Network & Internetworking for

Distributed Systems
A Comprehensive Overview for IT Professionals
Welcome to this deep dive into the foundational concepts of networking
and internetworking, specifically tailored for the context of distributed
systems. In today's interconnected digital landscape, understanding
how components communicate across a network is paramount to
designing, deploying, and maintaining reliable, scalable, and efficient
distributed architectures. This presentation will cover the core models,
technologies, and protocols that facilitate seamless communication,
ensuring you have a robust conceptual framework for your distributed
systems course.

This material serves as an essential guide for university students in IT

programmes, focusing on the practical application and theoretical underpinnings
of network communication in a distributed environment.
The OSI Model: A Framework for Understanding Networks
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model provides a standardised, seven-layer conceptual framework used to describe the function of a networking
system. It is critical for diagnosing network issues and understanding how different protocols interact within a distributed system.

Outer: Session,
Presentation, Application
Sessions, data format and user
services

Middle: Network &

Transport
Routing, addressing, and
reliable delivery
Core: Physical
Transmits raw bits over media

Application Layer (Layer 7)

The closest layer to the end-user. Provides network services to
applications. Examples include HTTP, SMTP, and FTP. This is where
user interaction with the distributed system often begins.
Transport Layer (Layer 4)
Manages segmentation, reassembly, and error control. Crucial
protocols here are TCP (connection-oriented and reliable) and UDP
Network Layer (Layer 3) (connectionless and fast), defining the reliability of inter-process
communication in a distributed setting.
Handles logical addressing (IP addressing) and routing of data
packets from source to destination across different networks. This is
the core of internetworking. Physical Layer (Layer 1)
Deals with the physical transmission medium, transmitting raw bit
streams over a physical link. This includes cables, radio waves, and
the electrical/optical characteristics of the hardware.
Network Topologies: From Bus to Mesh
Network topology refers to the arrangement of the elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a communication network. The choice of topology significantly impacts the
network's performance, resilience, and complexity in a distributed system.

Bus Topology Star Topology

All devices are connected to a single main cable (bus). Simple and Each device connects to a central hub or switch. Highly reliable4if
inexpensive, but a break in the central cable brings the entire one device fails, the rest of the network is unaffected. Centralised
network down. Not common in modern large distributed systems management makes this highly popular for distributed computing
due to low reliability. clusters.

Ring Topology Mesh Topology

Devices are connected in a closed loop, where data flows in one Every device is connected directly to every other device. Offers
direction. Offers good performance but failure of a single link or maximum redundancy and fault tolerance, making it ideal for
node can disrupt the whole network unless a dual-ring approach is critical distributed applications, but is expensive and complex to
used. implement.

For distributed systems requiring high availability and fault tolerance, the Mesh or highly resilient Star (using redundant switches/links) topologies are preferred, despite the higher initial cost. The
reliability of communication paths is a non-negotiable requirement for mission-critical distributed applications.
Protocols: The Language of the Internet
Protocols are the formal rules and standards that govern how data is transmitted between different devices in a network. They ensure that communication is
understood by all parties, regardless of hardware or software differences.

The TCP/IP suite is the foundational protocol set of the modern internet and, by extension, most distributed systems. It defines how data is packaged,
addressed, transmitted, routed, and received.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

A connection-oriented protocol used at the Transport Layer. It A connectionless protocol. It offers speed over reliability, meaning
guarantees reliable delivery of data packets, ensuring order and error- packets might be lost or arrive out of order. Used for time-sensitive
checking, which is vital for operations like file transfer and database applications like video streaming, VoIP, and DNS lookups, where
synchronisation in distributed systems. reliability mechanisms are handled at the application layer or are not
essential.

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP/S) Message Queuing Telemetry Transport (MQTT)

The protocol used for transmitting web pages and data. Essential for A lightweight messaging protocol designed for constrained devices and
client-server communication and increasingly for inter-service low-bandwidth, high-latency networks. Increasingly relevant for IoT-
communication (APIs) within microservices-based distributed systems. based distributed systems where resource efficiency is key.
IP Addressing & Subnetting: Navigating the Digital World
IP addresses are the logical addresses assigned to devices on a network, enabling them to communicate. Subnetting is the process of dividing a large
network into smaller, more efficient subnetworks (subnets).

IP Addressing
IPv4: Uses 32-bit addresses, typically represented as four decimal numbers separated by
dots (e.g., 192.168.1.1). Due to exhaustion, this is increasingly supplemented by IPv6.
IPv6: Uses 128-bit addresses, offering a vast address space to accommodate the
explosion of connected devices, especially relevant for massive distributed systems and
IoT.
Static vs. Dynamic: Static addresses are manually configured and remain constant, ideal
for servers and critical nodes in a distributed system. Dynamic addresses are assigned
by DHCP for temporary use.

The Role of Subnetting

Subnetting improves network performance, security, and management. By creating smaller
broadcast domains, it reduces congestion and allows administrators to isolate different
segments of a distributed system (e.g., separating database servers from front-end
application servers).

1 2 3

Efficiency Security Organisation

Reduces network traffic and congestion by Allows for the implementation of stricter Provides a structured, hierarchical way to
confining local communications to the access control lists (ACLs) between subnets, manage addresses across large,
subnet. isolating high-value assets. geographically dispersed distributed
networks.
Routing & Switching: Directing Data Traffic
In any distributed system, data must traverse multiple nodes and segments. Routing and switching are the core mechanisms responsible for this efficient
and correct delivery of data packets.

Switching (Layer 2 - Data Link) Routing (Layer 3 - Network)

Switches operate primarily within a single local area network (LAN). They Routers connect different networks (subnets) together. They use IP
use Media Access Control (MAC) addresses to forward data frames to addresses and routing tables to determine the optimal path for data
specific ports, greatly reducing unnecessary traffic within a segment. packets to reach their final destination across potentially vast distances.

Function: Connect devices within the same network segment. Function: Connect different networks and select the best path.
Mechanism: Builds a MAC address table to learn which devices are on Mechanism: Uses routing protocols (like OSPF or BGP) to exchange
which ports. topology information and build accurate routing tables.
Relevance: Essential for high-speed, internal connectivity in server Relevance: Critical for internetworking4allowing distributed
clusters and data centres that host distributed applications. components in different geographical regions or different clouds to
communicate.

Advanced distributed systems often rely on Software-Defined Networking (SDN) principles, abstracting the routing and switching control plane from the data plane. This allows for programmatic,
highly flexible management of traffic flow, optimising latency and bandwidth for inter-service communication.
Internetworking: Connecting Diverse Networks
Internetworking is the practice of connecting distinct communication networks to form a coherent whole, typically using the TCP/IP suite. This concept is
fundamental to modern distributed systems, which rarely reside within a single, homogeneous network.

Key Internetworking Technologies

Gateways Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) Network Address Translation (NAT)

A node (often a router) that acts as an access Creates a secure, encrypted connection over a A method used by routers to map multiple
point to another network. It translates less secure network, like the public internet. private IP addresses in a local network to a
protocols and data formats, essential for Critical for securing communication between single public IP address. This conserves public
connecting networks that use entirely remote components of a distributed system IP addresses and adds a layer of security by
different standards. (e.g., remote offices or cloud environments). hiding internal network structure.

The challenge in distributed system internetworking lies in maintaining low latency and high consistency across disparate networks. Techniques like Content
Delivery Networks (CDNs) and Edge Computing are forms of internetworking optimisation, pushing processing power and data storage closer to the end-user
to overcome geographical communication limitations.
Security Considerations in Distributed Systems
The distributed nature of these systems introduces unique security challenges. Increased network complexity means a larger attack surface, requiring a
holistic approach to security across all network layers.

Core Security Principles

Confidentiality via Encryption Integrity via Hashing & Availability via Redundancy &
All data transmitted between components4 Signatures DDoS Mitigation
especially over public or untrusted networks Digital signatures and cryptographic hashing High network availability is a security
4must be encrypted. Protocols like TLS/SSL ensure that data has not been tampered feature. Redundant networking components
secure application-layer traffic (HTTPS), with during transmission. This is crucial for (routers, load balancers, multiple ISP
while IPsec secures network-layer verifying the authenticity of messages connections) and effective Distributed
communication (VPNs). This prevents exchanged between distributed services. Denial of Service (DDoS) mitigation
eavesdropping and man-in-the-middle strategies are necessary to keep the system
attacks. operational against malicious flooding
attacks.

Modern distributed systems often adopt a "Zero Trust" model, meaning no user, device, or service is inherently trusted, regardless of its location or
previous access. Every network request must be verified before granting access.
Summary & Future Trends
We have covered the fundamental layers, topologies, and protocols that underpin the reliable functioning of distributed systems. A solid grasp of the OSI
model, IP addressing, and the distinction between routing and switching is essential for any IT professional working with networked environments.

Key Takeaways
The OSI Model provides a vital conceptual IP Addressing and Subnetting are the Security must be baked into the design,
map for all network communication and mechanisms for logical organisation and not added later, using encryption,
troubleshooting. isolation of components within a large authentication, and the Zero Trust model.
system.

Future Trends in Distributed Networking

Edge Computing 5G and Beyond Quantum Networking

Moving computation and data storage closer to The advent of 5G promises ultra-low latency and While still nascent, quantum networking seeks to
the source of data generation (the "edge") to massive connectivity, fundamentally changing leverage quantum entanglement for ultra-secure
minimise latency and network traffic back to how distributed systems (especially those key distribution, potentially redefining
centralised cloud data centres. involving IoT and real-time control) are designed cryptographic security for future distributed
and deployed. systems.

Thank you for engaging with this material. Continuous learning in network architecture is crucial as distributed systems
evolve into increasingly complex, dynamic, and globally interconnected structures.