C1 MAGNETISM

A naturally occurring material known as lodestone, a form of iron ore, attracts some materials
w hen they are brought near it. When a bar of lodestone is suspended freely, it settles in
the north-south direction. This property of lodestone has been used to make the present-day
magnets.
Magnets attract certain materials known as magnetic materials, examples of which are iron,
nickel, cobalt and their alloys. Magnets are made from these magnetic materials.

Properties of Magnets
Magnets have a number of properties some of which include:

1. Magnetic Poles
Experiment 1.1: To determine the poles of a magnet
Apparatus
Bar magnet, iron filings.

Fig. 1.1 (a): Bar magnet in iron filings

Procedure
• D i p the bar magnet into iron filings. Note where the iron filings cling most.
• R e p e a t the experiment using a horseshoe magnet.

Fig. 1.1 (b): A horse-shore magnet in iron filings

1
 Observation
The iron filings cling mainly around the ends of the bar magnet, see figure 1.1 (a) and (b).
This shows that magnetic attraction is strongest at the ends of the bar magnet.
The ends of a magnet where the power of attraction is greatest are called the poles of the
magnet or magnetic poles.

2. Directional Property
Experiment 1.2: To investigate the directional property of a magnet
Apparatus
Bar magnet, cotton thread, and wooden stand.
Procedure
• Suspend a bar magnet with a cotton thread from a wooden stand, so that the magnet swings
freely in the horizontal plane. Give it time and observe the direction in which it comes to
rest.
• From the rest position, turn the magnet through about 90° and release it. Note again the direction
in which it comes to rest.
• From the rest position, now turn the magnet through about 180°. Release it and note the
direction in which it comes to rest.
Observation
The suspended magnet always comes to rest with one end pointing roughly to the north
direction and the other to the southern direction of the earth, see figure
1.2.

Fig. 1.2: Suspended magnet at final resting position

Conclusion
Magnets have two poles. The pole which points towards the north is called the North-seeking or
the north (N) pole; the other one is the south-seeking or south (S) pole.
A magnet can be, therefore, used as a compass.
Note that this experiment can be used to identify poles of a magnet.

2
 3. Effect on Magnetic and
Non-magnetic Materials
Experiment 1.3: To classify objects into magnetic and non-magnetic materials
Apparatus
Rods of different materials, wooden stand, cotton thread, bar magnet.

Fig. 1.3: Effect of magnet on a material

Procedure
• Suspend a rod with a thread as shown in figure 1.3.
• Bring the north pole of a magnet towards one end of the rod and observe what happens.
• Repeat the experiment using the south pole of the magnet.
• Now repeat the experiment using different materials shown in Table 1.1. Note the observations.

Table 1.1

Object Observations
North Pole South Pole
Steel needle Attracted Attracted
Piece of chalk
Steel pin
Aluminum strip
Carbon rod
Copper wire
Match stick
Glass

Observation
It is observed that some objects are attracted by both the north and south poles of the magnet,
while others are not attracted.

3
 Conclusion
An object which is attracted by a magnet is a magnetic material. An object which is not
attracted by a magnet is a non-magnetic material. Metals such as cobalt, iron and nickel together
with their alloys which are strongly attracted by a magnet are called ferromagnetic materials.
Some examples of non-magnetic ma ter ials are copper, brass, aluminum, wood and glass.

4. Attraction and Repulsion

Experiment 1.4: To establish the law of magnetism
Apparatus
Two bar magnets, cotton thread, wooden stand, iron rod.
Procedure
• Suspend a bar magnet as shown in figure 1.4.

Fig. 1.4: Attraction and repulsion of magnetic poles

• Bring the north pole of another magnet towards the north pole of the suspended
magnet. Observe what happens.
• Bring the same pole towards the south pole of the suspended magnet.
• Repeat the experiment using the south pole of the free magnet. Observe what hapens
• Now repeat the experiment using a piece of unmagnetised iron instead of the suspended
bar magnet. Tabulate your results as shown in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2
North pole of South pole of
suspended magnet suspended magnet
North pole of the free Repulsion Attraction
magnet
South pole of the free
magnet
One end of iron bar
The other end of iron bar

4
Observation
A north pole attracts a south pole and repels a north pole, while a south pole repels a south pole
and attracts a north pole. This can be summarized as like poles repel, unlike poles attract. This
is the basic law of magnetism. Both north pole and south pole attracts unmagnetised material.
The polarity of a magnet can be tested by bringing both its poles, in turn, adjacent to the
known poles of a suspended magnet. Repulsion only occurs between the like poles of a magnet.
However, attraction can occur between two unlike poles or between a pole and a piece of an
unmagnetised magnetic material.
Thus, the only sure test for polarity of a magnet is repulsion.

5. Breaking a Magnet
When a bar magnet is broken into two or more pieces, the pieces retain their magnetism,
each having a north pole and a south pole at its ends, see figure 1.5.

Fig. 1.5

6. Magnetic Field Patterns

When a magnetic material is placed near one pole of a magnet, it is attracted. This suggests
that there is a magnetic effect in the space around a magnet. The region or space where the
magnetic influence is felt is called the magnetic field. The field is stronger near the poles of
the magnet and is weaker farther away from the poles.
Experiment 1.5 To Investigate magnetic field patterns of a magnet using
Iron filings
Apparatus
Bar magnet, horse-shoe magnet, smooth stiff cardboard, iron filings.

Fig. 1.6: Field patterns

5
 Procedure
• Place the bar magnet on a table and put a stiff cardboard over it.
• Sprinkle a thin layer of iron filings on the board and tap the cardboard gently. Note the
observations.
• Repeat the experiment with the horse-shoe magnet under the board.
Observation
The iron filings form patterns which seem to originate from one pole and end the other, see
figure 1.6 (a) and (b).
Conclusion
The magnetic field around a given magnet or arrangement of magnets is a definite
pattern.

Class Activity
Using the procedure of Experiment 1.5, determine the field patterns for the combination
below:

Direction of Magnetic Field

Experiment 1 . 6 : To investigate t h e direction o f m ag n e t i c f i e l d u s i n g a magnetic
needle
Apparatus
Magnet bar, magnetic needle fixed on a cork, glass trough.

Fig. 1.7: Direction of magnetic field

6
Procedure
• Pour water into the trough up to three-quarters its volume.
• Float a magntised needle with its north pole uppermost, as shown in figure
1.7.
• Place a strong magnet so that it rests on the edge of the trough.
• Adjust the level of the water so that the north pole of the needle is at the same level with
the plane of the magnet.
• Hold the needle near the north pole of the magnet and then release it. Observe its
movement.
• Repeat the experiment with the south pole of the needle uppermost and placed near the
south pole of the magnet. Note its movement.
Observation
When the needle is held with its north pole near the north pole of the magnet and released, the
needle is repelled and moves towards the South Pole along a curve, as shown in figure 1.7.
If the south pole of the needle is placed near South Pole of the magnet and the needle
released, the direction of motion is reversed. The direction of the motion of the needle is
determined by the pole of the needle which is adjacent to the magnet.
Therefore, in deciding the direction of the field, one of these directions has to be chosen as
a standard direction. By convection, the direction of motion of the North Pole is chosen.
The direction of the magnetic field at a point is the direction which a free north pole
would move if placed at that point in the field.
Thus, a magnetic line of force can be defined as the path along which a north pole would
move if free to do so.

Experiment 1.7: To investigate magnetic field patterns by use of a plotting compass

Apparatus
Bar magnet, plotting compass, white sheet of paper, drawing board.

Fig. 1.8: Plotting a magnetic field.

7
Procedure

• Place the bar magnet on the sheet of paper fixed on a drawing board.
• Mark its outline and indicate the polarity of the magnet on the paper.
• Place a plotting compass near the north pole of the magnet.
• Starting from one pole of the magnet, mark in the paper the north and south ends of the
compass needle with pencil dots at P and Q as shown on figure 1.8 (a).
• Move the compass until the south pole of the needle is at P mark the new position of the North
Pole at R.
• Repeat the procedure so that a series of dots is obtained. Join these dots using smooth curves,
as in figure 1.8 (b).
• Repeat the above procedure starting from different points near the magnet.
Join each set of dots using a smooth curve as shown in the figure.
Observation and Conclusion
Smooth parallel curves that start from one pole and end at the other pole are obtained, see
figure 1.8 (b). These curves represent the magnetic field lines. Magnetic field lines have the
following properties:
(i) They originate from North Pole and end at the South Pole.
(ii) They repel each other and form closed paths never intersecting other lines of forces.
(iii) They are closer together where the field is strongest.
In figure 1.9 (b), the left end X has a higher field strength than right end Y.

Fig. 1.9: Magnetic field strength

Magnetic Field Patterns

Magnetic Pattern around a Bar Magnet
The field lines are shown in figure 1.10. The magnetic field for a magnet lines of force
originate from the North Pole and end at the South Pole.
The magnetic field lines around a bar magnet originate from North Pole and end at the
South Pole.

8
Fig. 1.10: Field pattern around a bar magnet
Field Patterns between Unlike Poles
Each magnet has its own magnetic field. The two fields combine to produce a single
magnetic field, as shown in figure 1.11.

Fig 1.11. Field patterns between unlike poles

For a horse-shoe magnet, the North Pole to the South Pole, the field lines between the
poles are more concentrated.
For a horse- shoe magnet, the tied lines between the poles are highly concentrated at the
region between the poles.

Fig. 1.12: Field pattern of a horse-shoe magnet

Field Patterns between Like Poles

When like poles are placed adjacent to each other magnetic field from the poles repel each other
resulting in a neutral point X as shown in figure 1.13.

9
 Fig. 1.13: Field pattern between two like poles
There is no magnetic field at point X, which is called a neutral point. A neutral point can thus be
defined as that point where the effect of two magnetic fields totally cancel each other.

Effect of Soft Iron Rod and Ring

Lines of force the magnet get concentrated along the soft iron rod, as shown in figure 1.14. The
lines emerge on the far end of the rod, thus preventing them from reaching certain regions.

Fig. 1.14: Effects of soft iron rod

A soft iron ring concentrates the magnetic lines of force, as shown in figure 1.15. This prevents
lines from entering region P. Region P is thus said to be magnetically shielded by the ring from
magnetic fields.

Fig. 1.15: Magnetic shielding

Therefore, both the iron rod and ring can be used in magnetic shielding or screening. Some
electrical measuring instruments and watches are shielded this way from stray magnetic fields
using alloys of high magnetic permeability (the property of certain materials to concentrate a
magnetic field, hence leaving some areas totally free from magnetic influence).

The Earth’s Magnetic Field

The fact that a suspended bar magnet aligns itself such that its North Pole points roughly to the
geographical north of the earth, suggests that the inner core of the earth behaves as if it were a
magnet. Using the basic law of magnetism, it can be visualized that the magnetic is embedded
in the earth’s magnet, crust with its south pole near the geographical north and its north pole
near the geographical south poles see figure 1.16.
The origin of the earth’s magnetism is believed to be in part associated to the
10
 spinning liquid metallic core of iron and nickel.

Fig. 1.16: Earth’s magnetic field.

Experiment 1.8: To plot the earth’s magnetic field

Apparatus
Drawing board, plain white paper, four pins, plotting compass.

Fig. 1.17: Plotting the earth’s magnetic field

Procedure
• Fix a plain paper on a drawing board placed on a table.
• Mark a dot at one end of the paper.
• Place a plotting compass such that the south pole of the needle is at the first dot. Mark
the position of the North Pole with a second dot.
• Move the compass so that the south pole of the needle is at the second dot.
Mark the position of the North Pole with a third dot, see figure 1.17.
• Repeat the procedure until a series of dots is obtained.
• Join the dots.
• Repeat the procedure to obtain more lines.
• Indicate with an arrow the direction the North Pole of the needle points when placed on
the line.

11
Observation
A series of parallel lines are obtained. These lines represent the direction of the earth’s field,
from magnetic south to magnetic north, see figure 1.18.

Fig. 1.18: Earth’s magnetic field.

The earth’s field is an example of uniform field.

A bar Magnet placed anywhere near the earth’s surface will have its magnetic
field combining with the field of the earth, see figure 1.19 (a).
At points marked X, the magnetic field of the earth and that due to the magnet are equal and
opposite. The resultant magnetic field is therefore zero at these points, which are called neutral
points, see figure 1.19 (a) and (b).

Fig 1.19: Bar magnet in the earth’s magnetic field

At P, the field of the magnet is stronger than that of the earth, while it is weaker at Q.

12
Exercise 1.1
1. Sketch the magnetic field patterns for the arrangements below:

2. The diagram below shows the magnetic field pattern between two magnets P
and Q:

(a) Identify poles A and B.

(b) State which of the two magnets P and Q is stronger. Explain.

The Domain Theory

Magnetic materials contains small magnetic regions referred to as magnetic
domains. A domain comprises small atomic magnets called dipoles.
A dipole has a north and South Pole. The dipoles in a particular domain align
themselves in a common direction giving the domain an overall north pole and a south
pole. A line can thus be drawn (magnetic axis) joining the poles, see figure
1.20.

13
 The total field outside a magnetic material is the sum of individual domain fields.

Fig. 1.20: Dipoles in a domain

In the un-magnetised condition , the dipoles in neighboring domains arrange themselves in
closed loops, see figure 1.19
The domains however align in different direction giving no resultant field outside the
material.
When a magnetising field is applied to the material, there is adjustment of domain boundaries
causing some of the domains to increase in size and others to shrink. In the process, the domain,
align themselves with their magnetic axis pointing in the same direction. The net external field
increases and the material is said to be magnetised.

Fig. 1.12
When all dipoles align themselves in one direction, the material is said to be magnetically
s a t u r a t e d . No further magnetisation c a n take place beyond this point
When the magnetising field is removed, domains of hard magnetic (materials which are
hard to magnetise) maintain their new orientation, while those of soft magnetic materials
(materials which are easy to magnetise) have their domains reverting to their original
arrangement.

Magnetisation of a Magnetic Material

The process of making a magnet from a magnetic material is called
magnetisation. The common methods used in magnetisation are:
(i) Induction.
(ii) Stroking.
(iii) Hammering to
the earth’s magnetic
(iv) Electrical method.

14
Induction Method
Experiment 1.9. To make a magnet by induction method
Apparatus
Two bar magnets, office pins

Fig. 1.22: Induced magnetism.

Procedure
• Hold a bar magnet vertically.
• Move the lower pole towards one end of a pin.
• Move the lower end of that pin to the ends of the other pins, one by one. Note what
happens
• Detach the top pin from the magnet. What do you observe?
Observation
The first pin gets attracted to the magnet. The other pins get attracted to the first pin and form
a chain, see figure 1.22 (a).
When the first pin is detached from the magnet, the lower pins fall off after a short time.
Explanation
The ends of the pins attracted to the magnet acquire a polarity that is opposite to that pole of
the magnet. The lower end of the pin acquires a polarity similar to the pole used, see figure
1.22 (c).
The pins become magnetised and the dipoles in them get aligned along the magnetic
axis of the magnetising magnet.
The pins in the experiment get magnetised by induction method.

Stroking Method
When a steel needle is stroked using one end of a strong magnet repeatedly, the needle
becomes magnetised.

15
Experiment 1.10: To make a magnet by stroking method

Single Stroke Method

Apparatus
A bar magnet, cotton thread, steel bar.

Fig. 1.23. Single stroke method

Procedure
• Place the steel bar X on a table.
• Stroke the bar with one pole of the magnet from A to B, lifting it away as shown in
figure 1.23
• Repeat the procedure several times, keeping the inclination of the roughly the same.
• Test for the polarity of the bar by suspending it freely. Note what happens.
Observation
The suspended bar aligns itself with the magnetic axis of the earth. One of its ends is
repelled by the plotting compass.
Conclusion
The bar is magnetised by stroking method. The end of the bar where the magnet Y finishes
stroking acquires an opposite polarity to that of the stroking end of the magnet. Since the stroking
pole of the magnet in the figure is north, the and B of the bar becomes the south pole.
The disadvantage of this method is that it produces magnets in which one pole is nearer
the end of the magnetised material than the other.
This can be avoided by use of the double stroke method.

Double Stroke Method

Apparatus
Steel bar, two bar magnets, cotton thread, and plotting compass.
Procedure
• Stroke the steel bar Z from the center repeatedly in opposite directions, using opposite polarities
of two bar magnets P and Q, see figure 1.24.

16
Fig. 1.24 Magnetisation by double stroke method
• Test for the polarity of the steel bar.
Observation
The end A of the bar acquires a north pole while end B acquires a south pole.
Conclusion
The steel bar has been magnetised by double stroking.
If a steel bar is magnetised by the double stroke method using north poles of two magnets, the
bar acquires a south pole at each end and a double north pole at the centre, see figure 1.25

Fig. 1.25: Making a magnet with consequent poles at the centre

Hammering to the Earth Magnetic Field Method

This method makes use of the influence of earth’s magnetic field. A steel bar to be magnetised is
placed inclined to the horizontal in a north–south direction at an angle θ and the upper end
hammered several times.

Fig. 1.26 Hammering in the earth’s field

17
 Note:
θ is referred to as the angle of dip. It varies according to position on the earth. The process
results into the formation of a weak magnet.

Electrical Method
This is the best and quickest method of making a magnet. It utilises the magnetic effect of an
electric current. The method is used widely in industrial production of magnets.
A coil with many turns of insulated copper wire, called a solenoid, is used. A direct
current (d.c.) is passed through the solenoid.
Experiment 1.11: To magnetise a steel bar by electrical method
Apparatus
Steel bar, a solenoid, battery, ammeter, switch, connecting wires, cotton thread and plotting
compass.

Fig. 1.27: Magnetising by electrical method

Procedure
• Place a steel bar AB inside the solenoid connected in series with the battery.
• Switch on the current for some time, then switch off.
• Test for the polarity of the steel bar.
Observation
The bar is magnetised. The polarity of the magnet depends on the direction of the electric
current.
The poles A and B can be identified using the clock rule, which states that if , on viewing
one end of the bar, the current flows in clockwise direction, then that end is a south
pole. If anticlockwise, then it is a north pole, see figure 1.28.

18
 Fig. 1.28: The clock rule
The poles A and B can also be identified using the right-hand grip rule for a current-
carrying coil, see figure 1.29.

Fig. 1.29: Right-hand grip rule

The right-hand grip rule states that if a coil carrying a current is grasped in the right hand
such that the fingers point in the direction of the current in the coil, then the thumb points
in the direction of North Pole.
Allowing the current to flow for a long time does not increase the extend of magnetic saturation.
It only causes overheating of the solenoid, which adversely affects magnetism.

Demagnetisation

The magnetic properties of a magnet can be destroyed by hammering in the east- west
direction, heating or using electricity.

Hammering and Heating

A magnet is demagnetized by heating or hammering it when placed in east-west direction.
The magnetism is lost because hammering or heating disorients magnetic dipoles.

Electrical Method
This is the most effective method of demagnetisation
An a.c voltage is connected in series with a solenoid which is placed with its axis pointing east-
west, as shown in figure 1.30. The bar magnet to be demagnetized is placed inside the solenoid
and the alternating current switched on. After a few minutes, it is withdrawn slowly from the
solenoid.

19
 Fig. 1.30: Demagnetising using electric current
When suspended freely, it does not settle in any particular direction. This shows that
it has lost magnetism.
The magnet loses its power because alternating current reverses many times per second,
disorienting the magnetic dipoles.
Note:
In the above methods, the magnets are placed in the east-west direction so that they don’t retain
some magnetism due to the earth’s magnetic field.

Hard and Soft Magnetic Materials

When a bar of soft iron is placed inside a solenoid and a current switched on, it becomes a
strong magnet. When the current is switched off, it loses magnetism.
Magnetic materials such as soft iron which are magnetised easily but do not retain their
magnetism are said to be soft magnetic materials.
An alloy of nickel and iron is another example of a soft magnetic material. It can be
magnetised by very weak fields, such as the earth’s magnetic field. These magnetic materials are
used in making electromagnets, transformer cores and for magnetic shielding.
On the other hand, steel is difficult to magnetise, but once magnetised, it retains the
magnetism for a long time. Magnetic materials such as steel are said to be hard magnetic
materials. Hard magnetic materials are used in making permanent magnets.

Storing Magnets
A bar magnet tends to become weaker with time due to self-demagnetisation. This is caused
by the poles at the end which tend to upset the alignment of the domains inside it. To prevent
this, magnets are stored in pairs with small soft iron bars, called keepers, placed across their
ends. Unlike poles of the magnets are placed adjacent to on another as in figure1.31.

Fig. 1.31: Magnetic keepers

20
The keepers acquire polarities as shown in the figure so that the dipoles in the magnet and
the keepers form complete loops.
The dipoles thus retain their orientation and magnetism is maintained.

Application of Magnets
Magnets have a wide range of uses some of which are elaborated below:
(i) Loudspeaker/Microphones
Loudspeakers convert electrical signals into sound. Magnet in the speaker provides a
magnetic field which interacts with the field of varying electrical current fed into the speaker
and results in a vibration of the coil of the speaker.

Fig 1.32: Speakers

In microphones sound waves are converted into electrical signals with a magnet playing
a significant role.

Fig.1.33: Microphone
(ii) Computer Hard Disk/Recording and reading Head/Video Tapes.
The head of hard disk of a computer records data on magnetic tapes or stripes in the disk.
This is done through magnetisation of magnetic materials in those stripes corresponding to the
data input. The reading head together with encoding system in the computer on command by the
user reproduce this information for manipulation.

Fig. 1.34: Computer hard disk

21
(iii) In Medicine
Hospitals are employing the use of magnets from the simple extraction of metallic objects
from patients, body (e.g., eye) to Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). Figure 1.35
shows an example of M. R. I machine which uses powerful magnet whose fields enable
doctors to take pictures of internal parts of human body. This produces photographs with
more details than when X- rays are used.

Fig 1.35: An MRI machine

Magnets are also used in what is referred to as magnetic therapy where special magnets
are used to relief pain and relax the body.

(iv) Sorting/Separating
Magnets are used to sort or separate magnetic materials as in quarries where metal is
separated from ore. Very strong magnets are used to recover metallic objects from ocean
bed.

(v) Magnetic Screw Drivers

In lifting small screws or putting them in place during repair work, technicians
make use of magnetic screw drivers.
See figure 1.36 below.

Fig. 1.36: Magnetic screw drive

22
Revision Exercise 1
1. Describe two methods of magnetising a steel rod.
2. Compare magnetic properties of steel and iron.
3. Explain why a magnetic material is attracted by a magnet.
4. Explain why iron filings are not suitable for plotting lines of force of a weak magnetic
field.
5. Explain why soft iron cannot be used to make permanent magnets.
6. Describe how you would verify the basic law of magnetism.
7. Explain the meaning of the following: (a)
Magnetic field.
(b) Magnetic lines of force.
8. Describe how you would shield a magnetic material from a magnetic field.
State one application of magnetic shielding.
9. Describe three methods of demagnetising a permanent magnet.
10. Use domain theory to explain the difference between magnetic and non- magnetic
materials.
11. A coil of insulated wire is wound around a U-shaped soft iron core XY and connected to
a battery as shown in the figure below.

State the polarities of ends X and Y.

12. Explain, with the help of a diagram, what a neutral point of a magnetic field is.
13. (a) With the aid of diagrams, explain how you would magnetise a steel bar so as to obtain a
south pole at a marked end of the bar by:
(i) Using a permanent magnet.
(ii) Using an electric current.
(b) State which of the above methods produces the stronger magnet.
Give a reason.

23
14. You are given three steel bars. One is magnetised with opposite poles at its ends. Another is
magnetised with consequent poles. The third is not magnetised. Describe an experiment
which you would perform to identify each.
15. The graphs below are for two magnetic materials:

State:
(a) Which material is easier to magnetise.
(b) Which material forms a stronger magnet?
(c) One application of each.
16. Briefly describe how you can construct a simple plotting compass.
17. In diagrams (a) and (b) below, two pins are attached to magnets as shown:

Explain the behaviour of the pins in each case.

18. Describe four properties of magnets.
19. State five uses of magnets.

24
25