Urban Transportation and Land use Modeling (UPD- 30521)

Chapter One
1. Introduction
1.1 What is Transportation?

Transportation is the movement of goods and persons from place to place and the various
means by which such movement is accomplished. It is a device used to move an item from one
location to another. Common forms of transportation include planes, trains, automobiles, and
other two-wheel devices such as bikes or motorcycles.

At its most basic, the term “transportation system” is used to refer to the equipment and logistics
of transporting passengers and goods. It covers movement by all forms of transport, from cars
and buses to boats, aircraft and even space travel. Transportation systems are employed in troop
movement logistics and planning, as well as in running the local school bus service.

Generally, Transportation can be defined as:

An act, process, or instance of transporting or being transported

Means of conveyance or travel from one place to another
Public conveyance of passengers or goods especially as a commercial enterprise
The removal of goods or persons from one place to another, by a carrier.

1.2 What is transported?

Human beings/persons (buses, taxis, rail, air, etc.)
Transportation of goods and animals (freight, cargo, etc.)
Transportation of information/news (Tel, Post, Radio, TV, internet)
Transportation of energy (electricity, gas line, etc)
Transportation of liquid waste/fluid (pipe lines)

1.3 Transportation Infrastructure

Transport infrastructure consists of the fixed installations, including roads, railways, airways,
waterways, canals and pipelines and terminals such as airports, railway stations, bus stations,
warehouses, trucking terminals, refueling depots (including fueling docks and fuel stations) and
seaports. Terminals may be used both for interchange of passengers and cargo and for
maintenance. Vehicles traveling on these networks may include automobiles, bicycles, buses,
trains, trucks, helicopters, watercraft, spacecraft and aircraft.

Operations deal with the way the vehicles are operated, and the procedures set for this purpose,
including financing, legalities, and policies. In the transport industry, operations and ownership
of infrastructure can be either public or private, depending on the country and mode.
Passenger transport may be public, where operators provide scheduled services, or private.
Freight transport has become focused on containerization, although bulk transport is used for
large volumes of durable items.

The Transportation Infrastructures are includes:

Road Transport
Rail Transport
Air Transport
Water Transport
Raw Material Transport
Telecommunication

1.4 What is Urban Transportation?

The defining trait of urban transportation is the ability to cope with this density while moving
people and goods. Density creates challenges for urban transportation because of crowding and
the expense of providing infrastructure in built-up areas. It also creates certain advantages
because of economies of scale. Some transportation activities are cheaper when carried out in
large volumes. These characteristics mean that two of the most important phenomena in urban
transportation are traffic congestion and mass transit.

Function: The purpose of a urban transportation system is to coordinate the movement of

people, goods and vehicles in order to utilize routes most efficiently. When implemented,
transportation systems seek to reduce transport costs and improve delivery times through
effective timetabling and route management. Periodic re-evaluations and the development of
alternative routes allow for timely changes to the transportation system in order to maintain
efficiency.

Features: A standard urban transportation system will usually feature multiple timetables
designed to inform the user of where each vehicle in the fleet is expected to be at any given point
in time. These timetables are developed alongside an array of route plans designed to coordinate
vehicle movements in a way that prevents bottlenecks in any one location.

Benefits: The main benefit of implementing a urban transportation system is delivery of goods
and personnel to their destinations in a timely manner. This in turn increases the efficiency of
vehicle use, as the same vehicle can be used for “multi-drop” jobs, such as bus services or home
delivery networks, far more effectively when their routes are planned in advance rather than
being generated “on the fly.”

Size: Urban transportation systems are developed in a wide variety of sizes. Local transport
networks spanning the bus network for a city and its suburbs are common, as are country-wide
delivery networks for haulage firms. Airlines use international transportation systems to
coordinate their flights. The larger the distance being covered, the more effective the use of
vehicles when a transportation system is used.

1.5 Role of Urban Transportion

Transportation is a non-separable part of any society. It exhibits a very close relation to the style
of life, the range and location of activities and the goods and services which will be available for
consumption. Advances in transportation has made possible changes in the way of living and the
way in which societies are organized and therefore have a great influence in the development of
civilizations. Transportation is responsible for the development of civilizations from very old
times by meeting travel requirement of people and transport requirement of goods. Such
movement has changed the way people live and travel. In developed and developing nations, a
large fraction of people travel daily for work, shopping and social reasons. But transport also
consumes a lot of resources like time, fuel, materials and land.

Urbanization has been one of the dominant contemporary processes as a growing share of the
global population lives in cities. Considering this trend, urban transportation issues are of
foremost importance to support the passengers and freight mobility requirements of large urban
agglomerations. Transportation in urban areas is highly complex because of the modes involved,
the multitude of origins and destinations, and the amount and variety of traffic. Traditionally, the
focus of urban transportation has been on passengers as cities were viewed as locations of utmost
human interactions with intricate traffic patterns linked to commuting, commercial transactions
and leisure/cultural activities. However, cities are also locations of production, consumption and
distribution, activities linked to movements of freight. Conceptually, the urban transport system
is intricately linked with urban form and spatial structure. Urban transit is an important
dimension of mobility, notably in high density areas.

1.5.1 Economic Role of Urban Transportation

Economics involves production, distribution and consumption of goods and services. People
depend upon the natural resources to satisfy the needs of life but due to non-uniform surface of
earth and due to difference in local resources, there is a lot of difference in standard of living in
different societies. So there is an immense requirement of transport of resources from one
particular society to other. These resources can range from material things to knowledge and
skills like movement of doctors and technicians to the places where there is need of them.

The evolution of transport (improvement and development) has always been linked to economic
development and job creation directly and indirectly. The construction of transport material has
evolved according to current fashions; naval rail, automobile, and aerospace construction. The
transport sector is also an economic factor in the production of goods and services. They
contribute to the value-added of goods and services frigate economics of scale, influence land
(real estate) value and participate in the geographic specialization of given regions. Transport is
both a factor and a reflection of economic activity.
Some of the economic importance/roles of urban transportation are expressed as follows.
Relating population to land use: transportation to land use by moving persons
and goods from one place to another.
Utilization of resources: raw materials are seldom consumed where they occur in
nature. Raw materials are transported to point of processing and consumption for
proper utilization.
Regional specialization: transportation makes regional specialization possible by
supply of specialized skills, equipment, raw materials and distribution of finished
goods. Each region can develop with its own specialty.
Timely supply: fresh fruits and vegetables must more with rapid speeds that their
freshness is available at delivery places. Other products like newspapers,
magazines, etc. are suspensible to time element for their sale value. Various
modes of transportation ensure timely supply.
 Production: transport is required at different stages in the process of production.
Efficiency and sufficiency of transport lowers the cost of reasonable prices,
demand increases and more prediction is required.
Competition: as different industries grow in different parts of the world, due to
reduction in the rate of transport, the number of competitors in market increases
which brings down the price of commodity.
Even distribution: due to adequate transportation people are able to enjoy those
commodities, which are not produced in their country. Transport considerably
helps in even distribution of commodities among all communities of the world.
Employment: transport industry and sector moves huge quantities of goods and
people in millions. Motor manufactures, locomotion’s manufactures aircraft
factories, shipyard companies and the different modes of transport employ
millions of workers.

1.5.2 Social Role of Transportation

Transportation has always played an important role in influencing the formation of urban
societies. Although other facilities like availability of food and water, played a major role, the
contribution of transportation can be seen clearly from the formation, size and pattern, and the
development of societies, especially urban centers.

Transport modes facilitate the comings and goings of citizens who wish to have access to
healthcare, welfare, and cultural are artistic events. They shape the urban fabric and their
respective regions by favoring the mobility of people. Transport has an impact on the whole of
society (users, suppliers, entrepreneurs, governments).

Therefore, the following are the main advantages of transportation on social life of human
beings.

 Transportation raises the standard living of different people

 Transportation created population centers
 Feeling of isolation is destroyed due to transportation
 Timely distribution of mails, newspapers, etc., brought people of different region in close
contacts and promotes mutual understanding
 Transporting cultural and intelligence and has made emigration possible.
  Life has become more enjoyable and comfortable.
 Transportation brings them to door.
 Growth of Urban Centers

1.5.3 Political Role of Transportation

The world is divided into numerous political units which are formed for mutual protection,
economic advantages and development of common culture. Transportation plays an important
role in the functioning of such political unit.

Governments play a critical role in transport as investors, decisions makers and factors,
transports political role is undeniable. While most transport demand relates to economic
imperatives, many communication corridors have been constructed for political reasons.
Transport thus has an impact on national unity (liking every corner of the land by rail road air
and sea). Different region of the country are made economically interdependent and this
strengthens unity.

1.5.3.1 Administration of an area

The government of an area must be able to send/get information to/about its people. It may
include laws to be followed, security and other needful information needed to generate
awareness. An efficient administration of a country largely depends on how effectively
government could communicate these information to all the country. However, with the advent
of communications, its importance is slightly reduced.

1.5.3.2 Political choices in transport

These choices may be classified as communication, military movement, and travel of persons
and movement of freight. The primary function of transportation is the transfer of messages and
information. It is also needed for rapid movement of troops in case of emergency and finally
movement of persons and goods. The political decision of construction and maintenance of roads
has resulted in the development of transportation system.

1.6 What is Land use modeling?

Land use modeling is a quantitative method that uses existing and projected data combined with
economic and social behavior theories to predict future changes in the types and longer term
impacts of land uses. Computer modeling of alternative land use and transportation situations
(scenarios) can contribute to a more measurable, and therefore more objective, planning process.
Modeling can also add value to the planning process by providing opportunities to visualize
complex systems and outcomes.

Characteristics:

Use economic theories and simplified statistical methods to explain and estimate the
layout of land uses Are quantitative methods used to predict future changes in land uses
based on economic theories and social behaviors
Can be integrated with transportation models to simulate the interdependent relationships
between land uses and the transportation network
Help determine the various impacts to the transportation network of various land use
policies

1.7 An Over view of Transportation Planning

Transportation planning is the process of defining future policies, goals, investments, and
designs to prepare for future needs to move people and goods to destinations. As practiced today,
it is a collaborative process that incorporates the input of many stakeholders including various
government agencies, the public and private businesses. Transportation planners apply a multi-
modal and/or comprehensive approach to analyzing the wide range of alternatives and impacts
on the transportation system to influence beneficial outcomes.

Transport planning is also defined as planning required in the operation, provision and
management of facilities and services for the modes of transport to achieve safer, faster,
comfortable, convenient, economical and environment-friendly movement of people and goods.
It is a prediction of usage demand in future travel and to ensure all the necessary facilities and
services to cater to that demand. Transport planning is highly essential in shaping cities, enabling
economic activities, promoting community interaction, and enhancing quality of life. It is also
essential for sustainable development and ensuring safe accessibility at various levels for all
individuals.

Transportation planning is commonly referred to as transport planning internationally, and is

involved with the evaluation, assessment, design, and siting of transport facilities (generally
streets, highways, bike lanes, and public transport lines).
Transportation Planning is essentially the confluence many different disciplines coming together
in the first stages of the development of plans, policies and legislative activities, funding, and
project development. In, Designing Walkable Urban Thoroughfares: A Context Sensitive
Approach, Transportation Planning is defined as "a collaborative and participatory process
involving agencies, organizations and the public in a comprehensive look at national, state,
regional and community needs…It examines demographic characteristics and travel patterns for
a given area, shows how these characteristics will change over a given period of time and
evaluates alternative improvements for the transportation system."

Under transportation planning, different practices such as urban development, urban transport
policies, legislative activities, funding bodies and project management come together. It involves
various agencies and organizations for successful transportation planning. Governing bodies
actually examine the demographic characteristics and travel patterns for a given area, and check
how these characteristics will change over a given period of time. Alternative improvements are
then evaluated for the transportation system. Moreover, it requires a lot of coordination between
transport system and land use authorities. The aim for all these bodies is to devise a plan which
incorporates efficient energy use and lesser pollution of various means. The activity involves
alternative modes of transport that will enhance its efficiency. Transportation planning must
cover all aspects of city life such as economic development, quality of life, health of public and
environment and thereby supporting long-term ecological balance. For this transportation
planners and engineers always focus on the efficient movement of people and goods across the
country.

1.8 Transport Planning Process

Transportation planning is a cooperative process designed to foster involvement by all users of

the system, such as the business community, community groups, environmental organizations,
the traveling public, freight operators, and the general public, through a proactive public
participation process conducted by the Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), State
Department of Transportation (SDT), and transit operators..

Transportation planning includes a number of steps:

Monitoring existing conditions;

 Forecasting future population and employment growth, including assessing projected land
uses in the region and identifying major growth corridors;
Identifying current and projected future transportation problems and needs and analyzing,
through detailed planning studies, various transportation improvement strategies to address
those needs;
Developing long-range plans and short-range programs of alternative capital improvement
and operational strategies for moving people and goods;
Estimating the impact of recommended future improvements to the transportation system
on environmental features, including air quality; and
Developing a financial plan for securing sufficient revenues to cover the costs of
implementing strategies.
1.9 Transportation and Environmental Issues
Transportation systems, from infrastructures to vehicle operations, have environmental impacts
ranging from noise, the emission of pollutants to climate change.
The environmental impact of transport is significant because transport is a major user of energy,
and burns most of the world's petroleum. This creates air pollution, including nitrous oxides and
particulates, and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon
dioxide. Within the transport sector, road transport is the largest contributor to global warming.

The negative effects of transportation is more dominating than its useful aspects as far as
transportation is concerned. There are numerous categories into which the environmental effects
have been categorized. They are explained in the following sections.

1.9.1 Safety

Growth of transportation has a very unfortunate impact on the society in terms of accidents.
Worldwide death and injuries from road accidents have reached epidemic proportions. -killed
and about 15 million injured on the road accidents annually. Increased variation in the speeds
and vehicle density resulted in a high exposure to accidents. Accidents result in loss of life and
permanent disability, injury, and damage to property. Accidents also causes numerous non-
quantifiable impacts like loss of time, grief to the near ones of the victim, and inconvenience to
the public. The loss of life and damage from natural disasters, industrial accidents, or epidemic
often receive significant attention from both government and public. This is because their
occurrence is concentrated but sparse. On the other hand, accidents from transport sector are
widespread and occurs with high frequency.

For instance, a study has predicted that death and disabilities resulting from road accidents in
comparison with other diseases will rise from ninth to third rank between 1990 and 2020. Road
accidents as cause to death and disability could rank below heart disease and clinical depression,
and ahead of stroke and all infectious diseases. Significant reduction to accident rate is achieved
in the developing countries by improved road designed maintenance, improved vehicle design,
driver education, and law enforcements. However in the developing nations, the rapid growth of
personalized vehicles and poor infrastructure, road design, and law enforcement has resulted in
growing accident rate.

1.9.2 Air Pollution

All transport modes consume energy and the most common source of energy is from the burning
of fossil fuels like coal, petrol, diesel, etc. The relation between air pollution and respiratory
disease have been demonstrated by various studies and the detrimental effects on the planet earth
is widely recognized recently. The combustion of the fuels releases several contaminants into the
atmosphere, including carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen, and other particulate
matter. Hydrocarbons are the result of incomplete combustion of fuels. Particulate matters are
minute solid or liquid particles that are suspended in the atmosphere. They include aerosols,
smoke, and dust particles. These air pollutants once emitted into the atmosphere, undergo mixing
and disperse into the surroundings.

1.9.3 Noise pollution

Sound is acoustical energy released into atmosphere by vibrating or moving bodies whereas
noise is unwanted sound produced. Transportation is a major contributor of noise pollution,
especially in urban areas. Noise is generated during both construction and operation. During
construction, operation of large equipment causes considerable noise to the neighborhood.
During the operation, noise is generated by the engine and exhaust systems of vehicle,
aerodynamic friction, and the interaction between the vehicle and the support system (road tire,
rail-wheel). Extended exposure to excessive sound has been shown to produce physical and
psychological damage. Further, because of its annoyance and disturbance, noise adds to mental
stress and fatigue. 3.5.4 Energy consumption The spectacular growth in industrial and economic
growth during the past century have been closely related to an abundant supply of inexpensive
energy from fossil fuels. Transportation sector is unbelieved to consume more than half of the
petroleum products. The compact of the shortage of fuel was experienced during major wars
when strict rationing was imposed in many countries. The impact of this had cascading effects on
many factors of society, especially in the price escalation of essential commodities. However,
this has few positive impacts; a shift to public transport system, a search for energy efficient
engines, and alternate fuels. During the time of fuel shortage, people shifted to cheaper public
transport system. Policy makers and planners, thereafter gave much emphasis to the public
transit which consume less energy per person. The second impact was in the development of
fuel-efficient engines and devices and operational and maintenance practices. A fast depleting
fossil fuel has accelerated the search for energy efficient and environment friendly alternate
energy source. The research is active in the development of bio-fuels, hydrogen fuels and solar
energy.

1.9.4 Other impacts

Transportation directly or indirectly affects many other areas of society and few of then are listed
below: Almost all cities uses 20-30 percent of its land in transport facilities. Increased travel
requirement also require additional land for transport facilities. A good transportation system
takes considerable amount of land from the society. Aesthetics of a region is also affected by
transportation. Road networks in quite country side are visual intrusion. Similarly, the
transportation facilities like fly-overs are again visual intrusion in urban context. The social life
and social pattern of a community is severely affected after the introduction of some
transportation facilities. Construction of new transportation facilities often requires substantial
relocation of residents and employment opportunities.

Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle's

emission. However, this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles, and increased
use of each vehicle. Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles
considerably have been studied. Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes, causing
environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport,
and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency.
As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and
harmful effects on the environment, along with indirect impacts. The indirect impacts are often
of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it's the opposite since it is
frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage. For example, particulates which
are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine, are not linked
with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to
that specific condition. Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually
there are also cumulative impacts. The synergetic consequences of transport activities. They take
into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem. Climate
changeis the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors. 15% of global CO2
emissions are attributed to the transport sector.

The issue of transportation and the environment is paradoxical in nature since transportation
conveys substantial socioeconomic benefits, but at the same time transportation is
impacting environmental systems. From one side, transportation activities support increasing
mobility demands for passengers and freight, while on the other, transport activities are
associated with growing levels of environmental externalities. Further, environmental
conditions have an impact on transportation systems in terms of operating conditions and
infrastructure requirements such as construction and maintenance (see Transportation and
Space for a review of such constraints).

The growth of personal and freight mobility in recent decades have expanded the role of
transportation as a source of emission of pollutants and their multiple impacts on the
environment. These impacts fall within three categories:

1) Direct impacts. The immediate consequence of transport activities on the environment

where the cause and effect relationship is generally clear and well understood. For
instance, noise and carbon monoxide emissions are known to have direct harmful effects.
2) Indirect impacts. The secondary (or tertiary) effects of transport activities on
environmental systems. They are often of higher consequence than direct impacts, but the
involved relationships are often misunderstood and more difficult to establish. For
instance, particulates which are mostly the outcome of incomplete combustion in an
 internal combustion engine are indirectly linked with respiratory and cardiovascular
problems since they contribute among other factors to such conditions.
3) Cumulative impacts. The additive, multiplicative or synergetic consequences of
transport activities. They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect
impacts on an ecosystem, which are often unpredictable. Climate change, with complex
causes and consequences, is the cumulative impact of several natural and anthropogenic
factors, in which transportation plays a role. 15% of global CO2 emissions are attributed
to the transport sector.

1.10 Historical Development of Transportation

The first form of transport was, of course, Shanks pony (the human foot!). However people
eventually learned to use animals for transport. Donkeys and horses were probably domesticated
between 4,000 and 3,000 BC (obviously the exact date is not known). Camels were domesticated
slightly later between 3,000 and 2,000 BC.

Meanwhile about 3,500 BC the wheel was invented in what is now Iraq. At first wheels were
made of solid pieces of wood lashed together to form a circle but after 2,000 BC they were made
with spokes.

The earliest boats were dugout canoes. People lit a fire on a big log then put it out and dug out
the burned wood.

About 3,100 BC the Egyptians invented the sailing boat. They were made of bundles of papyrus
reeds tied together. They had simple square sails made of sheets of papyrus or later of linen.
However the sail could only be used when sailing in one direction. When travelling against the
wind the boat had to be rowed.

About 2,700 BC the Egyptians began using wooden ships for trade by sea. Early ships were
steered by a long oar.

1.11 Modes of Transportation

Transport modes are designed to either carry passengers or freight, but most modes can carry a
combination of both. For instance, an automobile has a capacity to carry some freight while a
passenger plane has a belly hold that is used for luggage and cargo. Each mode is characterized
by a set of technical, operational and commercial characteristics.
1.11.1 Road transportation

Road infrastructures are large consumers of space with the lowest level of physical constraints
among transportation modes. However, physiographical constraints are significant in road
construction with substantial additional costs to overcome features such as rivers or rugged
terrain. While historically road transportation was developed to support non-motorized forms of
transportation (walking, domestication of animals and cycling at the end of the 19th century), it
is motorization that has shaped the most its development since the beginning of the 20th century.

Road transportation has an average operational flexibility as vehicles can serve several purposes
but are rarely able to move outside roads. Road transport systems have high maintenance costs,
both for the vehicles and infrastructures. They are mainly linked to light industries where rapid
movements of freight in small batches are the norm. Yet, with containerization, road
transportation has become a crucial link in freight distribution.

Cost-effectiveness
Quick and scheduled delivery
Local, over border, long or short haul deliveries even in rural areas
Flexible service
Saving in Packing Cost compared to other modes
Track and trace of cargo and truck
Complete door-to-door service and it is one of the more economical means of transport.
1.11.2 Rail Transportation

Railways are composed of a traced path on which wheeled vehicles are bound. In light of more
recent technological developments, rail transportation also include monorails and maglev. They
have an average level of physical constrains linked to the types of locomotives and a low
gradient is required, particularly for freight. Heavy industries are traditionally linked with rail
transport systems, although containerization has improved the flexibility of rail transportation by
linking it with road and maritime modes. Rail is by far the land transportation mode offering the
highest capacity with a 23,000 tons fully loaded coal unit train being the heaviest load ever
carried. Gauges, however, vary around the world, often challenging the integration of rail
systems.
1.11.3 Maritime transportation

Because of the physical properties of water conferring buoyancy and limited friction, maritime
transportation is the most effective mode to move large quantities of cargo over long distances.
Main maritime routes are composed of oceans, coasts, seas, lakes, rivers and channels. However,
due to the location of economic activities maritime circulation takes place on specific parts of the
maritime space, particularly over the North Atlantic and the North Pacific. The construction of
channels, locks and dredging are attempts to facilitate maritime circulation by reducing
discontinuity. Comprehensive inland waterway systems include Western Europe, the Volga /
Don system, St. Lawrence / Great Lakes system, the Mississippi and its tributaries, the Amazon,
the Panama / Paraguay and the interior of China. Maritime transportation has high terminal costs,
since port infrastructures are among the most expensive to build, maintain and improve. High
inventory costs also characterize maritime transportation. More than any other mode, maritime
transportation is linked to heavy industries, such as steel and petrochemical facilities adjacent to
port sites.

Key benefits of ocean freight include:

Suitable for wide range of products with long lead times
Large volumes. A single, ultra-large container ship can carry +/-20,000 twenty-foot
equivalent units (TEU)
Most environmental friendly among all modes of transport
Economical. Liner shipping is the most efficient mode of transport for goods
Extensive coverage around the world
Multiple carrier options for the shippers
1.11.4 Air Transportation

Air routes are practically unlimited, but they are denser over the North Atlantic, inside North
America and Europe and over the North Pacific. Air transport constraints are multidimensional
and include the site (a commercial plane needs about 3,300 meters of runway for landing and
takeoff), the climate, fog and aerial currents. Air activities are linked to the tertiary and
quaternary sectors, notably finance and tourism, which lean on the long distance mobility of
people. More recently, air transportation has been accommodating growing quantities of high
value freight and is playing a growing role in global logistics.
Key benefits of air freight include:
Quick transit
Less handling of cargo
Less documentation
Reliable arrival and departures
Enhanced level of security for your cargo

1.11.5 Rail Way

Another mode of transport which is also considered a ‘green’ option is rail. Trains burn less fuel
per ton-mile than road vehicles and a train, which can have as many than 100 wagons, only
needs one driver. There are, however, some additional costs which are incurred in a rail journey:
at each end of the rail transit, a road delivery will be needed, and there will be a lift cost to
transfer the container between the train and the road vehicle.
On average, longer journeys tend to be less expensive by rail, and shorter journeys are less costly
by road. Where the point of cost neutrality comes is governed by many factors which are route
and commodity specific, but in general, the point of cost neutrality can be expected to lie in the
range of 130 to 150 miles.

In 2015, the first freight train carrying ISO freight containers from China arrived in the Port of
Rotterdam in 18 days as against the normal 44 odd days by the sea.
This movement of containerized cargo by rail from China to logistics hubs in Europe such as in
the Netherlands, UK is seen as a significant step in the development of trade between the two
continents. It has encouraged multinationals such as Hewlett-Packard and Ricoh to use the route
from Europe to China for their cargoes.

The Manager of European Transport at Ricoh notes that if one can set up an effective planning,
rail is a relatively quick mode of transport taking only 20 days to China. In addition, the move by
rail also has some advantages such as all containers being transported to the location in one go,
while being environmentally friendly as a train releases far less CO2 than a plane.
Key benefits of rail freight include:
Reliable transit times and schedules
 Railroads are the most efficient form of land transportation. One train can haul the
equivalent of over 400 trucks
Fast and cost-effective deliveries over long distances. Typically over 500 miles
Traditionally, rail has a strong safety record.
Helps in alleviating road congestion, thus lowering emissions
1.11.6 Intermodal/Multi-Modal transportation

Another option to keep in mind is multimodal/ Intermodal solutions – the utilization of more
than one mode of transport.
Multimodal is a combination of different modes of transportation such as rail, road, and sea
which allows the customer to cost-effectively manage shipments from start-to-end, ensuring
optimum care and efficiency every step of the way.
Concerns a variety of modes used in combination so that the respective advantages of each mode
are better exploited. Although intermodal transportation applies for passenger movements, such
as the usage of the different, but interconnected modes of a public transit system, it is over
freight transportation that the most significant impacts have been observed. Containerization has
been a powerful vector of intermodal integration, enabling maritime and land transportation
modes to more effectively interconnect.

Key benefits of multimodal transport include:

Cargo can be moved to any part of the world using multiple modes of transport
Reduces the distance for the goods between the manufacturer and consumer
Customers can deal with one entity to handle all modes of transport under one document
Efficient and cost-effective delivery options
1.12 Modal Competition
Each transportation mode has key operational and commercial advantages and properties.
However, contemporary demand is influenced by integrated transportation systems that
require maximum flexibility in the respective use of each mode. As a result, modal competition
exists at various degrees and takes several dimensions.
Modes can compete or complement one another in terms of cost, speed, accessibility, frequency,
safety, comfort, etc. There are three main conditions that insure that some modes are
complementing one another:

Different Geographical Markets. It is clear that if different markets are involved,

modes will permit a continuity within the transport system, particularly if different scales
are concerned, such as between national and international transportation. This requires an
interconnection, commonly known as a gateway, where it is possible to transfer from one
mode to the other. Intermodal transportation has been particularly relevant to improve the
complementarity of different geographical markets.
Different Transport Markets. The nature of what is being transported, such as
passengers or freight, often indicates a level of complementarity. Even if the same market
area is serviced, it may not be equally accessible depending of the mode used. Thus, in
some markets rail and road transportation can be complementary as one may be focusing
on passengers and the other on freight.
Different Levels of Service. For a similar market and accessibility, two modes that offer
a different level of service will tend to complement another. The most prevailing
complementarity concerns costs versus time.

Thus, there is modal competition when there is an overlap in geography, transport and level of
service. Cost is one of the most important considerations in modal choice. Because each mode
has its own price/performance profile, the actual competition between the modes depends
primarily upon the distance traveled, the quantities that have to be shipped and the value of the
goods. While maritime transport might offer the lowest variable costs, over short distances and
for small bundles of goods, road transport tends to be most competitive. A critical factor is the
terminal cost structure for each mode, where the costs (and delays) of loading and unloading the
unit impose fixed costs that are incurred independent of the distance traveled.

Although intermodal transportation has opened many opportunities for a complementarity

between modes, there is intense competition as companies are now competing over many modes
in the transport chain. A growing paradigm thus involves supply chain competition with the
modal competition component occurring over three dimensions:
 Modal Usage. Competition that involves the comparative advantage of using a specific
or a combination of modes. Distance remains one of the basic determinants of modal
usage for passenger transportation. However, for a similar distance, costs, speed and
comfort can be significant factors behind the choice of a mode.
Infrastructure Usage. Competition resulting from the presence of freight and passenger
traffic on the same itineraries linking the same nodes. Each level of capacity used by a
mode is therefore at the expense of the other mode.
Market Area. Competition being experienced between transport terminals for using new
space (terminal relocation or expansion) or capturing new markets (hinterland).

It is generally advocated that a form of modal equality (or modal neutrality) should be part of
public policy where each mode would compete based upon its inherent characteristics. Since
different transport modes are under different jurisdiction and funding mechanisms, modal
equality is conceptually impossible as some modes will always be more advantageous than
others. Modal competition is influenced by public policy. This particularly takes place over
government funding of infrastructure and regulation issues. Roads are usually provided by the
public sector, while many other transport infrastructures are financed by the operators using
them. This is the case for rail, air and maritime transportation. For instance, in the United States
the Federal Government would finance 80% of the costs of a highway project, leaving the state
government to supply the remaining 20%. For public transit, this share is 50%, while for
passenger rail the Federal Government will not provide any funding. Under such circumstances,
public policy shapes modal preferences.