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Modern Physics
with Modern Computational Methods
Modern Physics
with Modern Computational Methods

Third Edition

John Morrison
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
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Dedication

About the dedication

In a fractured world consisting of rich and poor countries, physics has tried with varying degrees of success to reach out to
the entire world. Graduate programs in the United States and Europe have for many years offered their graduate teaching
assistantships to students from poorer countries. A graduate teaching assistantship is a way that a student from a poorer
country can get an advanced degree while paying for his/her own education. In the beginning graduate recruitment was
done almost exclusively by mail. A big pile of applications was processed by a committee within the science departments
with the members of the committees having no contact or understanding of the countries from which the students came.
More recently faculty members like myself have traveled to Latin America, the Middle East, and India. The scientists
and mathematicians I know who have traveled to these parts of the world have been surprised and felt privileged to teach
students who are so committed to their studies. Being forced to live on one’s own resources can strengthen the mind.
The graduate students are a strength of our department at University of Louisville. Within recent years, many of our best
graduate students have come from central Russia, from Palestine, and from Bengal in India. These students were recruited
by faculty members who have themselves taught in those parts of the world. To what I have said previously, I should
mention the International Centre of Theoretical Physics founded by Abdus Salam in Trieste, Italy which hosts students in
Physics, Mathematics and related topics from the developing countries for a one-year Master course with the possibility of
continuing for a PhD degree.

Dedication
This book is dedicated to the physics students from Latin America, Africa, the Middle East, and Asia, to their teachers, to
the international scientists who have taught there, and to the International Centre of Theoretical Physics in Trieste, Italy and
universities in England, Amsterdam, and Denmark that have offered advance courses to students from developing countries
for many years. I am presently working together with my Latin American students and colleagues to prepare a version of
this modern physics book in the Spanish language.

John C. Morrison
University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, United States
Birzeit University, Ramallah, Palestine
University of Costa Rica, San Jose, Costa Rica

v
Contents

Preface xi 3.5.1 Wave packets and the uncertainty

Introduction xiii principle 65
3.5.2 Average value of the momentum and
1. The wave-particle duality the energy 68
Suggestion for further reading 76
1.1 The particle model of light 1 Basic equations 76
1.1.1 The photoelectric effect 1 Summary 78
1.1.2 The absorption and emission of light Questions 78
by atoms 4 Problems 79
1.1.3 The Compton effect 11
1.2 The wave model of radiation and matter 12 4. The hydrogen atom
1.2.1 X-ray scattering 12
1.2.2 Electron waves 13 4.1 The Gross structure of hydrogen 81
Suggestions for further reading 15 4.1.1 The Schrödinger equation in three
Basic equations 15 dimensions 81
Summary 16 4.1.2 The energy levels of hydrogen 82
Questions 16 4.1.3 The wave functions of hydrogen 84
4.1.4 Probabilities and average values in
Problems 17
three dimensions 89
4.1.5 The intrinsic spin of the electron 95
2. The Schrödinger wave equation 4.2 Radiative transitions 95
2.1 The wave equation 19 4.2.1 The Einstein A and B coefficients 96
4.2.2 Transition probabilities 97
2.2 Probabilities and average values 23
4.2.3 Selection rules 100
2.3 The finite potential well 26
4.3 The fine structure of hydrogen 102
2.4 The simple harmonic oscillator 28
4.3.1 The magnetic moment of the electron 102
2.5 Time evolution of the wave function 30
4.3.2 The Stern-Gerlach experiment 105
Suggestion for further reading 33 4.3.3 The spin of the electron 105
Basic equations 33 4.3.4 The addition of angular momentum 107
Summary 34 4.3.5 ∗ The fine structure 108
Questions 35 4.3.6 ∗ The Zeeman effect 109
Problems 35 Suggestion for further reading 111
Basic equations 111
3. Operators and waves Summary 113
Questions 113
3.1 Observables, operators, and eigenvalues 37 Problems 114
3.2 The finite well and harmonic oscillator
using finite differences 40
3.3 The finite well and harmonic oscillator 5. Many-electron atoms
with spline collocation 47 5.1 The independent-particle model 117
3.4 Electron scattering 56 5.1.1 Antisymmetric wave functions and the
3.4.1 Scattering from a potential step 56 Pauli exclusion principle 118
3.4.2 Barrier penetration and tunneling 60 5.1.2 The central-field approximation 119
3.4.3 T -matrices 61 5.2 Shell structure and the periodic table 120
3.4.4 Scattering from more complex barriers 61 5.3 The LS term energies 122
3.5 The Heisenberg uncertainty principle 64 5.4 Configurations of two electrons 122

vii
viii Contents

5.4.1 Configurations of equivalent electrons 123 9. Electronic structure of solids

5.4.2 Configurations of two nonequivalent
9.1 The Bravais lattice 206
electrons 125
9.2 Additional crystal structures 210
5.5 The Hartree-Fock method 126
9.2.1 The diamond structure 210
5.5.1 The Hartree-Fock applet 127
9.2.2 The hexagonal close-packed structure 210
5.5.2 The size of atoms and the strength of
their interactions 131 9.2.3 The sodium chloride structure 211
5.6 Further developments in atomic theory 135
9.3 The reciprocal lattice 212
Suggestions for further reading 138
9.4 Lattice planes 215
Basic equations 138
9.5 Bloch’s theorem 220
9.6 Diffraction of electrons by an ideal crystal 224
Summary 138
9.7 The band gap 226
Questions 138
9.8 Classification of solids 227
Problems 139
9.8.1 The band picture 227
9.8.2 The bond picture 231
6. The emergence of masers and Suggestions for further reading 234
lasers Basic equations 235
6.1 Radiative transitions 141
Summary 236
6.2 Laser amplification 142
Questions 236
Problems 237
6.3 Laser cooling 146
6.4 ∗ Magneto-optical traps 147
Suggestions for further reading 150 10. Charge carriers in semiconductors
Basic equations 150 10.1 Density of charge carriers in
Summary 151 semiconductors 241
Questions 151 10.2 Doped crystals 244
Problems 151 10.3 A few simple devices 245
10.3.1 The p-n junction 245
7. Diatomic molecules 10.3.2 Solar cells 247
10.3.3 Bipolar transistors 248
7.1 The hydrogen molecular ion 153
10.3.4 Junction field-effect
7.2 The Hartree-Fock method 163 transistors (JFET) 249
7.3 Exoplanets 164 10.3.5 MOSFETs 250
References 166 Suggestions for further reading 250
Summary 167 Summary 251
Questions 168 Questions 251

8. Statistical physics 11. Semiconductor lasers

8.1 The nature of statistical laws 169 11.1 Motion of electrons in a crystal 253
8.2 An ideal gas 172 11.2 Band structure of semiconductors 255
8.3 Applications of Maxwell-Boltzmann 11.2.1 Conduction bands 255
statistics 174 11.2.2 Valence bands 256
8.3.1 Maxwell distribution of the speeds of 11.2.3 Optical transitions 256
gas particles 174 11.3 Heterostructures 258
8.3.2 Black body radiation 180 11.3.1 Properties of heterostructures 258
8.4 Entropy and the laws of thermodynamics 185 11.3.2 Experimental methods 259
8.4.1 The four laws of thermodynamics 187 11.3.3 Theoretical methods 260
8.5 A perfect quantum gas 189 11.4 Quantum wells 262
8.6 Bose-Einstein condensation 193 11.5 Quantum barriers 265
8.7 Free-electron theory of metals 194 11.5.1 Scattering of electrons by
Suggestions for further reading 199 potential barriers 265
Basic equations 199 11.5.2 Light waves 266
Summary 201 11.5.3 Reflection and transmission by an
Questions 201 interface 267
Problems 202 11.5.4 The Fabry-Perot laser 268
 Contents ix

11.6 Phenomenological description of diode 13.5.8 The parallel transport of a vector

lasers 270 along a curve 334
11.6.1 The rate equation 270 13.5.9 The curvature tensor 335
11.6.2 Well below threshold 272 13.5.10 Einstein’s field equations 335
11.6.3 The laser threshold 273 Suggestions for further reading 336
11.6.4 Above threshold 274 Basic equations 336
Suggestions for further reading 275 Summary 338
Basic equations 275 Questions 338
Summary 277 Problems 339
Questions 277
Problems 278
14. Particle physics
12. The special theory of relativity 14.1 Leptons and quarks 341
14.2 Conservation laws 348
12.1 Galilean transformations 279 14.2.1 Energy, momentum, and charge 348
12.2 The relative nature of simultaneity 282 14.2.2 Lepton number 348
12.3 Lorentz transformation 284 14.2.3 Baryon number 350
12.3.1 The transformation equations 284 14.2.4 Strangeness 351
12.3.2 Lorentz contraction 287 14.2.5 Charm, beauty, and truth 353
12.3.3 Time dilation 288 14.3 Spatial symmetries 354
12.3.4 The invariant space-time interval 291 14.3.1 Angular momentum of composite
12.3.5 Addition of velocities 291 systems 354
12.3.6 The Doppler effect 293 14.3.2 Parity 356
12.4 Space-time diagrams 295 14.4 Isospin and color 357
12.4.1 Particle motion 295 14.4.1 Isospin 358
12.4.2 Lorentz transformations 298 14.4.2 Color 363
12.4.3 The light cone 300 14.5 Feynman diagrams 364
12.5 Four-vectors 301 14.5.1 Electromagnetic interactions 365
Suggestions for further reading 305 14.5.2 Weak interactions 366
Basic equations 305 14.5.3 Strong interactions 368
Summary 307 14.6 The R(3) and SU (3) symmetry groups 369
Questions 307 14.6.1 The rotation group in three
Problems 308 dimensions 369
14.6.2 The SU (3) symmetry group 372
13. The relativistic wave equations and 14.6.3 The representations of SU (3) 375
14.7 ∗ Gauge invariance and the electroweak
general relativity theory 380
13.1 Momentum and energy 311 14.8 Spontaneous symmetry breaking and
13.2 Conservation of energy and momentum 314 the discovery of the Higgs 382
13.3 ∗ The Dirac theory of the electron 318 14.9 Supersymmetry 385
13.3.1 Review of the Schrödinger theory 318 14.9.1 Symmetries in physics 385
13.3.2 The Klein-Gordon equation 320 14.9.2 The Poincaré algebra 386
13.3.3 The Dirac equation 321 14.9.3 The supersymmetry algebra 387
13.3.4 Plane wave solutions of the Dirac Suggestions for further reading 388
equation 324 Basic equations 388
13.4 ∗ Field quantization 327 Summary 389
13.5 The general theory of relativity 329 Questions 389
13.5.1 The principle of equivalence 329 Problems 390
13.5.2 The path of a freely-falling body in
curvilinear coordinates 329
15. Nuclear physics
13.5.3 Relations between partial
λ
derivatives of gμν and μν 330 15.1 Properties of nuclei 393
13.5.4 A slow moving particle in a weak 15.1.1 Nuclear sizes 394
gravitational field 331 15.1.2 Binding energies 397
13.5.5 Vectors and tensors 332 15.1.3 The semiempirical mass formula 398
13.5.6 Transformation of the affine 15.2 Decay processes 401
connection 333 15.2.1 Alpha decay 402
13.5.7 Covariant differentiation 333 15.2.2 The β-stability valley 403
x Contents

15.2.3 Gamma decay 406 B. Atomic masses

15.2.4 Natural radioactivity 407
15.3 The nuclear shell model 408
15.3.1 Nuclear potential wells 408 C. Introduction to MATLAB®
15.3.2 Nucleon states 409
15.3.3 Magic numbers 411
15.3.4 The spin-orbit interaction 411 D. Solution of the oscillator equation
15.4 Excited states of nuclei 412
Suggestions for further reading 416
Basic equations 416 E. The average value of the
Summary 417 momentum
Questions 417
Problems 417
F. The Hartree-Fock applet
Index 421
G. Integrals that arise in statistical
Online appendices physics
A. Constants and conversion factors
Preface

This book presents the ideas that have shaped modern physics and provides an introduction to current research in the
different fields of physics. Intended as the text for a first course in modern physics following an introductory course in
physics with calculus, the book begins with a brief and focused account of experiments that led to the formulation of the
new quantum theory, while ensuing chapters go more deeply into the underlying physics.
This book helps prepare engineering students for the upper division courses on devices they will later take and provides
engineering students and physics majors an overview of contemporary physics as it is presently understood. The course on
modern physics is often the last course in physics most engineering students will ever take and the course occurs before the
specialty courses physics majors later take on the various fields of contemporary physics. For this reason, the book covers
a few topics that are ordinarily taught at a more advanced level. These subjects are included because they are relevant and
interesting. They would ordinarily be unavailable to engineering students and they give physics majors a good sense of
the fields of contemporary physics in which they may later specialize. Topics such as Bloch’s theorem, matrix methods for
calculating the scattering of electrons by complex barriers, and the relativistic Dirac equation broaden the background of
both engineering and physics majors. The books I have used to prepare later chapters of this book are just the books used
in upper-division courses in the various fields of contemporary physics.

This new third edition

This new edition has provided me the opportunity of presenting the elements of modern quantum theory in the way one
would approach computational problems today. Erwin Schrödinger worked in a time without modern computers or the
techniques of numerical linear algebra that have been developed in recent years. He began his treatment of the hydrogen
atom as we would today by separating the equation that has become associated with his name into an angular and a radial
equation but he then solved each of these equations by expanding the solution in an infinite series. The solution of the
angular equation for hydrogen leads to Legendre polynomials that are used in quantum chemistry even to this day, while
the solution of the radial equation lead to Laguerre polynomials known only by a comparatively fewer number of senior
physicists. The angular part of the wave function for hydrogen are products of Legendre polynomials and exponential func-
tions that are eigenfunctions of the z-component of the angular momentum. These functions called spherical harmonics,
are denoted by Ylml (θ, φ). The spherical harmonics for l ≤ 2 are given in Chapter 4 which is devoted to the hydrogen atom.
The radial part of the hydrogen wave functions are obtained in Chapter 4 by solving the radial equation numerically.
In this new edition we have converted the differential equations that arise into sets of linear equation or matrix equations
by making a finite difference approximation of the derivatives or by using the spline collocation method, and we have solved
the resulting sets of equations. MATLAB® programs are described for solving the eigenvalue equations for a particle in a
finite well and the simple harmonic oscillator and for solving the radial equation for hydrogen. The lowest-lying solutions
of these problems are plotted using MATLAB and the physical significance of these solutions are discussed.
The various fields of contemporary physics continue to develop, and I have attempted to conclude each of the later
chapters with a description of modern developments. The chapters on many-electron atomic atoms concludes with a de-
scription of accurate many-body calculations and the chapter on diatomic molecules concludes with a new section on recent
efforts to find life on exo-planets. Chapter 10 on charge carriers in semiconductors includes a new section on solar cells
that are essential for our finding alternatives to the burning of fossil fuels. The current energy consumption of the United
States could be supplied by solar power if farmers in Kansas converted just 4% of existing farmland into solar installations.
Chapter 14 on particle physics now concludes with a section on supersymmetry and Chapter 13 on relativity now concludes
with a section giving the essential elements of general relativity.

xi
xii Preface

Acknowledgments
For the new Third Edition, I would like to acknowledge the help of a number of leading scientists and engineers. I would like
to thank Shamus McNamara in the Electrical Engineering Department of University of Louisville for providing me with a
first draft of the new section on solar cells and working with me to adopt the section for this book, I would also like to thank
Matteo Bertolini of the International School of Advanced Studies in Trieste, Italy who made his lectures on supersymmetry
available and worked with me to improve the section I wrote on supersymmetry, Rodrigo Alvarado of the University of
Costa Rico who gave me a copy of his lectures on general relativity and corrected my section on general relativity, and
my graduate student Allan Lasky-Headrick who assisted me on the section on general relativity. Thanks are also due to
John Black of Chalmers University of Technology in Göteborg, Sweden, Jacek Kobus at Nickolas Copernicus University
in Torun, Poland, and Carlos Bunge of the Autonomous University of Mexico for helping me understand molecular spectra
detected in space. Thanks are also due to Bethsaida Zamora, Hector Saballos, William Porras, Edwin Santiago, and the other
engaged physics majors at University of Costa Rica where my teaching of modern physics took on a new computational
character.
For the second edition, I would like to thank Keith Ellis of the Theory Group at Fermilab for discussing recent devel-
opments in particle physics with me and correcting the two sections I wrote on local gauge invariance and the discovery of
the Higgs boson. Thanks are also due to John Wilkins and William Plalmer at Ohio State University, Charlotte Fischer who
provided me the first version of the Hartree-Fock applet, Howard Georgi, who allowed me to attend his class on group the-
ory and particle physics at Harvard University, Massimilliano Galeazzi at University of Miami, Mike Santos and Michael
Morrison at University of Oklahoma, the Nobel prize winner, Eric Cornel at University of Colorado, and Dirk Walecka at
College of William and Mary.
I would also like to give special thanks to Leslie Friesen who drew all of the figures and Ken Hicks who has given me
many valuable suggestions and wrote the solution manuals.

Supplements to the text

For purchasers of the book, student resources can be found on this book’s companion website. To access these files, please
visit [Link]
For instructors using this book for a course, please visit [Link] to register for access to the ancillary
materials.
Introduction

Every physical system can be characterized by its size and the length of time it takes for processes occurring within it to evolve.
This is as true of the distribution of electrons circulating about the nucleus of an atom as it is of a chain of mountains rising up
over the ages.

Modern physics is a rich field including decisive experiments conducted in the early part of the twentieth century and
more recent research that has given us a deeper understanding of fundamental processes in nature. In conjunction with our
growing understanding of the physical world, a burgeoning technology has led to the development of lasers, solid state
devices, and many other innovations. The introduction and the first three chapters of this book provide an introduction to
modern quantum physics and the remaining twelve chapters describe the various fields of contemporary physics as they
are presently understood. In recognition of the evolving nature of modern physics, our description of the various fields of
modern physics concludes with a section on further developments in the field. A number of distinguished physicists and
engineers have participated in the writing of these sections.

I.1 The concepts of particles and waves

While some of the ideas currently used to describe microscopic systems differ considerably from the ideas of classical
physics, other important ideas are classical in origin. We begin this chapter by discussing the important concepts of a
particle and a wave which have the same meaning in classical and modern physics. A particle is an object with a definite
mass concentrated at a single location in space, while a wave is a disturbance that propagates through space. The first
section of this chapter, which discusses the elementary properties of particles and waves, provides a review of some of the
fundamental ideas of classical physics and indicates the changes that occur in modern quantum physics. The second section
of this chapter describes some of the central ideas of quantum physics and also discusses the size and time scales of the
physical systems considered in this book.

I.1.1 The variables of a moving particle

The position and velocity vectors of a particle are illustrated in Fig. I.1. The position vector r extends from the origin to the
particle, while the velocity vector v points in the direction of the particle’s motion. Other variables, which are appropriate
for describing a moving particle, can be defined in terms of these elementary variables.
The momentum p of the particle is equal to the product of the mass and velocity v of the particle

p = mv.

We shall find that the momentum is useful for describing the motion of electrons in an extended system such as a crystal.
The motion of a particle moving about a center of force can be described using the angular momentum, which is defined
to be the cross product of the position and momentum vectors

 = r × p.

The cross product of two vectors is a vector having a magnitude equal to the product of the magnitudes of the two vectors
times the sine of the angle between them. Denoting the angle between the momentum and position vectors by θ as in
Fig. I.1, the magnitude of the angular momentum vector momentum can be written

|| = |r| |p| sin θ.

xiii
xiv Introduction

FIGURE I.1 The position r and the velocity v of a moving particle of mass m. The point O denotes the origin, and r0 denotes the distance between the
line of motion and the origin.

This expression for the angular momentum may be written more simply in terms of the distance between the line of motion
of the particle and the origin, which is denoted by r0 in Fig. I.1. We have

|| = r0 |p|.

The angular momentum is thus equal to the distance between the line of motion of the particle and the origin times the
momentum of the particle. The direction of the angular momentum vector is generally taken to be normal to the plane
of the particle’s motion. For a classical particle moving under the influence of a central force, the angular momentum is
conserved. The angular momentum will be used in later chapters to describe the motion of electrons about the nucleus of
an atom.
The kinetic energy of a particle with mass m and velocity v is defined by the equation

1
KE = mv 2 ,
2
where v is the magnitude of the velocity or the speed of the particle. The concept of potential energy is useful for describing
the motion of particles under the influence of conservative forces. In order to define the potential energy of a particle, we
choose a point of reference denoted by R. The potential energy of a particle at a point P is defined as the negative of
the work carried out on the particle by the force field as the particle moves from R to P . For a one-dimensional problem
described by a variable x, the definition of the potential energy can be written
 P
VP = − F (x)dx. (I.1)
R

As a first example of how the potential energy is defined we consider the harmonic oscillator, which consists of a body
of mass m moving under the influence of a linear restoring force

F = −kx, (I.2)

where x denotes the distance of the body from its equilibrium position. The constant k, which occurs in Eq. (I.2), is called
the force constant. The restoring force is proportional to the displacement of the body and points in the direction opposite
to the displacement. If the body is displaced to the right, for instance, the restoring force points to the left. It is natural to
take the reference position R in the definition of the potential energy of the oscillator to be the equilibrium position for
which x = 0. The definition of the potential energy (I.1) then becomes
 x
1
V (x) = − (−kx  )dx  = kx 2 . (I.3)
0 2

Here x  is used within the integration in place of x to distinguish the variable of integration from the limit of integration.
 Introduction xv

FIGURE I.2 (A) The potential energy V (x) for the simple harmonic operator. (B) The potential energy V (r) of an electron in a hydrogen-like ion with
nuclear charge Ze.

If one were to pull the mass from its equilibrium position and release it, the mass would oscillate with a frequency
independent of the initial displacement. The angular frequency of the oscillator is related to the force constant of the
oscillator and the mass of the particle by the equation

ω = k/m,

or
k = mω2 .
Substituting this last expression for k into Eq. (I.3), we obtain the following expression for the potential energy of the
oscillator
1
V (x) = mω2 x 2 . (I.4)
2
The oscillator potential is illustrated in Fig. I.2(A). The harmonic oscillator provides a useful model for a number of
important problems in physics. It may be used, for instance, to describe the vibration of the atoms in a crystal about their
equilibrium positions and the radiation field within a cavity.
As a further example of potential energy, we consider the potential energy of a particle with electric charge q moving
under the influence of a charge Q. According to Coulomb’s law the electromagnetic force between the two charges is equal
to
1 Qq
F= ,
4π0 r 2
where r is the distance between the two charges and 0 is the permittivity of free space. The reference point for the
potential energy for this problem can be conveniently chosen to be at infinity where r = ∞ and the force is equal to zero.
Using Eq. (I.1), the potential energy of the particle with charge q at a distance r from the charge Q can be written
 r
Qq 1 
V (r) = − dr .
4π0 ∞ r  2

Evaluating the above integral, one finds that the potential energy of the particle is

Qq 1
V (r) = .
4π0 r

An application of this last formula will arise when we consider the motion of electrons in an atom. For an electron with
charge −e moving in the field of an atomic nucleus having Z protons and hence a nuclear charge of Ze, the formula for the
potential energy becomes
Ze2 1
V (r) = − . (I.5)
4π0 r
The potential energy of an electron in a hydrogen atom given by Eq. (I.5) is illustrated in Fig. I.2(B).
xvi Introduction

FIGURE I.3 (A) A pulse moving with velocity v along a stretched string. (B) An extended sinusoidal wave moving along a string.

In upcoming chapters of this book, we will consider the motion of particles in fields that confines their motion. We
will call such a potential field that confines the motion of particles a potential well. Fig. I.2(A) that describes the potential
energy of a particle moving under the influence of a linear restoring force and Fig. I.2(B) that describes potential energy
of the electron in a hydrogen atom, are examples of such potential wells. A distinctive feature of the new quantum theory
is that the bound states of particles moving in a potential well can only have distinct values of the energy. This is unlike
anything we have seen in classical physics. The energy of a planet moving about the Sun can be increased or reduced by a
small amount, and the energy of the planet need not be one of a number of possible values but depends on the process by
which the solar system was formed. In the new quantum theory, a particle in moving in a potential well with one value of
the energy can make a transition to another level with less energy and emit a photon with an energy equal to the difference
in energy between the two levels.

I.1.2 Elementary properties of waves

We consider now some of the elementary properties of waves. Various kinds of waves arise in classical physics, and we
shall encounter other examples of wave motion when we apply the new quantum theory to microscopic systems.

Traveling waves
If one end of a stretched string is moved abruptly up and down, a pulse will move along the string as shown in Fig. I.3(A).
A typical element of the string will move up and then down as the pulse passes. If instead the end of the string moves up
and down with the time dependence,
y = sin ωt,
an extended sinusoidal wave will travel along the string as shown in Fig. I.3(B). A wave of this kind which moves up and
down with the dependence of a sine or cosine is called a harmonic wave.
The wavelength of a harmonic wave will be denoted by λ and the speed of the wave by v. The wavelength is the distance
from one wave crest to the next. As the wave moves, a particular element of the string which is at the top of a crest will
move down as the trough approaches and then move back up again with the next crest. Each element of the string oscillates
up and down with a period, T . The frequency of oscillation f is equal to 1/T . The period can also be thought of as the time
for a crest to move a distance of one wavelength. Thus, the wavelength, wave speed, and period are related in the following
way
λ = vT .
Using the relation, T = 1/f , this equation can be written

λf = v. (I.6)

The dependence of a harmonic wave upon the space and time coordinates can be represented mathematically using
the trigonometric sine or cosine functions. We consider first a harmonic wave moving along the x-axis for which the
displacement is
y(x, t) = A sin[2π(x/λ − t/T )], (I.7)
where A is the amplitude of the oscillation. One can see immediately that as the variable x in the sine function increases by
an amount λ or the time increases by an amount T , the argument of the sine will change by an amount 2π, and the function
 Introduction xvii

y(x, t) will go through a full oscillation. It is convenient to describe the wave by the angular wave number,

2π
k= , (I.8)
λ

and the angular frequency,

2π
ω= . (I.9)
T
Using the relation, T = 1/f , the second of these two equations can also be written

ω = 2πf. (I.10)

The angular wave number k, which is defined by Eq. (I.8), has SI units of radians per meter, while ω, which is defined
by Eq. (I.9), has SI units of radians per second. Using Eqs. (I.8) and (I.9), the wave function (I.7) can be written simply

y(x, t) = A sin(kx − ωt). (I.11)

Eq. (I.11) describes a traveling wave. We can see this by considering the crest of the wave where the value of the phase
of the sine function in Eq. (I.11) is equal to π/2. The location of the crest is given by the equation

π
kxcrest − ωt = .
2

Solving this last equation for xcrest , we get

ωt π
xcrest = + .
k 2k
An expression for the velocity of the wave crest can be obtained by taking the derivative of xcrest with respect to time to
obtain
dxcrest ω
v= = . (I.12)
dt k
Eq. (I.11) thus describes a sinusoidal wave moving in the positive x-direction with a velocity of ω/k. Eq. (I.12) relating the
velocity of the wave to the angular wave number k and angular frequency ω can also be obtained by solving Eq. (I.8) for λ
and solving Eq. (I.10) for f . Eq. (I.12) is then obtained by substituting these expressions for λ and f into Eq. (I.6).
Using the same approach as that used to understand the significance of Eq. (I.11), one can show that

y(x, t) = A sin(kx + ωt) (I.13)

describes a sinusoidal wave moving in the negative x-direction with a velocity of ω/k.
Fig. I.4(A) illustrates how the harmonic function (I.11) varies with position at a fixed time chosen to be t = 0. Setting t
equal to zero, Eq. (I.11) becomes

y(x, 0) = A sin kx. (I.14)

The wave described by the function A sin x and illustrated in Fig. I.4(A) does not depend upon the time. Such a wave, which
is described by its dependence upon a spatial coordinate, is called a stationary wave. As for the traveling wave (I.11), the
angular wave number k is related to the wavelength by Eq. (I.8). Similarly, Fig. I.4(B) shows how the function (I.11) varies
with time at a fixed position chosen to be x = 0. Setting x equal to zero in Eq. (I.11) and using the fact that the sine is an
odd function, we obtain

y(0, t) = −A sin ωt. (I.15)

The wave function (I.15) oscillates as the time increases with an angular frequency ω given by Eq. (I.10).
xviii Introduction

FIGURE I.4 (A) The x-dependence of the sinusoidal function for a fixed time t = 0. (B) The time dependence of the sinusoidal function at the fixed point
x = 0.

Standing waves
Suppose two waves travel simultaneously along the same stretched string. Let y1 (x, t) and y2 (x, t) be the displacements of
the string due to the two waves individually. The total displacement of the string is then

y(x, t) = y1 (x, t) + y2 (x, t).

This is called the principle of superposition. The displacement due to two waves is generally the algebraic sum of the
displacements due to the two waves separately. Waves that obey the superposition principle are called linear waves and
waves that do not are called nonlinear waves. It is found experimentally that most of the waves encountered in nature obey
the superposition principle. Shock waves produced by an explosion or a jet moving at supersonic speeds are uncommon
examples of waves that do not obey the superposition principle. In this text, only linear waves will be considered. Two
harmonic waves reinforce each other or cancel depending upon whether or not they are in phase (in step) with each other.
This phenomenon of reinforcement or cancellation is called interference.
We consider now two harmonic waves with the same wavelength and frequency moving in opposite directions. A wave
moving in the opposite direction would be produced when a wave is reflected by the wall of a potential well. Two waves
having equal amplitudes are described by the wave functions

y1 (x) = A sin(kx − ωt)

and
y2 (x) = A sin(kx + ωt).
According to the principle of superposition, the combined wave is described by the wave function

y(x, t) = y1 (x) + y2 (x) = A [sin(kx − ωt) + sin(kx + ωt)] . (I.16)

Using the trigonometric identity,

sin(A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B, (I.17)
Eq. (I.16) may be written
u(x, t) = [2A cos ωt] sin kx. (I.18)
This function describes a standing wave.
At a particular time the quantity within square brackets in Eq. (I.18) has a constant value and may be thought of as the
amplitude of the wave. The amplitude function 2A cos ωt varies with time having both positive and negative values. The
 Introduction xix

FIGURE I.5 Function describing the spatial form of a standing wave. The nodes, which have zero displacement, are represented by dots.

FIGURE I.6 A simulation of wave interference in the PhET simulation package developed at the University of Colorado.

function sin kx has the spatial form illustrated in Fig. I.5 being zero at the points satisfying the equation

kx = nπ, for n = 0, 1, 2, . . . .

Substituting k = 2π/λ into this equation, we get

λ
x=n , for n = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
2

The function sin kx is thus equal to zero at points separated by half a wavelength. At these points, which are called nodes,
the lateral displacement, is always equal to zero. An example of a standing wave is provided by the vibrating strings of a
guitar. The ends of the guitar strings are fixed and cannot move. In addition to the ends of the strings, other points along the
strings separated by half a wavelength have zero displacements.
A novel feature of the quantum theory we will soon consider is that waves are associated with particles. The first
examples of the quantum theory we will consider in Chapter 2 of this book will involve particles confined to move in a
potential well. We can imagine that a particle confined to move in a potential well would spend its days moving back and
forth in the well. So, we should not be surprise that the waves associated with these particles should be standing waves.
One can gain an intuitive understanding of the properties of waves by using the PhET simulation package developed at
the University of Colorado. The simulations can be found at the web site: [Link]/en/simulations. Choosing the
categories “physics” and “sound and waves”, one can initiate the simulation called “wave interference”. Choosing the tab
“water” and the option “one drip”, one sees the waves spreading across a body of water when drips from a single faucet
strike the water surface. Choosing then the option “two drips”, one sees the waves produced by the drips of two faucets
striking the water surface. This figure is shown in Fig. I.6. As we have just described the waves from the two disturbances
add together and destructively interfere to produce a complex disturbance on the surface of the water. One can observe
similar effects with sound and light waves by choosing the tabs “sound” and “light”.
xx Introduction

FIGURE I.7 A representation of a square wave function formed by adding harmonic waves together using the PhET simulation package developed at the
University of Colorado.

The Fourier theorem

We have thus far considered sinusoidal waves on a string and would now like to consider wave phenomenon when the shape
of the initial disturbance is not sinusoidal. In the decade of the 1920’s, Jean Baptiste Fourier showed that any periodic and
reasonably continuous function f (x), which is defined in the interval 0 ≤ x < L, can be represented by a series of sinusoidal
waves

f (x) = Sn sin nkx, for 0 ≤ x ≤ L, (I.19)
n=1,2,...

where k = π/L and

 L
2
Sn = sin nkxf (x)dx. (I.20)
L 0
A sketch of the derivation of Eq. (I.20) is given in Problem 4.
As an example, we consider a square wave

+A if x ≤ x < 12 L
f (x) = (I.21)
−A if 12 L < x ≤ L

Using Eqs. (I.19) and (I.20), the square wave (I.21) can be shown to be equal to the following infinite sum of sinusoidal
waves
 
4 1 1
f (x) = A sin kx + sin 3kx + sin 5kx + . . . , (I.22)
π 3 5
where k = 2π/L is the angular wave number of the fundamental mode of vibration.
We can gain some insight into how harmonic waves combine to form the square wave function (I.21) by using the
simulation package “Fourier: Making Waves” at the web site [Link] A reproduction
of the window that comes up is shown in Fig. I.7. With “Preset Function” set to “sine/cosine” and “Graph controls” set at
“Function of: space (x)” and “sin”, one can begin by setting A1 = 1 and A3 = 0.33 and then gradually adding A5 = 0.20,
A7 = 0.14, A9 = 0.11, and A11 = 0.09. As one adds more and more sine functions of higher frequency, the sum of the
waves shown in the lower screen becomes more and more like a square wave. One can understand in qualitative terms
how the harmonic waves add up to produce the square wave. Using the window reproduced by Fig. I.7, one can view each
sinusoidal wave by setting the amplitude of the wave equal to one and all other amplitudes equal to zero. The amplitude A1
corresponds to the fundamental wave for which a single wavelength stretches over the whole region. This sinusoidal wave
 Introduction xxi

FIGURE I.8 Plot produced by MATLAB Program I.1.

– like the square wave – is zero at the center of the region and assumes negative values to the left of center and positive
values to the right of center. The sinusoidal waves with amplitudes A3 , A5 , A7 , A9 , and A11 all have these same properties
but being sinusoidal waves of higher frequencies they rise more rapidly from zero as one moves to the right from the center
of the region. By adding waves with higher frequencies to the fundamental wave, one produces a wave which rises more
rapidly as one moves to the right from center and declines more rapidly as one moves to the left from center; however,
the sum of the waves oscillate with a higher frequency than the fundamental frequency in the region to the right and left
of center. As one adds more and more waves, the oscillations due to the various waves of high frequency destructively
interfere and one obtains the square wave.
The above result can also be obtained using the MATLAB® software package. A short introduction to MATLAB can
be found in Appendix C and a more extensive presentation in Appendix CC. MATLAB Program I.1 given below adds
sinusoidal waves up to the fifth harmonic. The first three lines of the program define the values of A, L, and k, and the next
line defines a vector x with elements between -L/2, and +L/2 with equal steps of L/100. The plot of x versus y produced
by this MATLAB program is shown in Fig. I.8. This figure is very similar to Fig. I.7 produced by the PhET simulation
package.
MATLAB Program I.1
This program adds the Fourier components up to the 5th harmonic to produce a square wave of amplitude 1.0 and width
1.0.
A=1;
L=1;
k=2*pi/L;
x = -L/2 : L/100 : L/2;
y = (A*4/pi)*( sin(k*x)+(1/3)*sin(3*k*x)+(1/5)*sin(5*k*x) );
plot(x,y)

The Fourier theorem has wide-ranging consequences. No matter what the shape of a disturbance, one can think of the
disturbance as being a sum of harmonic waves.

Representation of waves using exponentials

It is often convenient to represent waves using exponential functions. For instance, a stationary wave can be described by
the function
ψ(x) = Aeikx , (I.23)
where the constant A is a real number. The function ψ(x) can be resolved into its real and imaginary parts using Euler’s
equation,
ei θ = cos θ + i sin θ, (I.24)
to obtain
ψ(x) = A cos(kx) + iA sin(kx).
xxii Introduction

FIGURE I.9 The wave vector k and the position vector r for a wave traveling in three-dimensions is shown together with a particular wave front. The
angle θ appearing in Eq. (I.20) is also shown.

Notice that the imaginary part of the function ψ(x) is equal to A sin(kx). This function corresponds to the stationary wave
shown in Fig. I.4(A). Similarly, the real part of the function ψ(x) is equal to the function A cos(kx) which can be obtained
by shifting the function shown in Fig. I.4(A) to the left by an amount π/2.
A traveling wave can be described by the exponential function

ψ(x, t) = Aei(kx − ωt) . (I.25)

Using Euler’s Eq. (I.24), one may readily show that the imaginary part of the right-hand side of this last equation is equal
to the sinusoidal function appearing in Eq. (I.11).
The exponential function has mathematical properties which makes it more convenient to use than the trigonometric
functions. For instance, the product of an exponential function eA and a second exponential function eB can be evaluated
by simply adding up the exponents
eA · eB = eA+B .
We now consider stationary waves for which the direction in which the value of the function changes most rapidly does
not coincide with the x-direction, and we consider traveling waves moving in other directions than the positive and negative
x-directions. Imagine that in a particular region of space we identify a point where the wave function has a local maximum
and we identify other points near our original point that are also local maxima. A surface passing through these points is
called a wave front. We denote by k a vector pointing in a direction perpendicular to the wave fronts with a magnitude

2π
|k| = .
λ
The magnitude of k will be denoted by k. The vector k, which is called the wave vector, is shown together with a position
vector r and a particular wave front in Fig. I.9. The scalar product k · r can be written

k · r = |k| |r| cos θ. (I.26)

Notice that the quantity |r| cos θ shown in Fig. I.9 is the projection of the position vector r upon the direction of the
vector k. All of the points on a wave front correspond to the same value of |r| cos θ . The quantity k · r is the product of k
and the distance to a wave front measured along the vector k. Hence, k · r plays the same role as kx does for waves in one
dimension. The wave function for a stationary wave in three dimensions can be written

ψ(r) = Aei k · r .

Similarly, a traveling wave in three-dimensions can be described by the function

ψ(r) = Aei(k · r − ωt) .

The wave vector k is perpendicular to the wave fronts pointing in the direction the wave propagates.
 Introduction xxiii

FIGURE I.10 Huygens’ principle states that every point on a wave front may be considered as a source of secondary waves.

FIGURE I.11 Interference produced by two slits.

I.1.3 Interference and diffraction phenomena

The variation of amplitude and intensity that occur when waves encounter a physical barrier can be understood using
Huygens’ principle, which states that each point on a wave front may be considered as a source of secondary waves. The
position of the wave front at a later time can be found by superimposing these secondary waves. Waves emitted by the wave
front thus serve to regenerate the wave and enable us to analyze its propagation in space. This is illustrated in Fig. I.10.
The word interference is used to describe the superposition of two waves, while diffraction is interference produced by
several waves. For both interference and diffraction phenomena, Huygens’ principle enables us to reconstruct subsequent
wave fronts and to calculate the resulting intensities.
A good example of interference effects is provided by the two slit interference experiment shown schematically in
Fig. I.11. In the experiment, the light source S, which lies in the focal plane of the lens L1 , produces a beam of parallel rays
falling perpendicularly upon the plane containing the double slit. The interference of secondary waves emitted by the two
apertures leads to a variation of the intensity of the transmitted light in the secondary focal plane of the lens L2 . Whether or
not constructive interference occurs at the point P depends upon whether the number of waves along the upper path (BP)
shown in Fig. I.11 differs from the number of waves along the lower segment (AP) by an integral number of wavelengths.
The difference in the length of the two paths is equal to the length of the segment AH. If we denote the distance between
the two slits by h, then the length of AH is equal to h sin θ , and the condition for constructive interference is

h sin θ = nλ. (I.27)

Constructive interference occurs when the difference in path lengths is equal to an integral number of wave lengths. The
intensity distribution of the light incident upon the screen at the right is illustrated in Fig. I.12(A). A photograph of the
interference pattern produced by a double slit is shown in Fig. I.12(B).
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
 Soil Population 335 Soil Population as a Whole The
numerous interrelationships existing in the soil between plants and
microorganisms, on the one hand, and between soils and
microorganisms, on the other, demonstrate the manifold activities of
the extensive microbiological population inhabiting the soil. These
microorganisms are responsible for numerous chemical reactions
taking place in the soil. The organisms do not exist and multiply in
the soil in a fixed manner. Their growth and activities are constantly
modified, depending upon the nature of the soil, its treatment, the
crop grown, and various changes in environmental conditions. The
microbiological population of any soil, at a given moment, ma\- be in
a state of equilibrium. Any modification of this equilibrium will bring
about a marked change, both in qualitative composition and in
quantitative interrelations, among the constituent members of this
population. Under natural conditions, modifications of this
equilibrium take place constanth'. The freezing of soil in winter, the
melting of snow and the thawing of ice in spring, the frequent
wetting and drying of soil in summer and in fall, the addition of
leaves, roots, and other plant stubble from the growing vegetation,
will continuously modify the soil population by changing the
conditions of the soil. The nature of the crop and the treatment of
the soil, especially culti\'ation and fertilization, further influence in
many ways the nature and composition of the soil microbiological
population. Aside from those modifications, man has learned to
influence the soil population through various specific treatments,
such as addition of lime or of acid-reacting fertilizers, air-drying or
steam-sterilization, or treatment with various antiseptics. This is true
particularly of greenhouse soils and of nursery beds. All these
treatments bring about marked changes in the composition of the
microbiological population. Selected Bibliography 1. Ensminger, L. E.,
and Gieseking, J. E., Resistance of clay-adsorbed proteins to
proteolytic hydrolysis, Soil Sci., 53:205-209, 1942. 2. Geltser, F. Y.,
Influence of the type of organic matter on soil structure, Trans. Sov.
Sect. Intern. Soc. Soil Sci., 5:115-120, 1936.
 336 Microorganisms and Soil Fertility 3. Gilmour, C. M.,
Allen, O. N., and Truog, E., Soil aggregation as influenced by the
growth of mold species, kind of soil, and organic matter, Proc. Soil
Sci. Soc. Am., 13:292-296, 1949. 4. McCalla, T. M., Influence of
microorganisms and of some organic substances on soil structure.
Soil Set., 59:287-297, 1945. 5. McCalla, T. M., Influence of some
microbial groups on stabilizing soil structure against falhng water
drops, Proc. Soil Sci. Soc. Am., 11:260-263, 1946. 6. Martin, J. P.,
Microorganisms and soil aggregation. I. Origin and nature of some
aggregating substances. Soil Sci., 59:163-174, 1945; II. Influence of
bacterial polysaccharides on soil structure. Soil Sci., 61:157-166,
1946. 7. Myers, H. E., and McCalla, T. M., Changes in soil
aggregation in relation to bacterial number, hydrogen-ion
concentration, and length of time soil was kept moist. Soil Sci.,
51:189-200, 1941. 8. Swaby, R. J., The relationship between
microorganisms and soil aggregation, J. Gen. Microb., 3:236-254,
1949.
 ♦ /6Recent Developments in Soil Microbiology General
Trends Soil microbiology is a borderline science. It deals with
microorganisms and their importance in soil processes. It involves
problems in ecology, physiology, and biochemistry. Since it is
concerned with soils as the natural substrate for the growth of
microorganisms, it embraces physical, chemical, and biological
phenomena. An understanding of the relationships of
microorganisms to higher plants and of the effect of microorganisms
upon the activities of other microorganisms is essential. Soil
microbiology has certain theoretical and practical considerations. It
involves (a) knowledge of the microscopic, ultramicroscopic, and
near-microscopic populations of the soil, as influenced by the nature
and composition of the soil, by climatic and environmental
conditions, and by plant growth; (b) knowledge of the activities of
these microorganisms, which result in a variety of processes and in
the formation of numerous metabolic products, influencing directly
or indirectly the nature and composition of the soil and the growth
of cultivated and uncultivated plants; ( c ) methods of control of
microbiological activities, and their domestication, thus harnessing
them for the service of man as well as of those plants and animals
upon whom man has come to depend for his existence. Although the
numerous groups of microorganisms inhabiting the soil form only a
very small part of the soil mass, they are responsible for many of the
chemical transformations, and even for some of the physical
changes, that take place in the soil. They result in making the soil a
living system rather than a mass of dead debris. The microbiological
population is largely distributed through the upper layers of the soil
mass, where the living plants send down their roots and where they
obtain the necessary nutrients. When the roots die, they are rapidly
attacked by the soil organisms, with the result that some of the
nutrient elements are returned to circulation and 337
 338 Recent Developments in Soil Microbiology made
available again for the growth of new roots and new plants. In this
process, the microorganisms build up extensive cell material,
comprising bacterial cells and slimy substances produced by
bacteria, mycelium of fungi and of actinomycetes and their products,
as well as numerous other living and dead bodies of microscopic
forms of life. All these contribute to the formation of soil humus.
They not only serve as reservoirs for further activities of
microorganisms, but also exert various physical and chemical effects
upon the soil, as by binding the soil particles and interacting with the
various cations and anions of the soil organic and inorganic
constituents. As a result of these microbiological activities in the soil,
a continuous stream of carbon dioxide, ammonia, nitrate,
phosphate, and other nutrient elements is made available for plant
growth. The humus supply of the soil may either increase or be
gradually destroyed, depending on the rate of formation of new
plant material and its decomposition. This dark-colored, amorphous,
highly characteristic soil constituent possesses certain important
physical and chemical properties which give to the soil its specific
characteristics. The formation and disintegration of humus are
closely bound with the activities of the microbiological population of
the soil, on the one hand, and with soil conditions and plant growth,
on the other. Many attempts have been made to develop inocula for
various nonleguminous plants; these comprise the so-called all-crop
soil inocula, and the inocula of nonsymbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
All these have failed to accomplish useful results. The suggestion
that the favorable effect of small amounts of stable manures upon
plant growth is due to the introduction of large numbers of bacteria
into the soil has likewise remained unsubstantiated. When soil
conditions are not favorable to the development of particular
organisms, mere introduction of these organisms will not result in
their establishment in the soil. When conditions are made favorable
for the development of new organisms, as by drainage of salt lands
and peat bogs, by liming of acid soils, and by planting specific host
crops, certain organisms may be introduced to advantage. This is
particularly true of the legume bacteria, and occasionally of nitrifying
bacteria, sulfur-oxidizing bacteria, and mycorrhiza fungi. The
preparation of composts represents another important process in
which considerable improvement has resulted from knowledge of the
microbiological population. When stable manures or plant residues
supplemented with inorganic fertilizer are placed in a compost and
conditions made favorable to the activities of aerobic micro 
 General Trends 339 (Mganisins, as b\ proper aeration and
provision of sufficient moisture, nimierous reactions immediately
take place. These are accompanied 1)\- a rapid rise in temperature,
which may serve as a measure of the rapidity of the decomposition
process. The microbiological population of the compost changes with
a change in temperature and with the nature of the materials
undergoing decomposition. Among the major chemical reactions that
take place during the process of composting, the destruction of the
cellulose and hemicelluloses, and the resulting increases in ash,
lignin, and protein contents are most significant. Protein synthesis is
brought about by the activities of the microorganisms. One of the
major economic problems involved in the preservation of stable
manures is the potential loss of nitrogen, as pointed out previously.
Various methods have been utilized for the conservation of the
manure, the major purpose being the prevention of these losses.
One of these methods consists in hastening the activities of
microorganisms which bring about the destruction of the cellulose
and hemicelluloses in the manure; if the microbiological population is
sufficiently active to bring this about during the early stages of
composting, the soluble forms of nitrogen in the manure will be
rapidly transformed into complex insoluble organic forms. The
survival in the soil of organisms causing plant and animal diseases
has also received considerable attention. Among the plant diseases,
the root rots, take-all diseases of cereals, soft rots, scabs, club roots,
and numerous others brought about by fungi, actinomycetes, and
bacteria are particularly important. To these should be added the
many insect pests which pass a part of their life cycle in the soil, and
the various diseases caused by worms and other animal forms.
Numerous methods of control have been developed, ranging from
partial sterilization by heat and chemicals to the introduction of
bacteria, fungi, and nematodes destructive to the parasite. The fate
of bacteria causing epidemics of animal diseases, and that of fungi
and actinomycetes causing less widespread outbreaks of skin
diseases and deep-seated diseases, have received considerable
attention. The study of antagonistic organisms found in the soil and
their formation of substances destructive to the pathogens is now
making rapid progress. Recent trends in soil microbiology have thus
centered upon a better understanding of the nature and complexity
of the soil population, the conditions which influence its quantitative
and qualitative composition, the activities of these organisms in the
soil, and the
 340 Recent Developments in Soil Microbiology utilization of
these activities for soil improvement, soil conservation, plant
productivity, and combating of plant and animal pathogens. The Soil
as a Living System Because of the extensive microbiological
population inhabiting it, the soil must be considered not merely a
dynamic or even a biological system, but a living system. This
assumption can be substantiated as follows: (a) living organisms,
belonging both to plant and to animal systems, have taken an active
part in the processes of rock weathering and soil formation; ( b )
these organisms have contributed to the formation and accumulation
of one of the most important and characteristic soil constituents,
humus, which is largely responsible for differentiating a soil from a
mere mass of inorganic debris; (c) the soil processes are continuous
both in summer and in winter, and are affected by temperature,
aeration, moisture, and supply of fresh plant and animal residues;
(d) the extensive flora and fauna representing numerous forms of
life that inhabit the soil range from the smallest bacteria to the large
burrowing animals and the roots of higher plants. The Soil
Microbiological Population One could discover in the soil most forms
of life, within proper dimensions of size and space, if one would only
search for them long enough and develop the proper methods for
their demonstration. Exclusive of higher plants, which find in the soil
a support and a medium for their growth and from which they derive
most of their nutrients, and exclusive of the numerous animals that
spend the whole or a part of their life cycle in the soil, there exists in
the soil an extensive population of microorganisms. This comprises
forms which are characteristic of the soil and which seldom live in a
natural state under other conditions, as well as forms which find in
the soil only a temporary habitat. The soil population also varies
considerably, both in kind and in abundance, depending upon the
nature of the soil, its treatment, and various environmental
conditions. This can easily be demonstrated by comparing the
population of an undistiu-bed virgin soil with that of the same soil
after it has been cultivated and has received various added organic
and inorganic substances. In the virgin soil, the microorganisms are
in a state of equilibrium, where
 The Soil Microbiological Population 341 till' ri>lati\o
ahundance of the various bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, and
protozoa depends upon the nature of the soil and its condition. In
the treated soil, however, this equilibrium is often disturbed, and
certain organisms develop in great abundance, out of all proportion
to the others. The specific nature of these organisms depends either
upon the chemical nature of the material added or upon the nature
of the changes produced in the soil by the treatment. The
disturbance thus brought about in the microbiological equilibrium
may be of a lasting nature, whereby one group of organisms may
become predominant, to be followed later by the rapid development
of other groups; or it may be only temporary, that is, after a short
time the interrupted equilibrium may become re-established on the
same quantitative basis or in a modified form. The changing
activities brought about by the microbiological population of the soil
can be best illustrated by following the course of decomposition in
the soil of fresh plant and animal residues. Protein-rich materials
lead to an extensive development of bacteria and actinomycetes;
cellulose-rich materials bring about extensive development of fungi
and certain bacteria. Among the fungi, the Phycomycetes may come
first when fresh plant residues are added; they are followed by
Ascomycetes and Fungi Imperfecti, and finally by Basidiomycetes. A
large part of the synthesized fungus mycelium will be gradually
destroyed by bacteria. The bacteria may be followed by protozoa.
This sequence of forms does not follow under all conditions. Many of
the microorganisms are specific and are adapted to one process;
others are omnivorous and are capable of performing a number of
functions. The nature of the material undergoing decomposition,
environmental conditions, and incidental occurrence of specific
microbial types will influence the predominance of certain forms over
others. The changing numbers and types of organisms in the
complex soil population, particularly when influenced by a number of
soil and environmental factors, do not lend themselves readily to
ordinary statistical treatment. Under these conditions, one is likely to
overlook the forest because attention is focused upon single trees.
Statistics alone, when not properly interpreted, may tend to
overemphasize certain members of the population, frequently of very
little significance in soil processes, and to overlook others of much
greater importance.
 342 Recent Developments in Soil Microbiology
Interrelationships of Members of the Soil Population The
interrelations of members of the soil population, on the one hand,
and of higher plants and other soil microorganisms, on the other,
have received considerable attention. Of particular interest are the
antagonistic and associative effects among microorganisms. The
antagonistic effects have received recognition by those interested in
combating soil-borne plant diseases. The specific effects of fungi,
bacteria, and actinomycetes in depressing various disease-producing
fungi, such as cotton root rot, various root diseases of cereals, and
damping-off diseases of other plants, have been ascribed to the
production of toxic substances by saprophytes or to the competition
with the parasites for the available food. In some cases, the
depression of the parasite has been brought about by controlling the
activities of specific soil saprophytes. Potato scab may be controlled
by addition of sulfur, which is oxidized by specific bacteria to sulfuric
acid; the resulting acidity becomes unfavorable to the actinomyces
producing the scab. An attempt has been made to interpret the
ability of certain organisms to produce antibiotic substances in terms
of survival of certain microorganisms in the struggle for existence in
nature, and especially in the soil. One cannot, of course, deny the
fact that certain substances produced by some organisms are toxic
to others, and may thus tend to control the development or even the
survival of the latter in the soil. If one considers, however, the
artificial conditions under which antibiotics are produced by various
selected strains of organisms, the fact that these antibiotics are
selective in their action upon other organisms, and that these can
readily develop strains which are resistant to the action of
antibiotics, one wonders how effective these substances are in
controlhng the soil population under natural conditions. Penicillin,
produced by various species of Penicillium and Aspergillus, offers a
good illustration. It is produced only in highly specific media, of
which the soil is hardly a type. It is readily destroyed by various
organisms inhabiting the soil. It has but little activity upon the fungi
and most of the bacteria living in the soil. Effect of Changing
Conditions The numerous bacteria and fungi living in the soil will not
always react in a similar manner to a change in conditions of
nutrition and environment. Many of the important soil bacteria, such
as the
 Effect of Changing Conditions 343 nitrifying organisms, the
nonsymbiotic nitrogen-fixing forms, and some of the celkilose-
decomposing organisms, are highly sensitive to acidity and will
nsnally fail to grow at a pH less than 6.0; other bacteria, however,
snch as some of the snlfur-oxidizing forms and the facultative
anaerobic bacteria, seem to be able to withstand considerable acid
concentration. The same is trne of the response of different bacteria
to the addition of specific organic substances, to a change in soil
aeration, and to other soil changes. The fungi also show
considerable variation in response to changing soil or nutrient
conditions: some are more sensitive than others to increasing acidity
or to diminished aeration; some attack the water-soluble substances
more readily, others attack by preference the cellulose, and still
others prefer the lignins and the proteins. There is also considerable
\ariation in response to changes in environment and in food supply
among the various actinomycetes and protozoa. The stimulation of
specific groups of organisms, whereby the normal microbiological
equilibrium in the soil is interrupted and one particular type or
group, previously present only in limited numbers or even in a latent
state, becomes predominant, is due to the specialization of various
microorganisms. Usually the energy source introduced into the soil
can be utilized only by the particular organism under specific soil
conditions, or the soil is modified to such a degree as to favor the
development of one organism in preference to others. Winogradsky
distinguished between the "autochthonous" bacteria, or those
organisms which attack primarily the organic substances of the soil,
and the "zymogenic" forms, or those which develop rapidly as a
result of addition of fresh organic substances. When complex plant
and animal materials are added to the soil, the stimulating effect
upon the development of various bacteria or fungi is difficult to
analyze, because of the changing nature of the organisms with the
progress of the decomposition process. The chemical composition of
the material added, which varies with the nature of the material and
the degree of its maturity in the case of a plant substance, the
chemical and physical soil conditions, and the environmental factors,
all modify the microbiological response to such treatments. As a
plant matures, it contains smaller quantities of water-soluble
substances, such as sugars and amino acids, and it becomes poorer
in nitrogen and minerals and richer in cellulose and lignin. The
addition to the soil of residues of a young plant will favor an
abundant development of many bacteria, including the lactic acid
forms, which attack the sugars and other water-soluble
 344 Recent Developments in Soil Microbiology substances;
mature plant residues favor extensive development of fungi,
especially when available nitrogen is present in the soil or is added
to it. To illustiate further the effect of changing conditions upon the
development of specific microorganisms, the population of a
compost may be examined in further detail. If a compost is kept at
28° C, the population will consist largely of bacteria, fungi, protozoa,
and nematodes; actinomycetes develop only to a limited degree;
aerobic cellulose-decomposing bacteria, especially members of the
Cytophaga group, are most active. At 50 °C, where the rate of
decomposition is highest, certain thermophihc fungi and
actinomycetes predominate; bacteria are also present but they are
not the most abundant forms; and the animal population is almost
completely lacking. At 65 °C, the fungi are eliminated entirely;
certain actinomycetes, belonging to the Micromonospora type, and
the thermophihc bacteria are most abundant; cellulose
decomposition is brought about by anaerobic, spore-forming
thermophilic bacteria. At 75°C, decomposition is limited and takes
place largely at the expense of the proteins and hemicelluloses;
cellulose is not attacked at all; certain bacteria of the Plectriditim
type and certain species of Micromonospora make up the population.
The most rapid decomposition of the manure takes place first at 65
°C. At this temperature, the nitrogen is completely consumed. The
inoculation of hot composts with an active thermophihc population
has been found to hasten the process of decomposition. Animal
pathogens present in the manure are also destroyed at the high
temperature. Role of Microorganisms in Soil Processes The role of
microorganisms in the minerahzation of waste materials in soils,
water basins, and composts no longer requires emphasis. One need
not dwell upon the function of microorganisms in bringing about the
liberation of nitrogen in an available form, as ammonia, and in the
oxidation of the ammonia to nitrate. R is now universally recognized
that the growth of legumes and their associated bacteria are of
tremendous economic significance to agriculture. Numerous other
microbiological reactions have been elucidated and are at present
well understood. R is sufficient merely to mention the oxidation of
sulfur by bacteria, a process which frequently becomes of
considerable importance; the reduction of sulfates, nitrates, and
arsenates, processes which involve the activities of various groups
 Role of Microorganisms in Soil Processes 345 of
microorganisms and max lunc, under certain conditions, great
economic significance; the composting of stable manures and plant
residues for the production of artificial composts, which involves the
activities of large microbial populations; and the growth of plant and
animal parasites, involving fungi, actinomycetes, bacteria,
nematodes and N'arious other worms, and insect larvae, resulting in
conditions which require radical modification of soil management.
The importance of microorganisms in a number of other soil
processes is still a matter of dispute, if not of mere speculation. Here
belong the activities of nonsymbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria, in spite
of the fact that the occurrence and physiology of these organisms
have been studied extensively. The specific effect upon plant growth
of various substances produced by microorganisms, including
vitamins, hormones, and other growth-promoting substances, is also
still a matter for speculation. The effect of the saprophytic
population of the soil upon plant and animal parasites which live in
or find their way into the soil is still insufficiently understood. The
influence of microorganisms and of their metabolic products upon
the physical condition of the soil, especially in aggregating the finer
soil particles, a problem of great importance in soil conservation, is
becoming more and more clearly recognized. The mycorrhizal
relationships, in spite of the progress made during the last few
years, are still to be unraveled, and the processes involved are yet to
be understood and utilized for practical purposes. These and
numerous other processes resulting from the activities of the soil-
inhabiting microorganisms are frequently complicated and involved.
So far, only very few of them have been recognized and still fewer
utilized. Further progress will undoubtedly result with the
development of new methods and with the growing appreciation of
the interlocking activities of the complex microbiological population
of the soil. Soil microbiology has made only a beginning. It is still
facing open vistas for further investigation. A highly complex
population active in a most complex medium, the soil, and bringing
about a number of most complicated processes, fully deserves the
interest not only of the soil microbiologist and of the soil chemist,
but also of the agronomist, the botanist, the zoologist, the
pedologist, and the biochemist, in finding the answers to some of
the riddles which Mother Earth still propounds for us.
 Iiide X Absidia glauca, 328 Acetic acid, 300 AciditN', effect
of, 242, 289, 299, 300, 301 Acrostalagmus, 83, 278 Actinomyces,
82, 167, 175 A. imjricue, 220 A. poolensis, 290 A. thennopliilus, 71
Actinoinycetales, 60 Actinomycetes, 23, 34, 35, 39, 47, 53, 55, 77-
82, 252, 270 production of antibiotics by, 75 Actinophage, 279
Aeration, effect of, 62, 113 Aerobacter, 60 A. aerogenes, 193, 268,
270 Aerobic nitrogen-fixing bacteria, 194200 Agarictis nebularis, 121
Agar-plate method, 39 Age of plant, 103 Aggregation of soil, 326,
329 Agronomical phase of soil microbiology, 4 Alfalfa, and soil
aggregation, 327 decomposition of, 155, 158, 306 Algae, 36, 56, 88
nitrogen fixation b\ , 193, 200 All-crop inoculaiits, 324, 338 All-soil
inoculants, 331 Altemaria, 83, 328 A. tenuis, 278 Amanita ovoidea,
86 A. virosa, 86 Amine formation, 167 Amines, effect on nitrification,
182183 Amino acid decomposition, 167-168 effect of, 175 Ammonia,
formation ot, 18, 19, 63, 108, 118-119, 137, 167, 168, 170, 172-178,
188 oxidation of, 13, 62, 181 Ammonia-oxidizing organisms, 181
Annnonification, 176 Amoebae, 91, 92 in soil, 55, 56 Anabena, 199,
200, 220 Anaerobic bacteria, 73 cellulose decomposition, 74—75
nitrogen-fixing bacteria, 184, 193194 Animal forms, 37 pathogens in
soil, 282 residues, 95, 149 Antagonistic effects, 38, 261, 266-269
Antagonistic fungi, 267 Antibiotics, 25, 269, 272, 274-280 effect on
plants, 334 in soil, 280 ApJuniomt/ccs lacvis, 287 Aphclcnchus
olesistns, 290 Armillaria, 278 Arsenic, 243, 299 Artificial manures,
313-317 Ascomycetes, 54, 83, 287, 341 AspergiUus, 23, 38, 54, 65,
83, 85, 86, 110, 239, 278, 342 A. clavatus, 278 A. fiavus, 278 A.
fumigatus, 243 A. nidulans, 328 A. niger, 88, 174, 175, 177, 239,
268, 269, 278, 328, 329 A. ochraceus, 243 A. oryzae, 110, 239 A.
sijdowi, 243 A. tcrricola, 167 347
 348 Index Association of plants and microorganisms, 251
Associative effects, 17, 38, 261, 265266 Autochthonous bacteria, 59,
343 Autotrophic bacteria, 60, 61-68, 262 Auximones, 254
Azohydrase, 202 Azomonas, 195 Azotase, 195 Azotobacter, 25, 40,
44, 60, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 202, 203, 204,
220, 239, 241, 242, 259, 263, 279 inoculation of soil, 324 Az. agilis,
193, 195, 196, 202 Az. beijerinckii, 193, 195 As. chroococcum, 18,
38, 193, 194, 195, 197, 201, 235, 239 Az. indictim, 38, 193, 195,
199, 205 Az. vinelandii, 193, 195 Az. vitreum, 195 Bacilli in soil, 40
Bacillus agri, 69 B. ainylovorus, 110 B. anthracis, 268 B.
arhorescens, 167 B. asterosporus, 193, 194 B. brevis, 69, 77 B.
campestris, 290 B. cellulosae dissolvem-, 74, 75 B. cellulosam
fermenians, 75 B. ceretis, 68, 69, 120, 170, 172, 173, 268, 270 B.
cohuerens, 69 B. fusiformis, 69 B. janthinus, 167 B. macerans, 110
B. megatherium, 68, 69, 268 B. mesentericus, 69, 110, 167 B.
mtjcoides, 38, 69, 167, 172, 235, 268, 270 B. nitroxus, 187 B.
pctasites, 69 B. pohjmyxa, 77 B. radicicola, 211, 215 B.
.saccharobutijriciis, 193 B. s-implcx, 69, 294 B. stutzeri, 187 B.
subtilis, 38, 69, 77, 119, 167, 172, 173, 268 B. vidgatus, 69, 268
Bacteria, classification of, 60 in manure, 52 in soil, 32, 34, 35, 39,
47, 55, 6076, 160 Bacterial-agar plate, 267 Bacteriophage, 223-224
Bacteriorrhiza, 333, 334 Bacterium denitroftuorescen.
 Iiulfx 319 (,'arl)()li>clrali's, tU-t()iiii)ositi(Hi ol, 109-1 17
effect on aninionia fomiation, 174, 178 Carbon bisnlfidc, effect of,
298 Carbon dioxide, exolution of, 41-44, 107-108, 142, 149-163
formation of, 252 liberation of, 256, 258 in soil, 98, 249 Carbon
monoxide oxidation, 68 Carbon-nitrogen ratio, 140, 145, 157, 163
Cellfalcicula, 76 Cellulose, effect on nitrogen fixation, 206 Cellulose-
decomposing bacteria, 7476 Cellulose-decomposing fungi, 84
Cellulose decomposition, 15, 20, 23, 72, 110-114, 263 CeUvibrio, 76
Cephalosporium, 83 CepJudothecium roseum, 75, 167, 278
Cercomonas, 92 Cer. crasscauda, 91 Chaetomium, 38, 86 Chemical
treatment of soil, 296, 299 Chernozem, 143 Chitin, 172
Chlamydobacteriales, 60 Choline, decomposition of, 119, 168, 236
Chromobacteriutn violaceum, 268 Ciliata, 90 Cladosporium, 83
Clavaria flava, 86 Clay-humus complex, 129-130 Clitocybe clavipes,
86 Cl. geotropa, 86 Clostridium, 193, 194, 199, 263 Cl. amylobacter,
74 Cl. bifermentans, 285 Cl. butylicum, 198 Cl. cochlearius, 285 Cl.
oedematiens, 285 Cl. pa.'fteiirianum, 192, 193, 194, 197, 198, 200
Cl. perfringens, 122 (7. puhificus, 172 Ct. ptitrificus tenuis, 74 Cl.
putrijicus vcrucausus, 74 Cl. sporogenes, 285 Cl. tertius, 285 Cl.
tetani, 74, 285 Cl. tcfaunmorphus, 74 Cl. welchii, 73, 285 Club root,
300 Cobalt, 242 Cocci in soil, 40 Coccospora agricola, 115 Cold
manure, 309 Colletotrichum, 278 Colpoda cucidlus, 92 C. steitiii, 90,
92 Combustion, 1 Composition of soil, 29, 30, 31 Composts, 52, 53,
99, 307, 313, 338339 of sulfur, 231 Concept of soil microbiology, 4
Coniophom, 121 C. cerebella, 121 Contact slide method, 36, 43, 295
Control of plant diseases, 295 Copper, 242 Coprinus, 122 C. radians,
122 Coprophilic fungi, 83, 84 Com, composition of, 103, 106
decomposition of. 111 "Corrosion," 121 Corticium vagtim, 287
Cortinarius fulgens, 86 C. mucosas, 86 Corynebacterium, 70, 77 C.
liquefaciens, 70 Crop, effect of, 253 Crop rotation, 209, 296 Crop
yields, 50, 162 Cross inoculation, 224 Culti\ation, effect of, 332
Culture methods, 41 Culture solutions, 18 Cunninghamella, 239, 264
Cun. elegans, 278 Curvularia, 328
 350 Inde> Cyanamidc ck-coiiipositioii, 119, 171 effect of,
183 Cystine, 232 Cytophaga, 39, 76, 112, 115, 344 Cyt. huicJiinsoni,
77 Cyt. hitea, 76 Cyt. myxococcoides, 77 Damping off, 291
Deaiiiinization, 167 Decarboxylation, 167 Decay, 15, 16
Decomposition, of organic matter, 3, 15, 16, 37, 53, 101 of plant and
animal residues, 95123 of stable manures, 52 Dematium, 278
Denitrification, 183-189 Denitrifying bacteria, 71, 187-188 Depth of
soil, effect of, 34 "Destruction," 121 Deuterophoma, 278
Dicyanodiamide, decomposition of, 171 Dimastigamoeha, 92
Diplococcus pneumoniae, 193 Direct examination of soil, 44 Disease-
producing microorganisms, 2, 282-302 Distribution of
microorganisms, 34 Domestication of microorganisms, 323 Dry-land
farming, 140 Duff, 136 Earthworms, 37, 45, 56 in soil, 15 Eberthella
typhi, 268 E. typhosa, 283 Ecologic factors, 48 Ecologic relationships,
264 Ecological phase, 24 Ectotrophic mycorrhiza, 86—87 Electi\'e
culture methods, 31, 32, 50 Endotrophic mycorrhiza, 87 Enzymes,
production of, 274 Equilibrium of microorganisms, 41, 270-272, 335
Eremycausis, 1 Escherichia culi, 52, 268, 275, 283, 284
Eubacteriales, 60 Excretion of nitrogen, 224—226 Exhaustion of
nutrients, 271 Fatigue of soil, 224 Fatty substances, decomposition
of, 122 Fermentation, 4, 8, 10, 16 Fertility of soil and humus, 139
and microorganisms, 323 Fertilization, effect of, 38-39, 332
Fertilizers for soil treatment, 292 Filterable organisms, 37 Fimicolous
fungi, 83 Fixation of nitrogen, sec Nitrogen fixation Flagellata, 90
Flagellates, 92 in soil, 55, 56 Food stuffs, microbiology of, 2 Forest
humus, 135-137 Forked mycorrhiza, 87 Formaldehyde, 299
Foundation of soil microbiology, 10 Fungi, and soil aggregation, 327,
328330 distribution of, 54 in soil, 35, 39, 53, 55, 82-88 Fungi
Imperfecti, 54, 287, 341 Fungicides, 300 Fusarium, 38, 83, 86, 243,
278, 291, 292, 293, 328 F. lateritium, 278 F. lini, 287, 293, 295 F.
radicicola, 288 F. vasinfectum, 287 Fusarium wilt, 301 Gases, 29
Gelatin plate method, 12 General microbiologx-, 26 Geophilic fungi,
83 Gilbert, Sir Henry, 5 Gliocladium, 278 Glucose, effect of, 174
GranuJohacter, 192 Grass, effect on trees, 258
 Index 351 Crcrn inaiuucs, 25'3, 317— 320 tor control of
scab, 296 Croon sulfur haotoria, 67 Crowth-proinoting suhstancos,
67, 33 1 llnrtmanclla liyaliiui. 92 Hclniinthosporium, 278, 293, 328 H.
grainincum, 287 H. sativum, 278, 293 H. teres, 278 Heniicelluloses,
doooinposition of, 11.5-117 Heteroantagonistio, 267 Hctcrodcra
radicicoUi, 290 Het. schaclUii, 93, 290 Heteromita, 92 H. glohosus,
92 Heterotrophic bacteria, 68-76 Higher fungi, 85-86 Hippuric acid
decomposition, 170 Historical, 1-28 Hookworm disease, 286
Hookworm lar\ae, 93, 286 Hormones, 168, 334 Horse manure, 118,
314 Horse manure compost, 152 Host plant specificity, 219 Hot
fermentation of manure, 53, 309 Human pathogens in soil, 282
Humic acids, 125 Huniicola, 178 Humicolous fungi, 83 Humification,
16 Humus, analysis of, 133 and soil fertility, 144-147 decomposition
of, 131, 132, 137142, 143, 157, 159 effect on leguminous plants,
221 effect on nitrogen fixation, 204-205 formation of, 105-106, 130-
133, 143 importance of, 128 in green manure, 319 in soil, 133, 134,
142-144 nature of, 124-130, 142 Humus fungi, 84 Humus podzol,
127-130 Hydrogen oxidation, 244 as source of energy, 60, 68
lli/diDfii'notnotui.s (inilis, 72 Ihuroxylamine, 186 Hxphao in soil, 45
H\ pliomycctes, 86 HvpogcoTis fungi, 83 "Incrustants," 99 Indigotin,
11 Industrial microbiology, 2-3 Infusoria, 90 Inoculants, 301
Inoculation, 223 of soil, 227, 330 of sulfur, 63 Interrelationships in
soil, 342 Iron transformation, 241 Isoantagonistic, 267 Itcrsonia
ferruginea, 77 Japanese beetle lar\ac, 93 Klebsiella pneumoniae, 268
Lactarius turpis, 86 Lawes, Sir John, 3 Lecithin, 236 decomposition
of, 168 Legumes, use of, 226-228 Leguminous plants, 14, 208
Lenzites, 121 Lepiota granulosa, 86 L. procera, 86 Liebig, J. von, 9
Life cycle of nodule bacteria, 214215 Lignicoleous fungi, 83 Lignin,
decomposition of, 119-122, 263 Lignin-decomposing fungi, 84 Liming
of soil, 160 Lipman, J. G., 19 Li\ing matter in soil, 29 Lohnis, F., 19
Lycoperdon caelatum, 86 Magnesium, transformation of, 241
Manganese as source of energy, 60 Manure, and soil fertility, 311-
312 composition of, 304
 352 Index Manure, decomposition of, 118, 139, 152, 30.5-
307, 310 effect of, 38, 48, 113-115, 294 microorganisms in, 52
preservation of, 308, 310, 324, 339 Mastigophora, 89 Medical
bacteriology, 2 Medical mycology, 2 Mercury compounds, use of, 300
Merulius lacrymans, 121 Methods, 19, 39 for evaluation of soil
fertility, 325 Microbial equilibrium, 270-272 Microbiological
antagonism, 293 Microbiological population, 33, 192, 193
Micrococcus denitrificans, 187 M. fiavus, 268 Micromonospora, 35,
81, 82, 344 Microorganisms, effect on plants, 250-254 Microscopic
methods, 33, 40, 41, 42 Microspira desulfuricans, 234 Mineral
substances, transformation of, 230-245 Minerals in soil, 29, 164
Moisture, effect of, 48, 49, 112, 163, 291, 309 Molybdenum, 230,
242 effect on nitrogen fixation, 223 Monascus, 278 Monilia, 86, 278
Monosporia, 86 Morphology of bacteria, 214 Muck, 134 Mucor, 83,
278 Mulder, J. G., 8 Mull soil, 136, 143 Mycelium in soil, 36, 40, 44,
45, 54 Mycobacterium tuberculosis, 284, 285 Mycogone nigra, 115
Mycorrhiza, 86-88, 259 Mycorrhiza fungi, 38, 86-88, 330
Myxobacteria, 71, 77 Myxobacteriales, 60 Myxococcus, 71, 77
Myxomycetes, 287 Myxophyceae, 200 Ndegleri gruberi, 92
Nematodes, 45, 57, 93, 290, 299 "Niter plantations," 179 Nitrate
accumulation, 160 Nitrate assimilation, 185 Nitrate formation, 104,
137, 139, 171 Nitrate reduction, 184, 185 Nitrification, 12-13, 15,
160, 179183, 235 Nitrifying bacteria, 61-66 Nitrite oxidation, 182
Nitrobacter, 65 Nitrogen, assimilation by plants, 209 Nitrogen
fixation, 14, 160 mechanism of, 201-204, 222-223 nonsymbiotic,
191-207 symbiotic, 14, 208-229 Nitrogen-fixing bacteria, 60, 184
Nitrogen-fixing capacity, 19 Nitrogen liberation, 104 Nitrogen losses,
140, 141, 188, 189 Nitrogen transformation in soil, 166190
Nitrogenase, 195 Nitrogenous substances, decomposition of, 117-
120 Nitrosocystis, 65 Nitrosogloea, 65 Nitrosomonas, 61, 65, 181 ZV.
europea, 61 Nitrosospira, 65 Nocardia, 35, 70, 82 N. catarrhalis, 268
N. coraUinus, 70 Nodule formation, 210-212, 213-214 in
nonlegumes, 220 Non-spore-forming bacteria, 69-70 Nonsymbiotic
nitrogen fixation, 191207 Nostoc, 199, 200, 220 N. muscorum, 200
Nucleic acid, 167 Nucleobacter, 237 Nucleoproteins, 237 Numbers of
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