Cross-Cultural Adaptation

Y Y Kim, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK, USA

ã 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Glossary decoding activities employing verbal and nonverbal

Acculturation The process of acquiring a new culture’s symbols, signs, or behavior.
symbols and practices by an individual whose prior cultural Culture shock Psychological and physiological stress
learning has taken place elsewhere. responses to being placed in an unfamiliar cultural
Adaptation The process of internal modification of environment.
individuals that enables them to attain a relatively stable, Deculturation The process by which individuals at least
reciprocal, and functional relationship with a particular temporarily suspend, or unlearn over time, some of the
environment. symbols and habitual practices of one’s native culture and
Assimilation The absorption process of foreign-born replace them with new symbols and practices of the host
individuals into the native population by cultural, social, culture.
and economic mainstreaming. Enculturation The primary socialization process
Communication The process by which information is whereby individuals learn and internalize their native
exchanged between individuals through the encoding and culture.

Background when individuals and groups from one culture come into
direct contact with another culture.
Millions of immigrants and refugees change homes each year Subsequent academic inquiry into cross-cultural adaptation
seeking better hopes of safety, freedom, or economic better- has evolved into a vast and diverse field. Such has been the case
ment, or simply looking for a more desirable environment in due to the application of concepts, definitions, and methodol-
which to live. Many others temporarily relocate in a foreign ogies pertaining to differing disciplinary and individual per-
land to carry out religious activities, or to serve as diplomats, spectives and research foci. Many sociologists, for example,
military personnel, and other governmental, intergovern- have approached immigrant adaptation focusing on macrole-
mental, and nongovernmental agency employees on overseas vel issues pertaining to the patterns and processes in which
assignments. Researchers, professors, and students visit and minority groups are integrated into the political, social, and
study at foreign academic institutions, along with the employ- economic structure of the new, or host, society. Studies in
ees of multinational corporations. Increasingly, individual urban sociology and urban anthropology have added the
accountants, teachers, construction workers, athletes, artists, dimension of ethnographic explorations into the issues related
musicians, and writers seek employment in foreign lands on to political, social, and economic dynamics in immigrant or
their own. Although varied in individual circumstances, all of ethnic communities and neighborhoods.
these groups of people and many others share the common In comparison, studies in social psychology, sociolinguis-
project called cross-cultural adaptation. They find themselves tics, and communication have concentrated on the microlevel
straddled between two worlds, the familiar milieu of the home phenomenon of long-term adaptive change in individual
culture and their new locus in the host society, and recognize immigrants. In this approach, emphases have been placed on
that many of their previously held beliefs, taken-for-granted the psychological, social, and cultural integration of individual
assumptions, and routinized behaviors no longer relevant or newcomers into their host society. By and large, such studies
effectual. have revealed that an individual’s adaptive change is cumula-
tive and progressive over time, thereby affirming the traditional
‘melting-pot’ perspective on the history of immigration in the
Long-Term Adaptation
United States.
The process of cross-cultural adaptation among long-term The linear-progressive understanding of long-term adapta-
settlers has been one of the most salient research issues tion, however, has been increasingly challenged since the
across social science disciplines. Studies addressing this phe- 1960s and 1970s. With the rise of the ideology of pluralism in
nomenon have been continuous and extensive, particularly the United States and elsewhere, pluralistic conceptions of long-
in the United States and more recently in European countries. term adaptation have been proposed to reflect the viewpoint that
In the 1930s, the Social Science Research Council appointed assimilation into the dominant mainstream culture on the part
a Subcommittee on Acculturation and charged it with the task of immigrants and ethnic minorities need not, or should not,
of analyzing and defining the parameters for this new field take place. Instead, scholars upholding or sympathetic to this
of inquiry within the domain of cultural anthropology. As a view have emphasized alternative choices for individuals or
result, the concept, acculturation, was formally adopted as a groups such as maintaining a distinct identity or seeking a dual
new area of study dealing with those phenomena that result identity with respect to their original culture and the host society.

623
624 Cross-Cultural Adaptation

Short-Term Adaptation undergo at least some level of modifications in their original

cultural habits, at least to the extent that is called for by the
Studies of temporary sojourners have been largely exempt
specific circumstance under which they have entered the host
from the above-described ideological controversy over the
culture, so as to navigate their unfamiliar milieu and carry out
phenomenon of assimilation. Since the 1960s, studies of
their daily life activities.
sojourner adaptation have been motivated mainly by practical,
This notion of strangers can be extended to include those
problem-centered concerns of easing the temporary but often
who return home after a sojourn in a foreign culture or subcul-
difficult transition into a new cultural environment. The
ture. Generally, readapting to one’s original culture is less
problem-centered perspective is evident in the many studies
demanding than adapting to a foreign culture. Yet, to the extent
that have addressed the phenomenon of culture shock. This
that the returnee has been changed by the sojourn experience,
concept, as well as related terms such as transition shock,
and to the extent that the original culture has changed during
cultural fatigue, and self-shock have been employed to investi-
the sojourn, the returnee, once again, goes through essentially
gate various stress reactions to cultural dislocation, from irrita-
the same process of cross-cultural adaptation. Strangers further
bility, insomnia, and an acute sense of loss, to feelings of
include those native-born individuals who cross subcultural or
anxiety, insecurity, and impotence.
ethnic boundaries within a society and face significant adaptive
While focused on the problematic nature of life in a foreign
pressures from the new subcultural environment. Such would
land, sojourn research findings have shown discernible pat-
be the case, for example, for American Indians leaving an
terns of change in psychological states over time. A variety of
Indian reservation to find employment in an urban environ-
studies have reported a ‘U-curve’ of psychological adaptation
ment. Also included in the domain of strangers are those indi-
during a sojourn, depicting the general tendency for sojourners
viduals who find their local community rapidly changing in
to experience initial optimism and elation, the subsequent
its demographic composition. For example, existing African
emotional dip or trough, followed by a gradual recovery to
American inner city residents may find themselves changing
higher adaptation levels. This U-curve description has been
from being a majority group to becoming a minority group
extended to the ‘W-curve,’ that includes the reentry phase
due to a significant influx of Asian immigrants.
during which the sojourner, once again, undergo a similar
The following discussion addresses the essential nature
psychological adaptation process upon returning home. De-
of the adaptation process that applies to all of the above-
spite their intuitive appeal, the U-curve and W-curve hypoth-
described categories of strangers who share the common chal-
eses have produced inconsistent findings when applied to
lenge of the practical necessity to bridge the gap between their
different research contexts. Comprehensive reviews of pertinent
internalized cultural habits and those of the new environment.
research have concluded that evidence for the theories’ claims
are inconclusive and overgeneralized.
Sojourner adaptation studies have also highlighted some of Enculturation, Acculturation, Deculturation, Assimilation
the positive and beneficial aspects of crossing cultures. Argu-
The unwritten task of every culture is to organize, integrate, and
ments have been made that the cultural shock experience must
maintain the home world of the individual primarily in the
be viewed in a broader context of profound learning and
formative years of childhood. Children grow up in their native
growth that leads to an increased self-awareness. Highlighting
culture learning what they need to know to function acceptably
such positive aspects of sojourn, some studies have shown that
in a given culture. Through continuous interaction with the
the intensity and magnitude of initial culture shock is either
various aspects of the environment, they are socialized to live
unrelated to, or even positively related to, the level of sub-
in the company of others around them who share a similar
sequent psychological adjustment and social and professional
image of reality and self. This process is commonly called
effectiveness within the host environment.
enculturation.
In many ways, entering a new culture is like starting an
enculturation process all over again. Only this time, strangers
The Process of Cross-Cultural Adaptation are faced with situations that deviate from the familiar and
internalized original cultural script. They become more aware
Clearly, there are differences between long-term and short- of the previously taken-for-granted habits of mind. Now, as
term adaptation associated with the duration of the adaptation strangers, they discover that they lack a sufficient level of
process itself. Unlike immigrants, most short-term sojourners understanding of the new communication system of the host
are more likely to limit their contact with the new culture to society. They are challenged to suspend, or even abandon,
mostly peripheral areas, such as to pursue a career, obtain a some of the cultural patterns that have symbolized who they
degree, or merely enhance one’s prestige in the eyes of the folks are and what they are. Such inner conflicts, in turn, make
at home. Compared to long-term settlers, their commitment to strangers susceptible to external influence and compel them
the host environment is likely to be weaker given their more to learn the new cultural system. This activity of new learning is
specific and narrowly defined goals for sojourn. the essence of the process known as acculturation, that is, the
Differences such as these, however, are largely a matter of learning and acquisition of the new cultural patterns and prac-
degree, and not of kind. That is, immigrants and sojourners tices, particularly in those areas of direct relevance to their
alike undergo at least some level of the common project of everyday living.
cross-cultural adaptation as they begin their life in the host Acculturation, however, is not a process in which new
society as strangers. As strangers, all newcomers embark on a cultural elements are simply added to prior internal condi-
cross-cultural journey as outsiders. They are challenged to tions. As new learning accumulates, some deculturation also
 Cross-Cultural Adaptation 625

takes place, at least in the sense that new cultural responses are underpinning of the cross-cultural adaptation process. As
adopted in situations that previously would have evoked old depicted in Figure 1, the stress–adaptation–growth process
ones. As the interplay of acculturation and deculturation con- continues as long as there are new environmental challenges,
tinues for a prolonged period, strangers undergo an internal with the overall forward and upward movement in the direc-
transformation, from visible changes in superficial areas such tion of greater adaptation and growth. The process does not
as overt role behavior to more intangible but more profound unfold in a smooth, arrow-like linear progression, but in a
changes such as changes in previously held cultural beliefs, cyclic and fluctuating pattern of drawback to leap: each stress-
values, outlooks on life, and even cultural identity. ful experience is responded to with a temporary setback,
The ultimate directionality of the internal change driven by which, in turn, activates adaptive energy to reorganize and
the continual processes of acculturation and deculturation is reengage in the activities of cultural learning and internal
toward assimilation, a state of the maximum possible conver- change, bringing about a new self-reintegration. Large and
gence of our internal and external conditions to those of the sudden changes occur during the initial phase when the sever-
natives. Whether by choice or by circumstance, individual ity of difficulties and disruptions are likely to be high. Over a
settlers vary in the distance that they travel in their own adap- prolonged period of undergoing internal change, the fluctua-
tation process. For most strangers, assimilation remains a life- tions of stress and adaptation are likely to become less intense,
time goal than an obtainable outcome, one that often requires leading to an overall calming in the individual experiences of
the efforts of multiple generations. interacting with the host environment.

Stress, Adaptation, and Growth

Factors Influencing the Process
Acculturation and deculturation processes inevitably produce
in individual strangers stress, the experience of temporary inter- We now turn to the question of differential adaptation rates, or
nal disturbance and even breakdown in extreme cases. As parts speeds, at which cross-cultural adaptation occurs in individual
of their internal organization undergo adaptive modifications, cases. Although strangers, by and large, manage cross-cultural
strangers are temporarily in a state of disequilibrium mani- challenges successfully over time, the degree and pace of their
fested in varying levels of confusion and anxiety. The state of individual adaptive change vary. Some may suffer more from
internal flux is often met by the tendency to use various defense hostility or indifference among the natives that makes it diffi-
mechanisms such as denial, hostility, cynicism, avoidance, and cult to find ways to overcome the challenges they face in the
withdrawal, all of which are particularly acute during the initial host environment. Some may resist the idea of having to
phase of sojourn or immigration, as indicated by the difficulties change their original cultural habits more, thereby raising psy-
and disruptions documented in culture shock studies. chological barriers to work against their own adaptive change.
At the same time, however, stress experiences are the very Others may be less capable of dealing with states of adaptive
force that drives strangers to adaptation. The interplay of stress, leading to a more extreme withdrawal and alienation
stress and adaptation can be understood as a dialectic be- from the host society or a decision to return to their home
tween integration and disintegration, between progression country prematurely.
and regression, or between permanence and change. Each stress The fact that individual cases of cross-cultural adaptation
experience presents strangers with an opportunity to recreate vary in terms of the level of success begs the question, ‘What
themselves. It is through the impetus of stress that they are factors facilitate or impede the adaptation process?’
compelled to engage in activities of new learning that enables This question is addressed below through an examination
them to handle the transactions of daily living. Stress, in this of the key factors of the communicative interface between the
regard, is intrinsic to complex open systems and essential in the individual and the host environment, of the host environment,
adaptation process – one that allows for self-(re)organization and of the individual’s own background predisposition.
and self-renewal. The state of misfit and a heightened awareness
in the state of stress serve as the very forces that propel indivi- Adaptation

duals to overcome the predicament and partake in the act of

adaptation through active new learning.
Out of these activities, some aspects of the environment
may be incorporated into an individual’s internal structure,
gradually increasing its overall fitness to the external realities.
Over time, most strangers manage to achieve an increasing Growth over time
capacity to detect similarities and differences between the
new surrounding and the home culture and are better able to
manage their changed circumstances. What follows a success-
ful, long-term, and cumulative management of the stress–
adaptation disequilibrium is a subtle and often imperceptible
psychological growth, a form of internal change in the direc- Stress
tion of increased perceptual and intellectual complexity with Figure 1 The stress–adaptation–growth dynamic. Reproduced from
respect to the host culture. Kim YY (2001) Becoming Intercultural: An Integrative Theory of
Together, stress, adaptation, and growth constitute a three- Communication and Cross-Cultural Adaptation, p. 59. Thousand Oaks,
pronged conceptual representation of the psychological CA: Sage.
626 Cross-Cultural Adaptation

Communication Factors toward new cultural experiences. The affective competence also
includes the development of a capacity to understand, and
Like all human–social activities, cross-cultural adaptation
participate in, the local people’s emotional and esthetic sensi-
occurs in and through the communication interface between
bilities, thereby making it possible for strangers to establish
the stranger and the surrounding environment. Just as the
a deeper-level psychological connection with the natives.
natives acquire their capacity to function in their social world
Although initially difficult, strangers become better able to
through communicative interactions throughout their lives, it
participate in the surrounding landscape of art, food, music,
is through communication that strangers come to learn and
sports, and other everyday experiences of fun, joy, humor, and
internalize the significant symbols and practices of the host
happiness, and of anger, despair, and disappointment. In
culture. Through communicative engagement, nonnatives gain
this visceral connection, strangers are on their way to being
insights and skills that are necessary to achieving a level of
‘insiders’ who are capable of forming close relationships with
success in their adaptive endeavor.
the natives.
Communication activities comprise two basic, inseparable
The cognitive and affective capabilities work side by side the
dimensions, personal communication and social communica-
operational competence, the capacity to express outwardly by
tion. Through personal (or intrapersonal) communication,
choosing a ‘right’ combination of verbal and nonverbal acts in
individuals organize themselves internally with respect to
specific social transactions of the host environment. As stran-
their surroundings, developing ways of engaging themselves
gers become increasingly competent cognitively and affec-
in social communication activities. If the personal communi-
tively, they are better able to act in greater consonance with
cation can be compared to the ‘off-line functions’ of computer
the natives’ actions and display greater resourcefulness with
systems, social communication carries out the ‘on-line’ func-
which to negotiate and reconcile cultural differences and to
tions of interfacing with the computer environment through
form appropriate and effective action plans for accomplishing
input–output transactions of messages.
personal and social goals.

Personal communication Social communication

In the context of cross-cultural adaptation, personal communi- Host communication competence is directly and reciprocally
cation can be best understood in terms of ‘host communica- linked to participation in the social communication activities
tion competence,’ that is, the overall internal capacity of a of the host society. An individual’s host social communication
stranger to decode and encode information in accordance activities are enabled or constrained by his or her capacity to
with the host cultural practices of communication. Host com- communicate effectively and appropriately. Conversely, the
munication competence serves as the main engine that drives individual’s host communication competence cannot be devel-
the adaptation process. Successful adaptation of strangers can oped without participating in the social communication
be realized only when their internal communication systems processes.
sufficiently overlap with those of the natives. An individual’s Interpersonal communication activities with natives offer
level of host communication competence at a given time opportunities for learning the host cultural practices and for
reflects his or her overall capacity to participate in host social engaging in ‘corrective exchanges’ with respect to the use of the
communication activities, whereas the lack of such compe- host communication system, including its verbal and nonver-
tence manifests itself in various forms of miscommunication, bal codes. Through experiences of direct engagement with
social inadequacies, and, in some cases, marginalization. native-born individuals, strangers obtain vital information
Host communication competence comprise three interre- and insight into the mindsets and behaviors of the local peo-
lated subcategories: cognitive, affective, and operational. Cog- ple. The natives’ behaviors provide strangers with points of
nitive competence refers to an individual’s overall intellectual reference or a check and validation of their own communica-
capacity to deal with the host culture, including the knowledge tion behaviors. By conferring with the natives, strangers can
of the host culture, history, social institutions, and rules of confirm or reject presumed meanings and motives in natives’
interpersonal conduct. Knowledge of the host language, in communication behaviors. They learn not only what to do but
particular, serves as the primary conduit for adaptation, one also some of the relevant cultural and personal values.
that enables strangers to access the accumulated records of the Notwithstanding cross-cultural barriers, strangers develop
host culture and learn to think in the way the native speakers at least a limited number of interpersonal ties with host
think. Knowledge of the local language means not just techni- nationals over time. As their host communication competence
cal knowledge such as phonetics, syntax, and vocabulary. It improves, so does their self-confidence to participate in
also includes pragmatic knowledge about the everyday use of host interpersonal communication activities. Through active
the language including the many subtleties in the way the engagement in host interpersonal communication activities,
language is spoken and interpreted in various formal and strangers also begin the process of constructing a set of satisfy-
informal social contexts. ing and supportive relationships with natives. Newly arrived
Affective competence refers to the emotional and motiva- immigrants and sojourners tend to be drawn to coethnics
tional capacity to deal with the various challenges of living in when they are available nearby. Over time, however, more
the host environment. Specifically, it includes positive attitude ties with local people are likely to be incorporated into their
(acceptance of the host culture) and adaptation motivation personal networks, replacing some of the coethnic ties.
(the willingness to learn and participate in it). A positive, Cross-cultural adaptation is further facilitated by participa-
willing, and flexible self-other orientation helps engender tion in mass communication activities of the host society.
greater openness and lessen unwarranted prejudicial cynicism Through a wide range of mediated and public forms of
 Cross-Cultural Adaptation 627

communication such as radio, television, newspaper, maga- can be attributed to a number of plausible reasons such as the
zine, movie, art, literature, music, and drama, strangers interact nature of the relationship, friendly or hostile, between the host
with their host milieu without direct interpersonal involve- country and the stranger’s home country; cultural and ideolog-
ments. Such mass communication activities help broaden the ical difference and incompatibility between the two cultures;
scope of cultural learning opportunities beyond the immediate and the racial/ethnic prejudice predominantly held by the
social context with which a stranger routinely comes into society against strangers in general or the particular group.
contact. Compared to host interpersonal communication
activities, host mass communication activities render less Host conformity pressure
opportunity for direct feedback, serving as an important source Along with receptivity, individuals face differing levels of con-
of cultural and language learning, particularly during the early formity pressure from the host environment. Conformity pres-
phases of the adaptation process. sure refers to the extent to which the society challenges
In many societies and communities today, strangers’ inter- strangers to adopt the normative patterns of the host culture.
personal and mass communication activities involve their Different host environments show different levels of accep-
coethnics or conationals and home cultural experiences, as tance and appreciation of strangers and their ethnic character-
well. Some form of ethnic mutual-aid or self-help organiza- istics. In general, people in heterogeneous and cosmopolitan
tions, including religious organizations, may be available to societies such as the United States tend to hold more plural-
render assistance to those who need material, informational, istic and tolerant attitudes toward ethnic differences, thereby
emotional, and other forms of social support. In addition, exerting less pressure on strangers to change their habitual
ethnic mass media such as newspapers, radio stations, and ways. Even within a country, ethnically more heterogeneous
television programs may be accessible via the Internet or in metropolitan areas tend to display lower levels of host confor-
prerecorded audio- and videotapes and computer disks. mity pressure than do smaller, ethnically more homogeneous
Findings from studies of long-term cross-cultural adapta- rural towns.
tion generally indicate that participation in ethnic inter-
personal and mass communication activities can be helpful Ethnic group strength
to the initial phase of the cross-cultural adaptation process The third environmental factor that influences strangers’ cross-
when newly arrived strangers lack host communication com- cultural adaptation is the strength of their ethnic group in the
petence and access to host interpersonal resources. Beyond context of other groups in the host society or community.
the initial phase, however, heavy and prolonged reliance Depending on relative group size, status, or power, stronger
on coethnics have been found to be either an insignificant ethnic groups are likely to provide their members with a more
influence on, or impede, the long-term adaptation process vibrant subculture and practical services to its members. In
with respect to the host society at large. doing so, however, a strong ethnic community is likely to
encourage the maintenance of ethnic culture and communica-
tion, and even exert a subtle or explicit pressure to conform to
Environmental Factors
the ethnic cultural norms. A long-term consequence of such
The adaptation function of the strangers’ personal and social ethnic community influences is likely to be an impediment,
(interpersonal, mass) communication cannot be fully ex- intended or not, to individual community members’ active
plained in isolation from the conditions of the host environ- participation in host social communication processes and
ment. Since different societies and communities present long-term cross-cultural adaptation to the host culture at large.
different environments for cross-cultural adaptation, a given
stranger can be more successful in adapting to a certain envi-
Predisposition Factors
ronment than to another one.
Of various environmental characteristics, three key factors Each stranger begins the cross-cultural adaptation process with
are discussed below as particularly important to individual a different set of preexisting characteristics. The internal condi-
strangers’ adaptive efforts (1) host receptivity, (2) host confor- tions with which they begin their life in the host society help
mity pressure, and (3) ethnic group strength. These three fac- set the parameters for the way they relate to the new environ-
tors help define the relative degrees of ‘push and pull’ that a ment and their own subsequent adaptive changes. The various
given host environment presents to strangers. predispositional differences in which strangers differ in their
background conditions can be organized into three categories:
Host receptivity (1) preparedness, (2) ethnic proximity/distance, and (3) per-
Host receptivity refers to the degree to which the receiving sonality predisposition. Together, these characteristics help
environment welcomes and accepts strangers into its interper- define the degree of a stranger’s ‘adaptive potential.’
sonal networks and offer them various forms of informational,
technical, material, and emotional support. A society or a Preparedness for change
community can be more receptive toward certain groups of Strangers come to their new environment with differing levels
strangers while unwelcoming toward certain others. For exam- of preparedness for dealing with that environment. Prepared-
ple, Canadian visitors arriving in a small town in the United ness is directly linked to the level of readiness to develop host
States are likely to find a largely receptive environment. On the communication competence. Influencing the strangers’ readi-
other hand, the same town may show less receptivity toward ness are a wide range of formal and informal learning experi-
visitors from lesser known and vastly different cultures. Differ- ences they may have had prior to moving to the host society.
ences in host receptivity toward different groups of strangers Included in such activities are the schooling and training in,
628 Cross-Cultural Adaptation

and the media exposure to, the host language and culture, as Facets of Adaptive Change
well as their prior cross-cultural adaptation experiences, partic-
ularly contacts with members of the host society. In addition, Through the interactive workings of the above-described fac-
the strangers’ preparedness is often influenced by whether their tors of the communication activities, of the environment, and
move to the host society is voluntary or involuntary and for of the background of an individual stranger, the process of
how long. Voluntary, long-term immigrants, for example, are cross-cultural adaptation unfolds. Emerging in the adaptation
likely to enter the host society with greater readiness and process, over time, are three interrelated facets of internal
willingness for making necessary efforts to adapt, compared change in the stranger (1) increased functional fitness in carry-
to the temporary visitors who unwillingly relocate for reasons ing out daily transactions; (2) improved psychological health
other than their own volition. in dealing with the environment; and (3) emergence of an
intercultural identity orientation. These three facets are interre-
Ethnic proximity/distance lated developmental continua, in which individual strangers
The ethnicity of a stranger plays a role in the cross-cultural can be placed at different locations reflecting the different
adaptation process by serving as a certain level of advantage levels of adaptive change at a given point in time.
or handicap. It does so by affecting the ease or difficulty with
which the stranger is able to develop the communication com-
petence in a given host society, and to participate in its social Functional Fitness
communication activities. For instance, many Japanese busi- As previously noted, strangers conduct continuous experi-
ness executives in the United States face a greater amount of ments in the host environment. They instinctively strive to
challenge in overcoming their language barrier than are their ‘know their way around,’ so that they may effectively control
counterparts from the United Kingdom. The strangers’ visual their own behavior and the behavior of others in the host
ethnic markers (such as height, skin color, and facial features) environment. Through repeated activities resulting in new
and audible ethnic markers (such as accents and other speech learning and internal reorganizing, strangers achieve an in-
patterns) influence the degree to which the natives are psycho- creasing functional fitness between their internal responses
logically prepared to welcome them into their interpersonal and the external demands of the host environment. Well
networks. Accordingly, ethnicity influences the cross-cultural adapted strangers would be those who have accomplished a
adaptation process in at least two interrelated manners. First, desired level of appropriate and effective communication rela-
each stranger faces a level of linguistic and cultural distance for tionship to the host environment – particularly with those
the stranger to overcome in order to develop host communica- individuals with whom the strangers carry out their daily activ-
tion competence and to participate in the host social commu- ities. As they achieve increased communication competence,
nication activities. Second, each stranger creates a certain level they are also better able to meet their personal and social needs.
of psychological distance (or affinity) in the minds of the
natives, which, in turn, would affect the natives’ receptivity
toward the stranger. Psychological Health
Everyone requires the ongoing validation of his or her social
Adaptive personality experience. Being unable to meet this basic human need can
Along with preparedness and ethnicity, strangers enter a host lead to symptoms of mental, emotional, and physical distur-
environment with a personality, or a set of more or less bance. The shifting of the self-world relationship brings about
enduring traits of sensibilities. Their existing personality serves heightened levels of inner conflict due to the gap between the
as the inner resource, based on which they pursue new cultural internal and external reality. In the absence of adequate host
experiences with varying degrees of enthusiasm and success. Of communication competence, engagement in host social com-
particular interest are three interrelated personality resources munication activities, and functional fitness, strangers are
that would help facilitate the strangers’ adaptation by enabling subject to frustration, leading to the symptoms of poor psycho-
them to endure stressful challenges and to maximize new logical health. The very meaning of the term culture shock
learning: (1) openness, (2) strength, and (3) positivity. Open- employed in studies of temporary sojourners suggests lack of
ness is an internal posture that is receptive to new information. psychological health, stemming from the poor fit of a stran-
Openness enables strangers to minimize their resistance and to ger’s intrapsychic system to that of the natives. Most strangers,
maximize their willingness to attend to the new and changed however, are able to achieve, over time, a higher level of
circumstances. It is a psychological orientation that allows for psychological health and a subsiding level of disturbances in
greater tolerance for ambiguity, intellectual flexibility, and cul- dealing with the host environment. They achieve an increased
tural and interpersonal sensitivity. The strength of personality internal integration – a sense of inner cohesiveness and
reflects the inner quality of resilience, hardiness, patience, and confidence.
persistence. Individuals with high levels of personality strength
tend to be stimulated by new challenges and remain confident.
Intercultural Identity
Openness and strength of personality is closely associated with
positivity, an affirmative and optimistic outlook of mind, or Long-term adaptive change also includes the gradual emer-
the internal capacity to defy negative prediction. Strangers with gence of an intercultural identity, a psychological orientation
a positive personality are better able to endure stressful events toward self and others that is no longer clearly and rigidly
with a belief in the possibilities of life in general as opposed to defined by either the original cultural identity or the iden-
being overcome by unwarranted defeatist cynicism. tity of the host culture. As the host cultural elements are
 Cross-Cultural Adaptation 629

increasingly incorporated into their self-concept, the stranger’s Should strangers choose to adapt successfully, they would
self-other orientation becomes more flexible. While rooted benefit from being prepared and willing to face the stressful
in the original cultural identity, the stranger’s identity is broad- experiences that are part and parcel of the adaptation process.
ened to incorporate new dimensions of perception and They would need to concentrate on acquiring new cultural
experience in which the original cultural identity begins to communication practices and be willing to put aside some of
lose its distinctiveness and rigidity. More than likely, this the old ones, recognizing the critical importance of host com-
kind of identity transformation is unlikely to be a matter of munication competence as the fundamental mechanism that
conscious decision but simply an aspect of the natural psy- drives their own adaptation. They would also need to partici-
chological evolution beyond the boundaries of childhood pate actively in the interpersonal and mass communication
enculturation. processes of the host environment. In addition, through culti-
Terms close to intercultural identity include ‘metaidentity,’ vating the adaptive personality of openness, strength, and
‘cosmopolitan identity,’ or ‘transcultural identity,’ all of which positivity, they are likely to be more successful in overcoming
indicate an identity orientation that is less dualistic and more temporary setbacks and attaining greater success in pursuing
inclusive, less categorical and more individuated, less parochial their personal and social goals.
and more universalized. The development of an intercultural With the advent of globalization, we no longer have to leave
identity does not come about without certain ‘costs’ that may home to experience new cultural learning and cross-cultural
be deemed too high by some. The process can be filled with adaptation. For many people in the world, physical distance no
ambivalence and internal conflict between one’s loyalty to the longer dictates the extent of exposure to the images and sounds
original identity and a necessity to embrace a new one that is of once distant cultures. Many urban centers present their own
rooted in, embracing, and not discarding, the original cultural contexts of cross-cultural adaptation, the natives are routinely
identity, just as acquiring knowledge and skill in the host coming in face-to-face contacts with nonnatives. Such encoun-
language does not necessarily result in corresponding loss in ters often compel everyone involved to put aside and even
the original language. unlearn at least some of the original cultural patterns. The
rapidly changing reality can be threatening to many people,
provoking a keen sense of unsettling discontinuity, malaise,
Conclusion and nostalgia for the age of certainty, permanence, and a fixed
and unitary cultural identity.
Cross-cultural adaptation is, in essence, a largely unconscious In the end, then, cross-cultural adaptation is a journey that
process of cultural learning and personal change that takes compels individuals to make choices and to be accountable for
place over time. It is a dynamic unfolding of the natural the outcomes. Those who have successfully crossed cultural
human tendency to struggle for an internal equilibrium in and subcultural boundaries are likely to be those who chose
the face of adversarial environmental conditions. It is a process to adapt and to be changed by that choice. Although their
in which, over a prolonged period, a newcomer can potentially tribulations can be staggering, they have worked through the
become a fully functioning insider. The process unfolds in the setbacks and come out victorious with an increased capacity to
fluctuating experiences of stress, adaptation, and growth, a see others, themselves, and situations in a new light. They are
process in which the newcomer advances toward achieving a the ones who bear witness to the promise of the cross-cultural
higher level of personal and social efficacy with respect to the adaptation process. Their personal achievements are a tribute
environment that was once new and unfamiliar. The pursuit of to the ever-present human capacity to adapt – the capacity
cross-cultural adaptation opens up a path of personal develop- to face challenges, learn from them, and evolve into a greater
ment, in which individuals stretch themselves out of the famil- self-integration that defies the simplistic and conventional
iar and reach for a deepened and more inclusive understanding categorizations of people and reveals a new, intercultural way
of human conditions, including their own. of being in the world.
Central to this process is the individual’s ability to commu-
nicate in accordance to the norms and practices of the host
culture and his active engagement in its social communication See also: Evolutionary Social Psychology; Perceptual Development;
processes. Multiple forces are simultaneously at work sur- Social Support; Stress and Illness.
rounding the communicative interface between the individual
and the host environment, from the conditions of the environ-
ment and the ethnic and personal predispositions of the indi- Further Reading
vidual. Like a locomotive engine, each unit operating in this
process affects, and is affected by, the workings of all other Adler PS (1987) Culture shock and the cross-cultural learning experience. In: Luce LF
units. Some of the factors may be more pertinent than others in and Smith EC (eds.) Toward Internationalism, pp. 24–35. Cambridge, MA: Newbury
Original work published 1972.
specific cases of cross-cultural adaptation. In some cases, adap-
Berry JW (1980) Acculturation as varieties of adaptation. In: Padilla A (ed.)
tive successes may be almost entirely due to the openness, Acculturation: Theory, Models and Some New Finding, pp. 9–25. Boulder, CO:
strength, and positivity of the stranger’s personality, which Westview.
enable the stranger to overcome even the most severely unre- Berry JW (2008) Globalization and acculturation. International Journal of Intercultural
ceptive host environment. In other cases, very little adaptive Relations 32: 328–336.
Furnham A and Bochner S (1986) Culture Shock: Psychological Reactions to Unfamiliar
change may take place in strangers whose ethnic community Environment. New York: Routledge.
offers an almost complete insulation from having to face the Herskovits M (1958) Acculturation: The Study of Culture Contact. Gloucester, MA:
host cultural challenges. Peter Smith.
630 Cross-Cultural Adaptation

Kim YY (1988) Communication and Cross-Cultural Adaptation: An Integrative Theory. Redfield R, Linton R, and Herskovits M (1936) Outline for the study of acculturation.
Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. American Anthropologist 38: 149–152.
Kim YY (2001) Becoming Intercultural: An Integrative Theory of Communication and Taft R (1977) Coping with unfamiliar cultures. In: Warren N (ed.) Studies in
Cross-Cultural Adaptation. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Cross-Cultural Psychology, vol. 1, pp. 121–153. London: Academic Press.
Kim YY (2003) Intercultural adaptation: An interdisciplinary overview. In: Gudykunst W Ward C (2001) The A, B, Cs of acculturation. In: Matsumoto D (ed.) The Handbook of
(ed.) Cross-Cultural and Intercultural Communication, pp. 243–257. Thousand Culture and Psychology, pp. 411–445. New York: Oxford University Press.
Oaks, CA: Sage. Ward C, Bochner S, and Furnham A (2001) The Psychology of Culture Shock, 2nd edn.
Kim YY (2008) Intercultural personhood: Globalization and a way of being. International Philadelphia, PA: Routledge.
Journal of Intercultural Relations 32: 359–368.
Kim YY, Lujan P, and Dixon L (1998) ‘I can walk both ways’: Identity integration
of American Indians in Oklahoma. Human Communication Research 25: 252–274.