MODULE-3

Road Safety In Transport Planning And Geometric Design: Vehicle And Human Characteristics, Road
Design And Safety Elements, Redesigning Junctions, Cross Section Improvements, Traffic Control,
Traffic Calming Measures, Road Safety Furniture.

1. Explain how human characteristics such as perception-reaction time and visual acuity affect road
safety and influence the design of road facilities.
Human characteristics, particularly perception-reaction time and visual acuity, play a critical role in
road safety and significantly influence the design and operation of road facilities. Understanding these
human limitations is essential in engineering safe and efficient transportation systems.
Perception-Reaction Time: Perception-reaction time is the interval between a driver perceiving a
hazard and initiating a response. This response could be braking, steering, or accelerating, depending
on the situation. The standard perception reaction time used in road design is typically 2.5 seconds, as
recommended by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO),
although this can vary depending on the driver’s age, experience, fatigue level, and level of distraction.
This time directly affects the stopping sight distance (SSD) — the minimum distance required for a
driver to perceive a hazard and bring the vehicle to a complete stop. Roads, intersections, and
pedestrian crossings are designed considering this distance to ensure drivers have enough time and
space to react safely. For example, longer SSDs are provided on high-speed roads to account for the
increased distance a vehicle travels during the reaction phase and braking. Perception-reaction time
also influences the design of traffic signals. The duration of yellow lights at intersections is calculated
partly based on how long it takes for drivers to perceive the signal change and decide whether to stop
or proceed through the intersection. Insufficient yellow time can result in red-light running or sudden
stops, increasing the risk of crashes.
Visual Acuity: Visual acuity refers to the clarity or sharpness of vision and is crucial for recognizing road
signs, detecting hazards, and navigating safely. As many driving tasks rely heavily on vision, reduced
visual acuity — due to aging, glare, low lighting, or weather conditions — can increase the risk of
accidents. To accommodate varying levels of visual acuity among drivers, road signs are designed with
large, high-contrast letters and symbols to ensure readability from a distance. Reflective materials and
proper lighting are used to enhance visibility at night. Road markings are similarly designed to be easily
visible and understandable even at high speeds or in adverse conditions. The layout of road facilities
also considers visual perception. Horizontal and vertical alignment of roads must ensure that curves,
hills, and obstacles do not impair sight distance. Adequate sight triangles at intersections allow drivers
to see cross traffic and make safe turning decisions.
Incorporating human factors such as perception-reaction time and visual acuity into the design
of road facilities is vital for enhancing safety and reducing crashes. By recognizing that drivers have
physical and cognitive limitations, engineers can develop road systems that compensate for these
limitations through thoughtful design. This human cantered approach leads to better visibility, more
predictable traffic flow, and safer decision-making environments for all road users. Ultimately,
understanding and accounting for these human characteristics create roads that are not only efficient
but also forgiving of human error.
2. Discuss the impact of vehicle characteristics such as braking distance, acceleration, and turning radius
on geometric road design for safety.

Vehicle characteristics such as braking distance, acceleration, and turning radius have a significant
influence on the geometric design of roads. These characteristics determine how vehicles behave
under different driving conditions and, therefore, play a critical role in ensuring safety, comfort, and
efficiency for all road users. Road designers must account for these factors to create roadways that
accommodate a wide range of vehicle types and operating conditions.
Braking Distance: Braking distance is the distance a vehicle travels from the moment the brakes are
applied until it comes to a complete stop. It depends on several factors, including vehicle speed,
weight, brake system efficiency, tire condition, and road surface. In geometric design, braking distance
is a major component of the stopping sight distance (SSD), which is the total distance needed for a
driver to perceive a hazard, react, and stop safely. To ensure safety, SSD is used to determine the
minimum required sight distance on curves, at intersections, and over hills. Longer braking distances
are required at higher speeds, so highways and rural roads designed for faster travel must include
longer sight distances and flatter curves. Additionally, surface materials, drainage, and maintenance
must support adequate tire-road friction to allow safe braking under various weather conditions.
Acceleration: Vehicle acceleration impacts how quickly a vehicle can increase its speed, which is
especially important when merging, overtaking, or entering traffic streams. Different vehicles
accelerate at different rates; for instance, heavy trucks accelerate more slowly than passenger cars. In
geometric design, acceleration is considered when determining the length of acceleration lanes,
climbing lanes, and passing zones. For example, on highways, entrance ramps are designed with
acceleration lanes long enough to allow vehicles to reach highway speeds before merging. In hilly
terrain, additional climbing lanes may be provided for heavy vehicles that cannot maintain normal
speeds due to reduced acceleration capacity. Ensuring adequate space for acceleration reduces speed
differentials between vehicles, which enhances safety and improves traffic flow. Turning Radius:
Turning radius is the smallest circular turn a vehicle can make and is determined by the vehicle's
wheelbase and steering geometry. Larger vehicles, such as buses and trucks, require wider turning
radii than smaller cars.
Geometric road design must accommodate the turning needs of the largest expected vehicles,
known as design vehicles. This consideration affects the design of intersections, roundabouts, turning
lanes, and parking facilities. For instance, wider curb radii at intersections are needed to allow trucks
to turn without encroaching on adjacent lanes or mounting sidewalks. Inadequate turning space can
lead to vehicle conflicts, damage to infrastructure, or collisions with pedestrians and other vehicles.
Vehicle characteristics such as braking distance, acceleration, and turning radius are fundamental in
shaping safe and functional roadways. By integrating these factors into geometric design, engineers
ensure that roads accommodate the physical performance limits of vehicles, support predictable
driver behaviour, and reduce the risk of crashes. A well-designed road system that considers these
vehicle dynamics enhances overall traffic safety, efficiency, and user confidence across diverse driving
environments.
3. What are the critical geometric design elements that directly influence road safety? How can poor
geometric design lead to an increased risk of accidents?

Geometric design refers to the physical layout of road elements such as alignment, cross-
section, sight distance, and intersections. These design elements directly influence the safety,
efficiency, and comfort of road users. When properly designed, they reduce conflict points, improve
visibility, and accommodate a wide range of vehicle and driver characteristics. However, poor
geometric design can lead to confusion, misjudgement, and ultimately, a higher risk of accidents.
Critical Geometric Design Elements Influencing Road Safety:
1. Horizontal and Vertical Alignment: The alignment of a road includes curves (horizontal) and slopes
(vertical). Gentle curves and gradual gradients provide better control and visibility for drivers. Sharp
curves or sudden elevation changes can reduce sight distance and increase the likelihood of vehicles
leaving the roadway, especially at high speeds or in poor weather conditions.
2. Sight Distance: Sight distance is the length of road visible to the driver. Adequate stopping sight
distance (SSD) and decision sight distance must be provided so that drivers can detect hazards in time
to react safely. Sight distance is especially important at intersections, curves, and pedestrian crossings.
Insufficient visibility leads to delayed reactions and potential collisions.
3. Lane Width and Shoulder Design: Appropriate Lane widths improve vehicle stability and reduce
side-swipe accidents. Wider shoulders provide recovery space for errant vehicles and safe zones for
disabled vehicles or emergency stops. Narrow lanes or inadequate shoulders can cause vehicles to drift
out of their lanes or off the road, particularly under high traffic volumes or at higher speeds.
4. Intersection Design: Intersections are among the most complex and high-risk parts of road
networks. Good intersection design includes proper alignment, adequate turning radii, clear signage,
and signal control. Roundabouts, for instance, reduce conflict points compared to traditional four-way
intersections and help lower crash severity. Poorly designed intersections can lead to confusion,
increased conflict points, and high-speed crashes.
5. Cross Slopes and Drainage: Cross slopes help drain water off the pavement to prevent hydroplaning.
Flat or improperly drained surfaces increase the risk of skidding, especially during rain. Proper drainage
design ensures safe vehicle handling and maintains pavement integrity.
6. Roadside Design and Clear Zones: Safe roads include recovery areas or “clear zones” free of fixed
objects. Barriers, signage, and landscaping should be placed beyond these zones or designed to
minimize harm if struck. Poor roadside design increases the severity of run-off-road crashes.
Consequences of Poor Geometric Design: Poor geometric design leads to several safety issues. It can
confuse drivers, reduce decision-making time, and increase the likelihood of high-speed crashes. For
example, a curve that is too sharp without warning or banking may cause vehicles to lose control.
Inadequate sight distance at intersections can result in collisions due to unseen cross traffic. Misaligned
intersections or abrupt lane merges can cause rear-end or side-impact crashes. Poor drainage and
shoulder design increase the likelihood of rollover accidents or hydroplaning.
Critical geometric design elements—such as alignment, sight distance, lane and shoulder
width, and intersection layout—are essential for safe road operation. When these elements are poorly
designed or neglected, the risk of crashes increases significantly. Therefore, integrating safety-focused
geometric principles is key to developing road systems that protect all users.
4. Describe common safety issues at intersections. How can redesigning junctions—such as converting
them to roundabouts or signalized intersections—improve safety performance?
Intersections are critical points in any road network where two or more roads meet. Due to
the convergence of different traffic movements—turning, crossing, and merging—intersections are
often hotspots for traffic conflicts and accidents. A significant proportion of road crashes, especially
those resulting in injury or fatality, occur at intersections. Understanding the common safety issues
and exploring how design changes can improve safety is essential for effective traffic management.
Common Safety Issues at Intersections:
1. High Number of Conflict Points: Traditional intersections, particularly four-way ones, have
numerous potential conflict points. These include crossing conflicts, merging conflicts, and diverging
conflicts. The more conflict points there are, the higher the likelihood of crashes, particularly side-
impact and right-angle (T-bone) collisions, which are often severe.
2. Poor Visibility and Sight Distance: Inadequate visibility due to poor geometric design, vegetation,
or obstructions can prevent drivers from seeing oncoming traffic or pedestrians in time to react. This
is especially dangerous at uncontrolled or poorly marked intersections.
3. Failure to Yield or Misjudgement of Gaps: Drivers often misjudge the speed or distance of oncoming
vehicles or fail to yield the right-of-way. This is common in intersections with stop or yield signs,
particularly in rural or suburban areas where speeds are higher.
4. Red-Light Running: At signalized intersections, some drivers intentionally or unintentionally run red
lights. This behavior increases the likelihood of high-speed, angle collisions, which often result in
serious injuries.
5. Left-Turn and Pedestrian Conflicts: Left-turning vehicles frequently conflict with oncoming traffic or
pedestrians crossing the road. Without dedicated turn lanes or protected turn signals, these
movements can be dangerous and confusing.
Improving Safety through Junction Redesign: Redesigning intersections can greatly enhance safety by
reducing conflict points, simplifying decision-making, and encouraging safer vehicle speeds. Two
common redesign approaches are converting traditional intersections into roundabouts or signalized
intersections.
 Roundabouts: Roundabouts improve safety performance by reducing vehicle speeds and
eliminating many severe conflict points. Unlike traditional intersections, roundabouts operate
on yield control and continuous movement, which leads to:
 Fewer conflict points: A typical four-way intersection has 32 vehicle-to-vehicle conflict
points, while a roundabout has only 8.
 Reduced crash severity: The curved design forces drivers to slow down, significantly
reducing the risk and severity of crashes.
 Improved pedestrian safety: Pedestrian crossings are typically set back from the
roundabout, and slower vehicle speeds enhance safety.
 Better traffic flow: Continuous movement reduces delays and congestion, lowering the
chances of rear-end collisions.
 Signalized Intersections: When roundabouts are not feasible due to space constraints or
high pedestrian volumes, signalized intersections offer safety improvements through:
 Controlled movements: Traffic signals coordinate vehicle and pedestrian movements,
reducing the likelihood of simultaneous conflicts.
 Protected turning phases: Dedicated signals for left or right turns can separate conflicting
movements.
 Improved accessibility: Signals enhance crossing safety for pedestrians and cyclists,
especially in urban areas. Intersections are high-risk areas in the road system due to their
complexity and potential for conflict. Common safety issues include poor visibility, failure to
yield, and red-light running. By redesigning intersections as roundabouts or properly signalized
junctions, many of these issues can be mitigated. Such improvements reduce conflict points,
 manage vehicle speeds, and create a more predictable and safer environment for all road
users.

5. What are cross section elements of a roadway? Discuss how modifications to shoulder width, median
barriers, and lane widths can enhance road safety.
The cross section of a roadway refers to the vertical slice of the road, showing all the
components from one side to the other. It includes elements such as travel lanes, shoulders, medians,
curbs, sidewalks, and drainage features. These components are critical in defining the road’s structure,
functionality, and safety. Modifications to specific cross-section elements—particularly shoulder width,
median barriers, and lane widths—can significantly enhance road safety for all users, including drivers,
cyclists, and pedestrians.
Key Cross Section Elements:
 Travel Lanes: These are the primary lanes for vehicle movement. Their width affects vehicle
stability, comfort, and speed.
 Shoulders: Located adjacent to the travel lanes, shoulders provide space for emergency
stops, breakdowns, and recovery.
 Medians: The central part of a divided highway, separating opposing traffic flows, which may
include barriers or be left open.
 Sidewalks and Bikeways: For non-motorized users, ensuring pedestrian and cyclist safety.
 Curbs, Gutters, and Drainage: Manage surface water and help define the road edge.
 Barriers and Guardrails: Provide protection in areas with steep slopes, drop-offs, or high-
speed traffic.

Enhancing Safety Through Shoulder Width:

Adequate shoulder width plays a critical role in road safety:
 Emergency Use: Shoulders allow vehicles to pull over safely in emergencies, reducing the
risk of rear-end collisions.
 Vehicle Recovery: Drivers who drift off the road have space to correct their path without
crashing.  Maintenance and Enforcement: Shoulders provide space for maintenance work
and law enforcement without disrupting traffic.
 Pedestrian and Cyclist Buffer: On rural or suburban roads, wide shoulders serve as a safe
space for non motorized users.
 Narrow or absent shoulders increase crash risk, especially on high-speed roads or during
adverse weather conditions.
Improving Safety with Median Barriers
Median barriers are safety features that separate traffic moving in opposite directions:
Prevent Head-On Collisions: One of their most important functions is to stop vehicles from
crossing into oncoming lanes during loss-of-control incidents.
Crash Severity Reduction: Barriers absorb impact energy and redirect vehicles back into their
lanes, reducing injury severity. Access Control: On busy roads, barriers limit dangerous mid-
block turns and encourage safer U-turns at designated points. Depending on road type and
speed, designers may use concrete barriers, cable barriers, or guardrails. Well-designed
medians with appropriate barriers greatly reduce fatal crash rates.
Optimizing Lane Widths for Safety:
Lane width directly affects driver behavior and crash risk:
Wider Lanes (3.5m): Provide more room for larger vehicles and reduce the likelihood of side-
swipe crashes, especially on high-speed roads.
Narrower Lanes (2.7–3.0m): Used in urban environments to calm traffic and reduce speeding,
often creating space for bike lanes or wider sidewalks. Overly wide lanes can lead to higher
driving speeds, increasing crash severity. On the other hand, very narrow lanes may increase
vehicle encroachment risks if not carefully applied.
 Cross section elements are foundational to safe and efficient road design. By
optimizing shoulder width, median barriers, and lane widths, engineers can significantly
reduce crash risks, improve vehicle control, and enhance safety for all road users. These
improvements support a safer, more forgiving road environment, particularly in high-risk or
high traffic areas.
6. How do traffic control devices such as signs, signals, and markings contribute to road safety?
Provide examples of how improper or absent control can lead to accidents.
Traffic control devices—signs, signals, and pavement markings—are essential tools in the
management of roadway behavior. They communicate vital information to road users, regulate
traffic flow, and enhance overall safety. These devices guide drivers, inform them of regulations or
hazards, and help organize the interaction between vehicles, cyclists, and pedestrians. When
properly placed and maintained, they significantly reduce confusion, conflict, and crashes.
Conversely, missing or poorly implemented traffic control devices can result in misjudgment,
violations, and serious accidents.
Role of Signs in Road Safety: Traffic signs provide regulatory, warning, and guidance information.
Examples include stop signs, speed limit signs, and directional signs.
 Regulatory signs (e.g., STOP, YIELD, NO U-TURN) inform drivers of laws and rules they must
obey. A missing or obscured stop sign at an intersection can lead to dangerous right-angle
collisions.
 Warning signs (e.g., curve ahead, pedestrian crossing) alert drivers to potential hazards.
Without adequate warning, drivers may approach curves too fast or fail to yield to pedestrians.
 Guide signs help with navigation by showing directions, distances, or locations. Misleading
or absent signage can cause sudden lane changes or turns, increasing crash risk.
Example: At an uncontrolled intersection where a STOP sign was knocked down and not replaced
promptly, a vehicle may unknowingly enter a high-speed roadway without yielding, resulting in a T-
bone collision.
Importance of Traffic Signals: Traffic signals control the flow of vehicles and pedestrians at
intersections, especially in high-volume or complex locations.
 Signals reduce conflicts by assigning right-of-way in a predictable, timed sequence.
 They improve pedestrian safety by providing dedicated crossing phases.
 Signal timing (e.g., yellow light duration, green time allocation) must match traffic conditions
to avoid unsafe behaviours like red-light running.
Example: If a traffic light has an unusually short yellow phase, drivers approaching at speed
may be caught in the "dilemma zone"—too close to stop safely but too far to pass through
before red. This confusion often results in sudden braking or red-light running, leading to rear-
end or side-impact crashes.
Function of Pavement Markings: Road markings include lane lines, crosswalks, arrows, and edge lines.
They serve to guide drivers and manage traffic behaviour.
 Centerlines and lane dividers help maintain proper lane discipline.
 Crosswalks and stop lines guide vehicles where to stop and give pedestrians safe paths to
cross.
 Arrows and wording on the pavement assist in directing turns and lane usage.
Example: Faded lane markings on a multi-lane road can confuse drivers, especially at night or in poor
weather, leading to lane drifting or side-swipe collisions. Similarly, an unmarked pedestrian crossing
near a school zone puts pedestrians at high risk, as drivers may not anticipate the need to yield.
Traffic control devices are crucial for ensuring orderly, predictable, and safe road use. They
inform, regulate, and warn road users, reducing ambiguity and preventing dangerous behaviours.
When traffic signs, signals, or markings are missing, unclear, or improperly placed, the risk of crashes
increases substantially. Therefore, proper design, visibility, maintenance, and placement of traffic
control devices are essential components of a safe and efficient road system.
7. Describe at least three traffic calming measures and explain their role in reducing traffic speed and
enhancing pedestrian safety.
Traffic calming measures are physical or visual road design strategies intended to slow down vehicle
speeds, reduce traffic volumes, and enhance safety for all road users, especially pedestrians and
cyclists. These measures are typically used in residential neighbourhoods, urban centers, or areas with
high pedestrian activity. By discouraging speeding and creating a more predictable traffic environment,
traffic calming improves safety and encourages more active modes of transport such as walking and
cycling. Three widely used traffic calming measures are speed humps, chicanes, and raised pedestrian
crossings.
1. Speed Humps and Speed Tables: Speed humps are gently raised areas across the width of a
roadway that force vehicles to reduce speed. They are typically 3 to 4 inches high and 10 to 14
feet long. Speed tables are a variation of speed humps but have a longer flat top, allowing for a
smoother ride for larger vehicles like buses while still reducing speed.
Role in Safety:
Speed reduction: Speed humps physically require drivers to slow down to avoid discomfort or
vehicle damage.
Pedestrian safety: Reduced vehicle speeds decrease stopping distances and improve reaction
time, which is crucial in residential or school zones.
Crash severity: Lower speeds lead to less severe injuries in the event of a collision, particularly for
vulnerable road users. Example: In school zones, speed humps effectively calm traffic during
arrival and dismissal times, making the environment safer for children crossing the road.
2. Chicanes and Road Narrowing: Chicanes are a series of alternating curb extensions or landscaped
islands that create a winding path, forcing drivers to steer left and right, thereby reducing speed.
Similarly, road narrowing or lane reductions visually and physically reduce the road width,
prompting drivers to slow down.
Role in Safety:
Visual cues: These designs give the impression of a narrower roadway, which psychologically
encourages slower driving.
Improved driver attentiveness: Navigating through a chicane requires greater concentration,
reducing distractions.
More space for pedestrians: Road narrowing allows for wider sidewalks, bicycle lanes, or planting
strips, creating a buffer between pedestrians and vehicles.
Example: Chicanes in residential streets help slow down cut-through traffic and create a more
pedestrian-friendly environment.
3. Raised Pedestrian Crossings: A raised pedestrian crossing is essentially a crosswalk elevated to
the level of the sidewalk, often functioning as both a crosswalk and a speed table.
Role in Safety:
Visibility: Pedestrians are more visible to drivers, reducing the likelihood of crashes.
Priority: The design signals to drivers that pedestrian movement is prioritized, reinforcing yielding
behaviour.
Speed control: As vehicles must ascend and descend the crossing, they naturally slow down when
approaching.
Example: Near shopping centres or urban plazas, raised crossings make it safer for large volumes
of foot traffic to cross the road.
Traffic calming measures like speed humps, chicanes, and raised pedestrian crossings are
effective tools for creating safer, slower-speed environments. They reduce crash risk, improve
pedestrian visibility, and encourage more responsible driving behaviour. By prioritizing safety over
vehicle speed, these interventions contribute to more liveable, walkable communities.
8. What is Access Management in the context of road design? How does it contribute to improved safety
and traffic efficiency?

Access management is a strategic approach in road design and planning that controls the
location, design, and frequency of access points—such as driveways, intersections, and median
openings—along a roadway. The primary goal is to balance property access with the safe and efficient
movement of traffic. By reducing conflict points and regulating vehicle movements, access
management significantly enhances both road safety and operational efficiency.
Key Principles of Access Management: Access management involves several coordinated techniques,
including:
1. Limiting the number of driveways and entrances along major roads.
2. Spacing intersections and driveways appropriately to reduce traffic conflicts.
3. Installing raised medians to control left-turn and U-turn movements.
4. Providing dedicated turning lanes to separate slower-turning vehicles from through traffic.
5. Encouraging shared access points between adjacent properties. These principles aim to
minimize the number and severity of conflict points—locations where traffic paths cross,
merge, or diverge.
Contribution to Road Safety:
1. Reduction in Crash Frequency and Severity: Uncontrolled and frequent access points—such
as multiple driveways or closely spaced intersections—create numerous opportunities for
collisions, especially rear-end, angle, and side-swipe crashes. Access management reduces
these conflict points, thereby decreasing crash potential. For example, research has shown
that crash rates are significantly higher on roadways with numerous uncontrolled access
points. By consolidating access and installing raised medians to prevent dangerous left turns,
accident rates can be reduced by up to 40–50% in some cases.
2. Improved Turning Safety: Left-turn and crossing maneuvers are particularly risky. Raised
medians and dedicated left-turn lanes help manage these movements safely by providing
protected zones and limiting unpredictable actions.
3. Enhanced Pedestrian and Cyclist Safety: Fewer driveways and median openings mean fewer
locations where vehicles cross sidewalks or bike lanes, reducing the risk to non-motorized
users. Controlled access also allows for better placement of pedestrian crossings and reduces
vehicle encroachment on walkways.
Contribution to Traffic Efficiency:
1. Smoother Traffic Flow: Reducing the number of interruptions—such as turning vehicles
entering and exiting traffic
—maintains a steadier flow and reduces stop-and-go conditions. This improves travel
times and reduces driver frustration.
2. Increased Road Capacity: Well-managed access allows roads to handle higher volumes of
traffic without requiring costly expansions. By maintaining consistent speeds and reducing the
need for braking and acceleration, capacity is effectively increased.
3. Reduced Delay at Intersections: With fewer conflict points and better spacing, intersections
operate more efficiently. Drivers experience less delay, especially during peak hours, when
traffic congestion and turning conflicts typically worsen.
Access management is a vital component of modern road design that prioritizes safety
and efficiency. By strategically limiting and designing access points, traffic engineers can
reduce crashes, improve flow, and create safer environments for all road users. Especially in
growing urban areas or along busy corridors, implementing access management practices is
key to achieving sustainable and safe transportation systems.
9. What is road safety furniture? Discuss the role of guardrails, crash cushions, and bollards in mitigating
the severity of crashes.
Road safety furniture refers to a set of physical infrastructure elements installed along or within the
road environment to enhance the safety of road users. These features include items such as road signs,
barriers, lighting, bollards, crash cushions, and guardrails. While not all road safety furniture is
designed to prevent crashes, many components play a vital role in reducing the severity of accidents
when they occur. This is particularly important in high-speed or high-risk areas where collisions can
result in serious injury or death.
Among the most critical components of road safety furniture are guardrails, crash cushions,
and bollards. These elements are designed specifically to manage the impact of crashes, protect
vulnerable users, and minimize damage to both vehicles and roadside structures.
1. Guardrails: Guardrails, also known as safety barriers or crash barriers, are longitudinal barriers
placed along road edges, medians, or dangerous curves. They are designed to prevent vehicles from
leaving the roadway and colliding with fixed objects or entering hazardous terrain such as steep slopes,
ditches, or water bodies.
Role in Crash Mitigation:
Redirection of Vehicles: When a vehicle strikes a guardrail, the barrier absorbs part of the impact
energy and redirects the vehicle back onto the road, reducing the chance of rollover or severe off-road
collisions.
Minimizing Injury Severity: Guardrails are designed to deform under impact in a controlled manner,
which helps reduce the force experienced by vehicle occupants.
Protection from Roadside Hazards: They provide a physical shield against immovable obstacles like
bridge piers, poles, or retaining walls. Guardrails are especially vital on highways, elevated roads, and
mountainous terrains where the risk of vehicles leaving the road is high.
2. Crash Cushions: Crash cushions, or impact attenuators, are energy-absorbing devices installed in
front of fixed objects or at locations where vehicles might accidentally exit the travel lane, such as at
highway off-ramps or the ends of medians.
Role in Crash Mitigation:
Absorption of Kinetic Energy: Crash cushions are built to compress or deform on impact, absorbing
the kinetic energy of the vehicle and slowing it down gradually, thereby reducing the severity of injury.
Shielding Hazardous Obstacles: They are often used to protect rigid structures like concrete barriers,
toll booths, or exit gore areas from direct vehicle collisions.
Versatility: Some designs can redirect a vehicle safely away from the hazard, depending on the angle
and location of impact.
These systems are essential in high-speed areas where crashes into fixed objects could otherwise result
in fatal injuries.
3. Bollards: Bollards are short, sturdy vertical posts made from materials such as steel, concrete, or
reinforced plastic. They are commonly used in urban areas to separate pedestrian zones from vehicular
traffic.
Role in Crash Mitigation:
Pedestrian Protection: Bollards prevent vehicles from accidentally or deliberately entering sidewalks,
plazas, or building entrances
Traffic Control: They help restrict vehicle access to sensitive areas and guide traffic flow.
Crash Resistance: Some bollards are impact-rated and can stop or slow down vehicles, reducing the
potential damage to nearby structures and people.
They are particularly useful in crowded public spaces, near storefronts, and at transit stations.
Road safety furniture such as guardrails, crash cushions, and bollards plays a critical role in
enhancing road safety. While they may not always prevent crashes, they significantly reduce their
severity by absorbing impact energy, redirecting vehicles, and protecting vulnerable road users.
Incorporating these elements into road design is essential for creating a safe and resilient
transportation system.
10 . How can road safety principles be integrated into the early stages of transport planning? Explain the
benefits of a proactive safety approach during the planning phase.
Integrating road safety principles into the early stages of transport planning is essential for
creating a transportation system that prioritizes the well-being of all users. This proactive approach ensures
that safety is a foundational element in decision-making, rather than an afterthought addressed only after
crashes occur. By embedding safety into transport planning from the outset, planners and engineers can
design road networks that inherently reduce risk, accommodate all users, and support long-term
sustainability.
Integration of Safety Principles in Early Planning:
1. Safety-Centric Policy and Vision: Transport planning should begin with a clear policy commitment to
safety, such as adopting a Vision Zero or Safe System approach. These frameworks emphasize that no loss
of life is acceptable and that the transport system must be designed to accommodate human error without
resulting in serious injury or death.
2. Data-Driven Analysis: Early planning should involve the collection and analysis of crash data, traffic
volumes, land use, and vulnerable road user patterns. Identifying high-risk locations and trends allows
planners to anticipate safety issues and prioritize interventions before projects reach the design stage.
3. Safety Impact Assessments: Conducting Road Safety Impact Assessments (RSIAs) during transport
master planning helps evaluate how new projects, policies, or land developments may influence safety
outcomes. These assessments can identify potential hazards and propose design modifications early,
avoiding costly retrofits later.
4. Inclusive Design for All Users: Early planning must consider the needs of all road users—drivers,
pedestrians, cyclists, and public transport users. Safe connectivity, dedicated facilities for non-motorized
users, and accessible infrastructure must be integrated from the beginning to promote equity and safety.
5. Integration with Land Use Planning: Coordinating transport planning with land use helps manage
demand and reduce exposure to high-risk situations. For example, placing schools and commercial areas
away from high-speed corridors can protect vulnerable users and reduce traffic conflicts.

Benefits of a Proactive Safety Approach:

1. Crash Prevention and Risk Reduction: Addressing safety in the planning stage can prevent the creation
of dangerous environments. By identifying risks in advance, planners can avoid designs that encourage
speeding, limit visibility, or create complex intersections that confuse drivers.
2. Cost Savings and Efficiency: It is far more cost-effective to incorporate safety features at the planning
and design phase than to implement remedial measures later. A proactive approach reduces long-term
maintenance costs and the economic burden of crashes on society.
3. Public Health and Quality of Life: Safer roads lead to fewer injuries and fatalities, improving public health
outcomes. Additionally, roads designed with safety in mind often promote walking and cycling, contributing
to healthier, more active communities.
4. Sustainability and Long-Term Resilience: Proactive planning supports sustainable transport by
encouraging safe use of public transit, walking, and cycling. It also increases the resilience of transport
systems in adapting to future needs and technologies.
Integrating road safety principles into the early stages of transport planning is critical for
building a safer, more sustainable transport network. A proactive approach prevents crashes, reduces costs,
protects vulnerable users, and improves overall quality of life. It ensures that safety is not just a response
to tragedy, but a core value in shaping future mobility.