goes into respiratory arrest, competent
specialists should provide oxygen or artificial respiration.

56
 ▪ Seek medical attention if negative health effects worsen or continue. If you become
unconscious, assume the recovery position and call for aid immediately. Keep your airway
open. Belts, waistbands, ties, and collars that are excessively tight should be loosened.

Calcium oxide (CaO) - May cause respiratory irritation, causes serious eye damage, causes skin
irritation. Avoid breathing dust. Exposure limit 2 mg/m3. LD50 value 300-500 mg/kg.

5.1.2 Noise
Air blowers – In this noise can be generated due to mechanical parts of the blower like motor,
impellers or fans, and bearings. Also because of the air or gas through the blower due to pressure
changes. Vibrations is also a factor leading to noise generation. Exposure level 80dB and over
100dB.

To minimize air blower noise - Apply lubricants and regular maintenance. Choosing quieter blower
types, isolating vibration, and creating acoustic enclosures or barriers are examples of these. Noise
can also be reduced by modifying the blower's working speed or by constructing the blower using
sound-absorbing materials.

Kiln - In this noise can be generated due to mechanical parts like fans, motors, conveyor systems,
and sometimes rotating drums. When handing material by conveyor belts, through combustion and
heating, due to air flow of the fans as well as due to vibration noise can occur. Exposure level 70
to 85 dB, while larger ones can exceed 100 dB.

To reduce kiln noise - Apply lubricants and regular maintenance. Installing anti-vibration mounts,
selecting quieter equipment, and creating acoustic enclosures or barriers around the kiln are all
examples. Changing operational parameters like as airflow and temperature can also help to reduce
noise levels.

Ball mill and grinders – noise is generated in ball mills due to rotating Components, Ball-Material
Interactions, Motor and Drive System and Vibrations and Resonance. To reduce the noise above
mentioned methods can be applied. Kiln exposure noise level 70 dB to well over 100 dB. Grinder
exposure noise level 70 – 90 dB.

57
ID fan – above from the mentioned fan blade interactions and air velocity are some of the reasons
to generate noise.

Pumps - Pump noise is typically a combination of liquid-borne and airborne noise. To decrease
noise, the pump must be run at or near its Best Efficiency Point (BEP), which is the speed at which
the pump is most efficient.

There are many other noises generating equipment in this process like dryers and burners their
reason for generating noise is same as the mentioned above.

5.1.3 Vibration
Reasons for vibration -

▪ Uneven material feeding

▪ Imbalanced media
▪ Out-of-balance components
▪ Lubrication issues, Material properties
▪ Operational parameters
▪ Worn or misaligned components

To mitigate vibration –

▪ Alignment and Balancing: Assess and maintain the alignment and balance of rotating parts
on a regular basis. Make sure the grinding medium is evenly distributed.
▪ Material Loading: To avoid mill imbalances, ensure sure the material loading is consistent
and even.
▪ Lubrication: Keep bearings and moving components adequately greased to reduce
vibration and friction.
▪ Operational Changes: To reduce vibration, modify operational elements such as feed rate
and mill speed. Experiment with several arrangements to find which ones are the least
vibrating and most effective.
▪ Maintenance: Perform routine maintenance to identify and repair worn or damaged
elements that create vibration.

58
 ▪ Vibration Monitoring: Use vibration analysis and monitoring tools to discover and
determine the source of vibrations, and then put the solution in place.

5.1.4 Ergonomics
Ergonomics is the study of designing work activities and conditions to reduce the risk of
musculoskeletal disorders. The use of barrels to transport raw materials at this business enhances
the prospect of ergonomic hazards such as repetitive lifting, poor posture, and overuse of power.

To reduce - many individuals can split up the jobs and get instruction on appropriate postures when
handling the materials, Individuals who spend less time on these tasks are less likely to experience
ergonomic dangers.

5.2 Safety assessment

5.2.1 Safety inventory keeping
Table 5-1 - Safety Inventory

Storage Storage
Usage/Production Storage
Chemical Temperature Pressure
(kg/h) Quantity(kg)
(OC) (atm)
Dolomite 1200 400 27 1
Coal 250 84 27 1
PCC 1000 280 60 1
CO2 500 168 25 1
CaO 600 200 40 1
Soda ash 8 2 27 1

5.2.2 Storage and handling information

Table 5-2 - Chemical Handling

Chemical Handling Storage

Wear sufficient eye protection and prevent getting

Do not store with reactive
Dolomite dust in your eyes. Reduce the amount of dust
materials
produced and accumulated. When in poorly

59
 ventilated settings, use proper respiratory
protection. Use proper industrial hygiene
procedures.
Avoid creating dust or allowing it to enter the
workplace since it creates a danger of explosion. Store in a dry, cool, well-ventilated
Coal It is critical to maintain adequate hygiene in order area, away from all ignition
to minimize dust accumulations, which might act sources.
as a fuel source for a future explosion.
Store in cool place. Keep container
tightly closed in a dry and well-
CO2
ventilated place. Store under inert
gas.
Steer clear of the eyes and skin. Prevent the Keep container tightly closed in a
CaO production of aerosols and dust. Place suitable dry and well-ventilated place.
exhaust ventilation where dust accumulates [19]. Store in cool place.
Keep in a dry place. Store in
Use only in well-ventilated areas. Keep away
Soda ash original closed container. Keep
from incompatible products.
away from incompatible products.

5.2.3 Spill cleaning

• Sweep and collect rubbish into designated containers for disposal.
• Prevent the formation of dust.
• Store in appropriately labeled containers.
• Store in proper, closed containers for disposal.
• Recovered material should be treated according to the "Disposal considerations" section.

5.2.4 Reactivity

Ca(OH)2 - breaks down when heated. CaCO2 is produced as a result. A medium-strong base is
the solution in water. reacts with acids quite strongly. When there is water present, it attacks a lot
of metals. This generates explosive or flammable gas [16].

60
CaO - can react in high pressure and temperature.

Limestone - Reacts with fluorine, magnesium, acids, alum, and ammonium salts.

Soda ash - react with finely divided aluminum.

Temperature conditions of the process

▪ Kiln – 850℃ - 1000 ̊C

▪ Slaker (mixing reactor) – T~ 30 ̊C
▪ Precipitation reactor – T < 60 ̊C

5.2.5 Fire and Explosion

Table 5-3 - Fire and Explosion Hazard

Flash
Substance Description Fire extinguisher
point
Produce coal dust highly flammable. Dry chemical, CO2 or
Coal 260 ℃ kg
Upper flammable limit 4 m3 appropriate foam

PCC generates dangerous gases or fumes in contact with acids, carbon dioxide, ammonium
compounds, acidic salts and have exothermic reactions with Fluorine Aluminum magnesium.

Preventive methods:

• Minimize coal dust by utilizing the coal crusher and flash drying the coal.
• Keep flammable gases in carefully prepared containers in a separate room designated
solely for that purpose. It is advised that the containers be stored properly in racks or in
another manner that prevents them from tipping over.
• Fire warning signs should be displayed on doors leading to areas where combustible items
are stored.
• Working and storage areas must have enough ventilation.
• Remove all heat and ignition sources from any area where flammable gasses are used.
• Limit the number of flammable gasses in typical work areas to one day's supply.
• Sort incompatible materials correctly.

61
 • Enough space is required for workers and carts to deliver and retrieve cylinders. The floor
surfaces must be in excellent condition. Cylinders that are relocated to create place for
more cylinders must be attached to minimize damage or unintended dropping.
• All cylinders, full or empty, must comply to OSHA's hazard communication requirements
and the NFPA's labeling regulations. When undergoing an inspection, the contents of
cylinders must be easily recognized. A materials safety data sheet (MSDS) for each
chemical must be available.

Corrective methods:

• Sprinklers must be accessible in areas where flammable gasses are used.

• Fire extinguishers must be easily available in hazardous areas. (Class B is an option.)
• It is suggested that fire detectors and alarms be installed.

Safety from the heights

Cyclone system is vertical so, heights of those from the ground level is higher. It is better to follow
safety procedure for heights when assisting that equipment.

5.2.6 Safe usage of utilities

Electricity

Unqualified people must be kept away from electrical currents larger than five volts to avoid
disasters. Lockout/tagout protocols and isolation must be followed correctly to ensure safety.
Physical barriers, such as cabinet doors on electrical panels, should be used to protect against
electrical hazards. Workers should not be allowed to use conductive equipment in electrically
dangerous areas.

Hot air

If they shatter or there are flammable materials around, they might cause a fire. When someone
come into contact with hot pipes, equipment, or surfaces, they may suffer burns or scalds. Toxins
or pollutants may be transported. Overheating or over pressurization of equipment can cause it to
malfunction and perhaps explode. Because electricity is regularly utilized to power the heating
components in hot air systems, the risk of electrical shock is increased. Sufficient insulation,

62
warning indications, and staff handling hot air systems must all have enough training in safe
operation, emergency measures, and the use of personal protection equipment. It is critical to have
enough ventilation in confined spaces to minimize the collection of warm, stagnant air.

Routine maintenance and inspection of hot air systems are required to detect and correct any safety
issues before they become serious. Safety equipment such as fire extinguishers, emergency shut-
off switches, and personal protective equipment should always be kept in excellent working
condition in order to be usable in an emergency.

5.2.7 Thermal hazard

Danger of a kiln

A kiln poses thermal hazards due to its extremely high temperatures, risk of fire, potential for
explosive atmospheres, thermal shock, carbon monoxide emissions, and inadequate insulation.

Danger of a coal burner

A coal burner presents thermal hazards, including high temperatures and the risk of uncontrolled
fires or explosions.

The dangers of pumping and transporting

Thermal hazards can occur while moving or pumping via insulated, trace-heated pipe systems. As
long as the flow is maintained, forced convection exchanges heat between the product and the pipe
wall. It is therefore efficient as long as the product flows. When the flow stops due to a stopped
pump or closed valve, natural convection occurs, causing the overall heat transfer coefficient to
decline by a factor.

Dangers associated with heat exchangers

The most important component is the heat exchanger's wall temperature that comes into contact
with the product. Taking heating operations into consideration. Because of the high heat exchange
capabilities, it is straightforward to manage when breakdown begins during regular operation.
Operators and technicians may be exposed to heat hazards during normal operations if necessary
and suitable insulation is not installed around the heat exchanger.

Mitigation of thermal hazard –

63
 • Follow the safety precautions and instructions provided by the manufacturer.
• Maintain in good working order by performing periodic maintenance and inspections.
• When necessary, put on personal protective equipment (PPE) such as face shields and heat-
resistant gloves.
• Provide enough ventilation and exhaust systems to decrease pollutants and discharge heat.
• Ensure that the equipment is located in compliance with local safety requirements, away
from flammable materials, and in a well-ventilated area.
• Use caution while opening doors and keep your distance from hot surfaces.
• Educate and teach individuals on safe operating procedures and emergency procedures.

General machine safety requirements -

• Safety Standards: When it comes to machinery and apparatus, follow relevant national and
international safety rules and recommendations.
• Machine Guarding: Install guards and barriers to protect operators from moving parts and
potential pinch points.
• Emergency stop procedures should be put in place so that machinery may be quickly shut
down in an emergency.
• Safety Interlocks: Use safety interlocks to ensure that machinery cannot operate without
safety precautions in place.
• Procedures for Lockout/Tagout: Control hazardous energy sources during maintenance and
servicing by creating and following lockout/tagout procedures.
• Training and Education: Provide personnel with training and education to ensure they
understand how to operate machinery and follow safety protocols.
• Personal Protective Equipment (PPE). Provide appropriate PPE, such as gloves, safety
goggles, and earplugs, as needed.
• Noise Control: Implement noise control methods to reduce your exposure to loud noise
levels.
• Ventilation and Dust Control: Maintain adequate ventilation and dust control systems to
prevent exposure to airborne contaminants.
• Routine Maintenance: Establish a routine maintenance program to keep equipment in safe
working condition.

64
 • Safety labels and signage: Use clear, uniform safety labels and signs to convey risks and
safety recommendations.
• Safety Devices: On machinery, install safety mats, light curtains, and perimeter guards.
• Develop and execute safe work practices for the repair, troubleshooting, and operation of
machinery.
• Develop exact emergency response rules, such as those for fire safety and first aid.
• Safety Culture: Create a safety culture in the workplace by encouraging employees to
report hazards and prioritize safety.
• Frequent Inspections: Conduct routine inspections to identify and correct potential safety
issues or wear and tear on the equipment.
• Maintain a record of incidents, equipment maintenance, and safety inspections.
• Hazard Communication: Inform staff members about potentially hazardous objects and
practices in a clear and intelligible way.
• Continuous Improvement: Evaluate and improve safety practices on a regular basis based
on input and incident analysis.
• Establish a safety committee to assist management and staff members in collaborating and
communicating on safety-related problems.

5.3 Environmental Impact Assessment

5.3.1 Existing environmental conditions of the selected site
The projected PCC factory will be located in the Negampaha Industrial State of the North Central
Province, a thriving industrial sector controlled by the Industrial Development Board. There are
no important amenities nearby because it is an industrial zone. The ambient air quality at this place
currently contains levels of dangerous gas that are within the permitted limits. This area receives
less rainfall than the rest of the country. Because it is not in a heavily populated area, there is less
noise. Leaks, liquid discharges into the environment, solid and hazardous waste disposal, noise
and vibrations, biological variables, and socioeconomic repercussions from the plant can all harm
the ecosystem.

65
5.3.2 Air emission
In this process of PCC manufacturing emitted air from the kiln is directed air purification systems
such as scrubbers and filter presses. So even though toxic gases are emitted they get cleaned before
they released to the environment.

5.3.3 Liquid emissions

Liquid emissions from wet scrubbers and PCC screeners are directed to wastewater treatment plant
so no liquid is emitting without getting proper treatment.

Tolerance limits according to the CEA of the effluent discharges:

Table 5-4 - Tolerance Limits

Parameter Maximum tolerance limit

BOD (5 days at 20 ⁰C) (mg/l) 200

COD (mg/l) 600
pH 6.0 – 8.5
Total Suspended Solids (mg/l) 500
Total Dissolved Solids (mg/l) 2100
Temperature (⁰C) 40
Oil and grease (mg/l) 30

5.3.4 Solid and hazardous waste disposal considering ecological damage

Coal - Although coal is not expected to harm the environment in its solid state, it is known to emit
certain hydrocarbon compounds during thermal breakdown, such as polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs), some of which are moderately toxic, such as pyrene, benzo(a)pyrene,
chrysene, and phenanthrene. The majority of PAHs adhere to solid surfaces and are generally
insoluble in water.

For example, sediments from rivers and lakes. Microorganisms in soil or water break down PAHs
within a few weeks to months. Because of their bio accumulative nature, these PAHs can
accumulate to levels substantially larger than those seen in humans in plants and animals. They
dwell in the water or dirt. It is plausible to assume that high levels of PAH constitute a major

66
danger. So, it is better to reuse them, and dispose consider the above factors. Landfilling is one
suggestion.

Limestone - Acute aquatic, fish toxicity value: > 100 mg/l, method of testing is LC50 Duration
for 96 hours. Ecotoxicity - The chemical is not classified as harmful to the environment. Emissions
to water will make the water murky, especially with the emission of finely ground qualities.
Eventually, dolomite will sediment. Better not to dispose to water phase. Land filling is one
suggestion.

CaO - fish toxicity value LC50: = 1070 mg/L, 96h static. Reuse in the process if excess material
has to dispose incineration, chemical treatment or landfilling are some of the suggestions.

Ca(OH)2 - Filtration should be performed on all ventilation systems prior to atmospheric

discharge. Do not discharge into the environment. Keep the leak contained. If any significant spill
into a waterway must be sent to the environmental protection regulatory authority or another
regulatory entity. Dispose as the above mentioned [16].

Soda ash - Acute toxicity - Fishes, Lepomis macrochirus, LC50, 96 h, 300 mg/l. degrade under
abiotic condition. Dispose as the above mentioned.

5.3.5 Noise and Vibrations

Permissible noise levels according to the regulations of CEA:

Table 5-5 - Permissible noise Levels

Area Day Time (dB) Nighttime (dB)

High Noise (EPZZ of BOI & Industrial

70 60
Estates approved under part IVC of the NEA)
To decrease noise and vibration:

• When selecting equipment, consider how much noise it makes and go for low-noise ones.
• Add sound-absorbing materials to the air blowers and kiln.
• Maintain the equipment on a regular basis.

67
5.3.6 Socio – economic impacts
Some of the affects that the plant may have on the community include noise, tainted water supplies,
and toxic gas emissions. The relevant issue discussed above outlines mitigation actions for these
impacts.

5.3.7 Leopold Matrix for Environmental Impact Assessment

Figure 5-1 - Leopold Matrix

68
6 Plant Layout

The plant layout is selected with the purpose of optimizing the space requirement and human
resources as much as possible. The following factors were considered when deciding the plant
layout as per requirements set by general site selection guidelines [3].

✓ Economic considerations (Construction and operating cost)

✓ The process requirements
✓ Convenience of operation
✓ Convenience of maintenance
✓ Safety
✓ Future expansion
✓ Modular construction

The required land from the Negampaha industrial zone should be 10 acres considering the future
expansions.

69
6.1 Plant Layout drawing
 7 Process Flow Diagram (PFD)
S-33
Water

Air P-2 P-3 P-4 P-5 P-6

S-36
S-34
Fuel oil P-16
F-1 F-2 F-3 S-32

S-18 B-1
S-16
S-14
Limestone P-1 S-26
S-15
E-26 S-37
E-29
E-27
Coal E-30 F-4 F-5
S-10 E-25
S-8
F-7 P-7
S-35
S-9 S-26

S-11 S-13

E-5 E-6 S-30 S-31

E-28

E-7 E-8
S-62
To wastewater
S-27 treatment plant
S-29

E-9 E-32 S-28

S-64 B-2

S-1 E-33
E-31 S-38 S-40
P-7 To Chimney
E-10
F-6 S-25
S-39
S-17 P-9 P-10
S-7
S-12

S-63
E-11
E-16 S-46
Na2CO3

S-47
Additives
S-20
S-21 E-17
S-43
S-6
S-24
E-12 E-13 S-48 To cooling water tank

S-4
S-22
S-45
E-14
S-49
S-2
S-3 S-5 F-8
S-41
To cooling water tank
S-23

E-1 E-2 E-3

E-4 S-50 To wastewater
treatment plant
E-30
E-18
S-42
S-44
P-11 S-55

P-8 Air
S-19
E-15
To Chimney S-65

S-52
E-19 F-10
S-54

P-12
S-56 S-51
To cooling water tank
S-53
E-21 C-1
E-20
S-66
S-57 To wastewater treatment
S-59 plant

S-60
F-9
S-61
E-24 E-23
C-3 C-2 E-34
E-34 E-22 71
S-58
 7.1 Legend

Equipment Index Equipment Name Pump ndex Details Type

E-1 Ball mill - Coal P-1 Fuel oil supply from storage to burner oil pump
E-2 Coal powder screener P-2 Cooling water supply for the Slaker water pump
E-3 Coal powder pulverizer P-3 RO water supply water pump
E-4 Coal burner P-4 Ca(OH) 2 cooling water supply water pump
E-5 Ball mill - Limestone P-5 Cooling water supply for the Carbonation column water pump
E-6 Limestone powder screener P-6 Wet scrubber make-up water supply water pump
E-7 Limestone preheating system - Cyclone 1 P-7 Wet scrubber recirculating water supply water pump
E-8 Limestone preheating system - Cyclone 2
P-8 Ca(OH) 2 carrying to the carbonation column slurry pump
E-9 Limestone preheating system - Cyclone 3
P-9 RO water supply to the slaker water pump
E-10 Limestone preheating system - Cyclone 4
P-10 RO water supply to the Carbonation column water pump
E-11 Kiln
E-12 CaO cooler
P-11 Settling tank water discharging water pump
E-13 CaO storage Silo P-12 PCC slurry pump slurry pump
E-14 Slaker Fan Index Details Type
E-15 Particle screener F-1 Burner Air supply FD
E-16 Grinder F-2 CaO cooler air supply FD
E-17 Carbonation column
F-3 Dryer air preheater - air supply FD
E-18 PCC settling tank
F-4 Kiln exhaust carrier ID
E-19 Cooling tower
F-5 Kiln exhaust carrier ID
E-20 Filter press
F-6 Kiln exhaust carrier to the cyclone preheater ID
E-21 Dryer
F-7 Kiln exhaust suction from cyclone preheater ID
E-22 PCC pulverizer
E-23 PCC storage F-8 Burner Air supply ID
E-24 PCC packing and transportation F-9 Dryer air outlet ID
E-25 Dryer air heater F-10 Cooling tower air supply FD
E-26 Fabric filter
Blower Index Details
E-27 Wet scrubber
B-1 Gas stream send into pressurized gas vessel
E-28 Water circulation tank
B-2 Pressurized gas stream carry into carbonation column
E-29 Gas storage
E-30 Oil burner
E-31 RO water heater Conveyor Index Details Type
E-32 Reverse Osmosis C-1 Wet PCC carrier from filter press to the dryer Belt type
E-33 RO water storage tank C-2 Dry PCC carrier from dryer to pulverizer Screw type
E-34 Chimney C-3 Fine PCC powder carrier to the storage Screw type
72
Stream Index Stream Name Stream Index Stream Name
S-1 Coal Stream to Ball Mill S-34 Wet scrubber recirculating water
S-2 coal Powder S-35 Wet scrubber outlet liquid
S-3 Screened coal powder to coal pulverizer S-36 Gas stream to pressurized gas storage
S-4 Coarse recycling coal particles S-37 Pressurized CO 2 gas stream to carbonation colum
S-5 Pulverized coal powder to coal burner S-38 RO water to heater
S-6 Flame from coal burner S-39 RO water to carbonation colum
S-7 Kiln exhaust to cyclone pre heater S-40 Carbonation column air outlet
S-8 Limestone Stream to Ball mill S-41 Hot water from slaker cooling jacket
S-9 Limestone Powder S-42 Ca(OH)2 to particle screener
S-10 Coarse recycling limestone particles S-43 Oversize Ca(OH)2 to grinder
S-11 Screened limestone to cyclone S-44 Screened Ca(OH)2 slurry cooler
S-12 Preheated limestone to kiln S-45 Cooled Ca(OH)2 slurry to carbonation colum
S-13 Kiln exhaut suction from cyclone preheater S-46 Na2CO3 stream to carbonation colum
S-14 Fuel oil Stream to oil burner S-47 Additive stream to carbonation colum
S-15 Gas stream from fuel oil burning S-48 Cooling jacket- used water tank
S-16 Air stream to oil burner S-49 PCC slurry to settling tank
S-17 Air stream to CaO cooler S-50 PCC settling tank water stream
S-18 Air stream to Dryer Air heater S-51 Precipitated CaCO 3 slurry
S-19 Heated air stream to dryer S-52 Hot water stream to cooling tower
S-20 Hot quicklime stream from kiln S-53 Cooled water to water tank
S-21 Cooled quicklime stream to silo tank S-54 Cooling air stream
S-22 Air stream to burner air supply S-55 Hot air emmision
S-23 Heated air stream to coal burner S-56 Wet PCC to dryer
S-24 CaO powder to slaker S-57 Filterpress reject wastewater
S-25 Kiln exhaust air to RO water heater S-58 Hot air stream to chiminey
S-26 Kiln exhaust after RO water heater S-59 Dry PCC to pulverizer
S-27 Water to reverse osmosis S-60 Fine PCC powder to storage
S-28 Purified water to RO storage tank S-61 From storage to PCC packing and transportation
S-29 RO reject to the wastewater treatment S-62 Waste water from wet scrubber
S-30 Cooling water to Ca(OH)2 slurry cooler S-63 Heated RO water to slaker
S-31 Cooling water to carbonation colum S-64 Cooling water to slaker
S-32 Treated stream from fabric filter to wet scrubber S-65 Steam outlet from dryer
S-33 Make-up water to the wet scrubber 73 S-66 Coarse screened PCC particles
8 References

[1] “Table A-1,” 2000.

[2] S. K. (Shan K. Wang, Handbook of air conditioning and refrigeration. McGraw-Hill, 2000.

[3] “CHEMICAL ENGINEERING VOLUME 6.”

[4] “Industrial estates in Sri Lanka.”

[5] “Anuradhapura District Secretariat - Ministry of Home Affairs.”

[6] “Kurunegala Secretariat - ministry of Home Affairs.”

[7] “CEYLON ELECTRICITY BOARD ANNUAL REPORT 2 0 2 0.”

[8] P. W. Vidanage, “Chemical Engineering Design Costing.”

[9] “Calcium Carbonate mining.” [Online]. Available: [Link]

[10] R. Sinnott and G. Towler, “Costing and Project Evaluation,” in Chemical Engineering Design,
Elsevier, 2020, pp. 275–369. doi: 10.1016/b978-0-08-102599-4.00006-0.

[11] “Calcium Carbonate mining.” [Online]. Available: [Link]

[12] M. T. Vergis, “ECONOMICS OF STEAM METHANE REFORMATION AND COAL GASIFICATION FOR
HYDROGEN PRODUCTION,” 2007.

[13] G. Ökten, O. Kural, and E. Algurkaplan, “STORAGE OF COAL: PROBLEMS AND PRECAUTIONS.”

[14] “BITUMINOUS COAL SAFETY DATA SHEET SECTION 1. IDENTIFICATION.”

[15] “MSDS-SODA ASH MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET(MSDS)-Soda Ash,” 2022.

[16] “PRODUCT SAFETY DATA SHEET for Ca(OH)2 prepared in accordance with Annex II of the REACH
Regulation.”

[17] “Chemical Safety Data Sheet MSDS / SDS CARBON DIOXIDE.”

[18] “Chemical Safety Data Sheet MSDS / SDS CARBON DIOXIDE.”

[19] “Chemical Storage safe”.