Local Density of States as a Probe of Multifractality in Quasiperiodic Moiré Materials

Ricardo Oliveira,1, ∗ Nicolau Sobrosa,1, ∗ Pedro Ribeiro,2 Bruno Amorim,1 and Eduardo V. Castro1
1
Centro de Física das Universidades do Minho e Porto, LaPMET,
Departamento de Física e Astronomia, Faculdade de Ciências,
Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre s/n, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
2
CeFEMA, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
(Dated: October 24, 2025)
Quasiperiodic moiré materials provide a new platform for realizing critical electronic states, yet
a direct and experimentally practical method to characterize this criticality has been lacking. We
show that a multifractal analysis of the local density of states (LDOS), accessible via scanning
arXiv:2510.20575v1 [cond-mat.dis-nn] 23 Oct 2025

tunneling microscopy, offers an unambiguous signature of criticality from a single experimental

sample. Applying this approach to a one-dimensional quasiperiodic model, a stringent test case
due to its fractal energy spectrum, we find a clear distinction between the broad singularity spectra
f (α) of critical states and the point-like spectra of extended states. We further demonstrate that
these multifractal signatures remain robust over a wide range of energy broadenings relevant to
experiments. Our results establish a model-independent, experimentally feasible framework for
identifying and probing multifractality in the growing family of quasiperiodic and moiré materials.

Quasiperiodic systems are known for their unconven- been extensively studied in disordered systems, includ-
tional electronic structure and critical multifractal states, ing the 3D Anderson transition [12–16] and the quantum
having recently found a new experimental platform in Hall effect [17, 18].
moiré materials, whose incommensurability arises from This methodology has since evolved beyond its the-
the misalignment or twist between the layers. In twisted oretical origins and has been employed in experimen-
bilayer graphene (tBLG), localization effects has been tal data from scanning tunneling microscopy (STM)
predicted for incommensurate twist angles, including in in disordered systems. For instance, it has been ap-
the so-called dodecagonal graphene quasicrystal at 30º, plied to the study of the metal-insulator transition of
[1, 2]. Multifractal momentum-space wavefunctions were cleaved Ga1 – x Mnx As samples [19], the superconduct-
shown to emerge near the magic-angle semimetal critical ing phase of weakly disordered single-layer NbSe2 [20],
regime in the chiral limit at intermediate angles ∼ 9º [3] Bix Pb1 – x /Ag(111) surface alloys [21], structurally disor-
and sub-ballistic states were also shown to be delocal- dered MoS2 monolayer semiconductors [22], disordered
ized in momentum-space within the narrow-band region nodal line semimetals Fe3 GeTe2 [23] and monolayers of
around the first magic-angle [4]. Another striking realiza- tin on silicon [24]. Across all of these studies, differential
tion is found in twisted trilayer graphene, where twisting conductance (dI/dV) maps provide a spatially resolved
three layers of graphene at two different angles creates in- measurement of the local density of states (LDOS), which
commensurate moiré patterns that form a tunable moiré encodes signatures of the underlying eigenstates. When
quasicrystal [5–7], where new forms of superconductivity systems approach criticality, the LDOS itself can become
are only explained through the lens of quasiperiodicity. multifractal, a feature which can be unveiled through an
Furthermore, heterostructures of tBLG stacked on hexag- analysis of dI/dV data.
onal boron nitride (hBN) provide another route to tun- Despite its success in disordered systems, multifractal
able quasiperiodic structures, encompassing quasicrystals analysis has not yet been widely adopted in the study
with Bravais-forbidden dodecagonal symmetry as well as of quasiperiodic systems, particularly in moiré materi-
intercrystals that lack forbidden symmetries [8]. These als. This is surprising given that many quasiperiodic
discoveries highlight the central role of critical wavefunc- systems display critical wavefunctions exhibiting deter-
tions in understanding quasiperiodic moiré systems. ministic multifractality [25–27]. Nevertheless, multifrac-
Wavefunctions at criticality are known to display com- tal analysis has been used to study the Fibonacci chain
plex spatial fluctuations on many length scales. A pow- [28] as well as the two-dimensional Penrose and Am-
erful theoretical framework for studying such complexity mann–Beenker tilings [29]. More recently, it has also
is multifractal analysis, originally introduced to charac- been applied to compute the singularity spectrum of res-
terize the scale-invariant structure of measures in tur- onance amplitudes in chains of small high-index dielectric
bulence and dynamic systems [9], but later entered the resonators [30], providing an experimental realization of
condensed matter community in the context of wavefunc- the Fibonacci chain.
tion criticality in disordered electronic systems [10, 11]. In this Letter, we introduce a practical and exper-
At metal-insulator transitions, wavefunctions are char- imentally accessible approach to identify clear signa-
acterized by a continuum of fractal dimensions, forming tures of quasiperiodicity using multifractal analysis of
a broad singularity spectrum f (α). Multifractality has the LDOS, directly measurable through differential con-
 2

ductance maps obtained from STM. Unlike conventional Model To demonstrate how the multifractal analysis
finite-size scaling methods commonly employed in the- of the LDOS reveals energies at which quasiperiodicity
oretical studies of quasiperiodic systems, our approach influences electronic properties, we study a representa-
relies on the multifractal canonical partition function, tive 1D quasiperiodic model whose phase diagram was ex-
thereby eliminating the need for data across multiple plored by Gonçalves et al. [31]. This model hosts critical
sample sizes. Crucially, our analysis reveals quantita- phases, coexisting with localized and extended ones, ex-
tively how multifractality emerges in the LDOS, provid- hibiting rich mobility edges, i.e., energy-dependent tran-
ing an unambiguous distinction between spectral regions sitions between these phases. Its Hamiltonian is given
characterized by extended Bloch states and those dom- by
inated by quasiperiodic effects. This method offers ex-
L−1 R
perimentalists an immediate tool for probing and under- X X
standing multifractal signatures in real quasiperiodic ma- H=t eiαm−pm c†n cn−m + h.c.
n=0 m=1
terials.
L−1
XX R
a) b) + 2V e−ql cos (2πτ n) c†n cn (1)
n=0 l=1

where the first term represents exponentially decaying

hopping amplitudes with decay rate p and a distance
cutoff R, pierced by a magnetic flux α/2π . The sec-
c)
ond term describes a quasiperiodic potential constructed
from harmonics of an incommensurate wavenumber 2πτ ,
τ∈ / Q, also decaying exponentially with decay rate q and
harmonic cutoff R. Throughout this Letter, we assume
d) periodic boundary conditions (PBC) and fix parameters
to (p, q, α) = 1, 1.5, π2 . We show the energy spectrum

as well as the localization properties as a function of the

potential strength, V , in Fig. 1 (d), where we distinguish
between critical, localized and extended states forming
narrow bands of energy, with well-defined mobility edges.
Figure 1. (a) Singularity spectrum f (α) of the LDOS at a In this work, we fix the incommensurate wavenumber
√
fixed energy in the critical narrow band for different quasiperi- to be the inverse of the golden ratio τ = 5−1 2 . This
odic approximants with total system sizes L ≃ 1.2 × 105 . In- irrational number can be approximated by a sequence
creasing ε (larger unit cell size) enhances multifractality as of rational approximants, τn = FFn−1 , where Fn denotes
we approach the quasiperiodic limit (ε = 100%). Inset: cor- n
the n-th Fibonacci number. To model systems that ap-
responding nonlinear Legendre transform τq . (b) Position of
the spectral maxima α0 vs ε; α0 > 1 in the quasiperiodic limit proach the quasiperiodic limit, we consider periodic sys-
and α0 ≈ 1 for Bloch states. (c) Same as in (a) for extended tems with sizes determined by the Fibonacci sequence.
states, yielding point-like singularity spectra and linear τq . Specifically, we construct Hamiltonians with PBC using
(d) Energy spectrum vs quasiperiodic modulation V ; colors unit cells of size LUC = Fn . The total system then con-
denote the inverse participation ratio, distinguishing the ex- sists of N such unit cells with size L = N LUC , where L
tended, localized, and critical narrow bands. is kept fixed for all considered systems. In this frame-
work, periodic systems are constructed with low-order
Fig. 1 illustrates the multifractal analysis of the LDOS rational approximants to τ , and the quasiperiodic limit
as a method for detecting quasiperiodicity. Panel (a) is reached as τn → τ . By properly choosing unit cell
shows the singularity spectrum f (α), for the LDOS at sizes from the Fibonacci sequence, we can systematically
energies hosting critical states. The width and shape study and compare periodic and quasiperiodic systems of
of the spectra provide clear signatures of quasiperiodic comparable total size L. Since every system has a simi-
behavior. Each curve corresponds to a different rational lar size, L, we are decoupling the quasiperiodicity effects
approximant, flowing from the periodic limit (point spec- from the finite-size ones. To quantify how close a given
tra) toward the quasiperiodic limit (broad spectra) where approximant is to the quasiperiodic limit, we introduce
critical states emerge. In contrast, panel (c) presents the the parameter ε (%) ≡ LL UC
× 100. When ε = 100%, the
same analysis for extended states, where all curves col- system consists of a single unit cell and corresponds to
lapse into narrow, nearly point-like spectra, a hallmark the quasiperiodic case for our fixed total system size. As
of conventional metallic behavior. These distinct spec- ε → 0, the unit cell becomes small compared to the to-
tral profiles offer a practical criterion for distinguishing tal system size, and we say the system approaches the
between critical and extended states in quasiperiodic sys- periodic limit.
tems.
 3

Multifractal Analysis We now introduce the canoni- which acts as a probability distribution. From this, both
cal partition function formalism for multifractal analysis, the multifractal entropy
originally developed in [32], which offers an alternative to X
traditional finite-size scaling. This method is tailor-made Sq (λ; E) ≡ µb (q, λ; E) log µb (q, λ; E) (6)
for fixed system sizes and is ideal for analyzing any spa- b
tially resolved quantities, in particular, the LDOS. By and the derivative of the partition function with respect
probing the inner structure of such observables, this ap- to q
proach allows us to extract multifractal properties with-
out needing data from multiple system sizes.
X q
Zq′ (λ; E) ≡ [Pb (λ; E)] log Pb (λ; E) , (7)
The method proceeds by partitioning the lattice into b
non-overlapping boxes of size ld , where l is a fixed spatial
resolution chosen to divide the linear system size L, and d allow us to estimate the multifractal quantities via:
the dimensionality of the problem. We define the coarse- Zq′ (λ; E)
graining scale as λ ≡ Ll . After square normalizing the ∼ λαq (E) Sq (λ; E) ∼ λfq (E) . (8)
2
Zq (λ; E)
LDOS across the lattice, R |ρR (E)| = 1, to simplify
P
the following definitions, we coarse-grain the LDOS into Our primary local observable is the LDOS. To com-
d
boxes of size (λL) to define the probability measure pute it, we use the implicitly restarted Arnoldi method
X to extract the eigenvectors {ϕR (Eµ )} and eigenvalues
2
Pb (λ; E) = |ρR (E)| , (2) {Eµ } close to the target energy E. We then apply a
R∈Bλ (b) Gaussian broadening to simulate finite spectral resolu-
tion, controlled by a width η. The LDOS is thus defined
where Bλ (b) denotes the small partition, or "box", whose
as
left corner is located at position b on the lattice. In other
words, each b identifies the reference corner of one of the
!
2
1 X 2 1 (E − Eµ )
non-overlapping boxes used to coarse-grain the system. ρR (E) = p |ϕR (Eµ )| exp − .
2πη 2 µ 2 η2
The sum in Eq. (2) runs over all lattice sites R that lie
within the box Bλ (b). This method can be extended to (9)
any scalar quantity defined on the lattice or on a sampling We aim to distinguish extended and critical phases by
grid, such as, for example, the spatially-resolved super- studying the multifractal properties of the LDOS across
conducting gap [20]. The multifractal partition function different regions of the spectrum and for systems with
at coarse-graining scale λ is then defined as different numbers of unit cells.
To study multifractality, we can examine the multi-
fractal exponent τq . For purely extended states, τq =
X q
Zq (λ; E) = [Pb (λ; E)] , (3)
b d (q − 1). In contrast, multifractal systems are charac-
which is essentially the generalization of the inverse par- terized by a nonlinear dependence of τq on q. A more
ticipation ratio (IPR) of the coarse-grained LDOS, that insightful characterization of multifractality is given by
is, the q-th moment of the LDOS. the singularity spectrum f (α). Extended states yield a
If Zq (λ; E) exhibits scale-invariant behavior over a sharp, single-point spectrum (α, f ) = (d, d), for every q,
range [λ1 , λ2 ], then it obeys a power-law of the form while multifractal states display a broad, concave f (α)
curve, spanning from αmin to αmax . The spectral width
Zq (λ; E) ∼ λτq (E) , (4) ∆α = αmax − αmin and the typical Hölder exponent α0 ,
the position of the maximum of the spectrum, provide
allowing us to extract the multifractal exponent τq (E)
direct measures of multifractality.
directly as the slope on a log-log plot of Zq versus λ.
Results Fig. 1 showcases the multifractal properties
To fully characterize the multifractal properties of the
of the LDOS in our quasiperiodic model. For the energy
LDOS, we compute the singularity spectrum f (α), which
narrow bands associated with critical states, we observe
describes the fractal dimension of subsets of the system
in panel (a) that the singularity spectrum is broad. As
where the LDOS scales locally with exponent α. This
we increase ε, which corresponds to increasing the size of
spectrum is related to τq through the Legendre transform
unit cell for a fixed total system size, and approach the
dτq quasiperiodic limit (ε = 100%) multifractality becomes
αq = , f (αq ) = qαq − τq . (5) more pronounced, as evidenced by the broader spectra,
dq
where the horizontal colored arrows mark the spectral
The singularity spectrum can be obtained directly using width, ∆α and the vertical dashed lines mark the typi-
the canonical approach, described as follows: we define cal value, α0 . The inset also demonstrates the non-linear
the normalized measure over boxes as behavior of τq , a quantity typically extracted from finite-
q
[Pb (λ; E)] size scaling analysis, but computed here with the parti-
µb (q, λ; E) ≡ ,
Zq (λ; E) tion function method. In panel (b) we show the position
 4

of the maximum of each spectra as a function of ε. In the (small λ), structural details emerge. In the quasiperiodic
quasiperiodic limit, the spectra are centered at α0 > 1, a limit, scaling with multifractal exponents between 0 and
signature of multifractality. Going to the periodic limit, 1 within the critical band signals multifractality, while
by decreasing ε (i.e., reducing the unit cell size), the value in the extended narrow band, as shown in the inset, the
oscillates and then stabilizes at α0 = 1, indicating the slope remains unity, confirming extended states. From
Bloch nature of the LDOS in this limit. This behavior these slopes, we extract the multifractal exponents τq ,
contrasts with the results of panel (c), where for energies Hölder exponents α, and corresponding Hausdorff dimen-
in the narrow bands associated with extended states, the sions f (α) shown in Fig. 1, through a fitting procedure,
LDOS yields sharp, point-like singularity spectra, for all a linear least square optimization problem.
unit cell sizes, as expected. In the inset, the standard
result emerges, with a linear τq for any approximant. a)
The clear emergence of nonlinear τq and broad f (α)
E
curves is unambiguous evidence of multifractality in the
LDOS of quasiperiodic systems. Importantly, these sig-
natures are found without the need for finite-size scaling,
b)
due to the canonical partition function method, previ- 1% 5% 25%
ously introduced. As such, in an experiment, a single
measurement of the LDOS would be sufficient to detect 1 state
multifractality. limit

c) d)

Increasing
Quasiperiodicity

Figure 3. (a) Fractal structure of the spectrum. The charac-

teristic energy scale ∆ corresponds to the mean level spacing
of the smallest miniband for this system size and is used as our
reference energy scale. The rightmost zoom shows the same
energy window highlighted in Fig. 1(d). (b) Multifractal ex-
Figure 2. Partition function Zq=2 as a function of the coarse- ponent τ2 as a function of the LDOS broadening η, normalized
graining scale λ in the critical narrow bands, for different by ∆, for a system of size L = 10946. Vertical dashed lines
quasiperiodic approximants (L ≃ 1.2×105 ). The curves range mark the broadening values analyzed in detail, corresponding
from the most periodic (blue) to the most quasiperiodic (ma- to ∼1%, 5%, and 25% of states effectively contributing to the
genta) case. Vertical dashed lines mark the scale correspond- LDOS. (c) Multifractal exponents τq for representative broad-
ing to each unit cell. The slopes of the linear regions yield ening values η/∆ ∼ 102 , 104 , and 106 . (c) Corresponding sin-
the multifractal exponent τq . Inset: same analysis for ener- gularity spectra f (α), showing the crossover from narrow to
gies in the extended narrow bands, where all curves collapse broad multifractal behavior as the energy resolution increases
with unit slope, consistent with Bloch-like behavior. (i.e., as η decreases).

All multifractal quantities of interest can be extracted A natural question concerns the robustness of mul-
through a scaling analysis of suitable functions with re- tifractality against energy broadening when computing
spect to λ, as shown in Eqs. (4) and (8). In practice, this the LDOS, a particularly relevant issue in STM exper-
involves computing the partition function and entropy, iments, where the energy resolution depends greatly on
analyzing their scaling under coarse-graining, and deter- the temperature and the specific experimental appara-
mining the corresponding exponents. Fig. 2 illustrates tus. We investigate how both the multifractal exponent
this procedure for the LDOS of our model, showing a and the singularity spectrum of the LDOS evolve with in-
log–log plot of Zq=2 versus λ. The slope of each curve creasing energy broadening. Our system features a frac-
characterizes the LDOS behavior across length scales. A tal energy spectrum, characteristic of one-dimensional
constant slope indicates power-law, scale-invariant be- quasiperiodic models, with a Cantor-like structure. We
havior. At coarse resolution (large λ), the LDOS ap- define the reference energy scale ∆ as the mean level spac-
pears extended, with slope approaching 1. At finer scales ing of the smallest finite-size miniband within the critical
 5

narrow band. This narrow band splits hierarchically into might be overlooked in standard analysis approaches.
minibands and sub-minibands, up to the limit imposed The authors acknowledge FCT-Portugal through
by the finite system size. All eigenstates and eigenvalues Grant No. UIDB/04650/2020 is acknowledged. N.S. ac-
were obtained via exact diagonalization. knowledges support from FCT-Portugal through Grant
As shown in Fig. 3(a), the energy spectrum exhibits No. 2024.00747.BD. R.O acknowledges support from
a clear fractal hierarchy, where the characteristic energy FCT-Portugal through Grant No. 2023.01313.BD.
scale ∆ marks the smallest miniband mean level spac-
ing. Fig. 3(b) displays the multifractal exponent τq=2 in-
creasing with the LDOS broadening η, exhibiting several
plateaus. The jumps between plateaus correspond to the ∗
Gaussian broadening crossing the energy gaps separating These authors contributed equally to this work.
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