Mr. Biruk Simaani (M.

Sc)
Haramaya University
Haramaya Institute of Technology
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
 OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this chapter is to introduce you to:
❖ Fundamental principles of Oscillator circuits.
❖ Working principles of different types of Oscillators
❑ Low-frequency Oscillators (RC oscillators)
❑ High-frequency Oscillators (LC oscillators)
❑ Crystal Oscillators (Stable frequency oscillators)
❖ The analysis and design of general purpose oscillators.

Instructor: Mr. Biruk Simaani (M.Sc.) 1

 4.1. Introduction
❖An oscillator may be described as a source of alternating voltage.
❖It is different from an amplifier.
❑ An amplifier delivers an output signal whose waveform corresponds
to the input signal but whose power level is higher.
o The additional power content in the output signal is supplied
by the DC power source used to bias the active device.

❑ The amplifier can therefore be described as an energy converter, it

accepts energy from the DC power supply and converts it to energy
at the signal frequency.
❑ The process of energy conversion is controlled by the input signal.
❑ Thus if there is no input signal, no energy conversion takes place and
there is no output signal.
Instructor: Mr. Biruk Simaani (M.Sc.) 2
 4.1.1. Oscillators
❖Requires no external signal to initiate or maintain the energy conversion
process.
❖Instead an output signals is produced as long as source of DC power is
connected.

Figure: Block diagram representation of Oscillator and Amplifier

Instructor: Mr. Biruk Simaani (M.Sc.) 3

 4.1.2. Classification of Oscillators
❖ Oscillators may be classified in terms of their output waveform, frequency
range, components, or circuit configuration.

❑ Sinusoidal Oscillator: If the output waveform is sinusoidal, it

is called harmonic oscillator.

❑ Non Sinusoidal Oscillator: If the output waveform is non

sinusoidal it is called relaxation oscillator, which include square,
triangular and saw tooth waveforms.

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 ❖ Oscillators employ both active and passive components.
❑ The active components provide energy conversion mechanism.
▪ Typical active devices are BJT, FET, OP-amps
❑ Passive components normally determine the frequency of oscillation.
▪ They also influence stability and sensitivity
o Which is a measure of the change in output frequency
(drift) with time, temperature or other factors.

▪ Passive devices may include resistors, inductors, capacitors,

transformers, and resonant crystals.

▪ Capacitors used in oscillators circuits should be of high quality.

o Because of low losses and excellent stability, silver mica or
ceramic capacitors are generally preferred.
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 4.2. Principles of Operation of Oscillators
❖ An elementary sinusoidal oscillator is shown in figure below.

❖ The inductor and capacitors are reactive elements i.e. they are capable of
storing energy.
❑ The capacitor stores energy in its electric field whenever there is
voltage across its plates
❑ The inductor stores energy in its magnetic field whenever current
flows through it.
❑ Both C and L are assumed to be loss less.
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 ❖ Energy can be introduced in to the circuit by charging the capacitor with a
voltage V as shown in figure.

❖ As long as the switch S is open, C cannot discharge and so 𝑖 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉 = 0.

❖ Now S is closed at 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑜, this means V rises from 0 to V
❖ Just before closing the switch an inductor current was zero and an inductor
current cannot be changed instantaneously.
❖ Current increases from zero value sinusoidally and is given by
𝑐 𝑡
𝑖=𝑉 sin
𝐿 𝐿𝐶
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 ❖ The capacitor losses its charge and energy is simply transferred from capacitor to
inductor magnetic field.
❖ The total energy is still same.

❖ At 𝑡 = 𝑡1 , all the charge has been removed from the capacitor plates and voltage
reduces to zero and at current reaches to its maximum value.

❖ The current for 𝑡 > 𝑡1 charges C in the opposite direction and current decreases.
❖ Thus LC oscillation takes places.

❖ Both voltage and current are sinusoidal though no sinusoidal input was applied.
The frequency of oscillation is
1
𝑓=
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶

Instructor: Mr. Biruk Simaani (M.Sc.) 8

 ❖ The circuit discussed is not a practical oscillator because even if loss less
components were available, one could not extract energy with out introducing an
equivalent resistance.

❖ This would result in damped oscillations as shown in figure below

❖ These oscillations decay to zero as soon as the energy in the tank is consumed.
❖ If we remove too much power from the circuit, the energy may be completely
consumed before the first cycle of oscillations can take place yielding the over
damped response.
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 ❖ It is possible to supply energy to the tank to make up for all losses (coil losses
plus energy removed), thereby maintaining oscillations of constant amplitude.

❖ Since energy lost may be related to a positive resistance, it follows that the circuit
would gain energy if an equivalent negative resistance were available.

❖ The negative resistance, supplies whatever energy the circuit lose due to positive
resistance.

❖ Certain devices exhibit negative resistance characteristics, an increasing current

for a decreasing voltage.

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 ❖ The energy supplied by the negative resistance to the circuit, actually comes
from DC source that is necessary to bias the device in its negative resistance
region.

❖ Another technique for producing oscillation is to use positive feedback

considers an amplifier with an input signal 𝑉𝑖𝑛 and output 𝑉𝑜 as shown in
figure below

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 ❖ The amplifier is inverting amplifier and may be transistorized, or FET or
OP-AMP.
❖ The output is 180° out of phase with input signal
𝑉𝑜 = −𝐴 𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒)

❖ Now a feedback circuit is added.

❖ The output voltage is fed to the feed back circuit.

❖ The output of the feedback circuit is again 180° phase shifted and also gets
attenuated.

❖ Thus the output from the feedback network is in phase with input signal
𝑉𝑖𝑛 and it can also be made equal to input signal(𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑓 )

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 ❖If this is so, 𝑉𝑓 can be connected directly and externally applied signal can be
removed and the circuit will continue to generate an output signal.

❖The amplifier still has an input but the input is derived from the output amplifier.
❖The output essentially feeds on itself and is continuously regenerated. This is due
to positive feedback.

❖The over all amplification from 𝑉𝑖𝑛 to 𝑉𝑓 is 1 and the total phase shift is zero.
Thus the loop gain Aβ is equal to unity.
𝐴𝛽∠0

❖When this criterion is satisfied then the closed loop gain is infinite. i.e. an output
is produced without any external input.

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 𝑉𝑜 = A 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
= 𝐴 (𝑉𝑖𝑛 + 𝑉𝑓 )
= A (𝑉𝑖𝑛 + β𝑉𝑜 )
(1-Aβ ) 𝑉𝑜 = A𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑜 𝐴
=
𝑉𝑖𝑛 1−Aβ
𝑉𝑜
When Aβ = 1, =∞
𝑉𝑖𝑛

The criterion Aβ = 1 is satisfied only at one frequency.

This is known as Barckhausen Criterion

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❖ The frequency at which a sinusoidal oscillator will operate is the frequency for
which the total phase shift introduced.
❑ The total phase shift introduced by the signal proceeds form the input
terminals, through the amplifier and feed back network and back again to
the input is precisely zero or an integral multiple of 2𝜋.

❑ Therefore, the frequency of oscillation is

determined by the condition that the loop
phase shift is zero.
❖ Oscillation will not be sustained, if at the oscillator
frequency, Aβ <1 or Aβ>1.

❖ Figure, show the output for two different conditions

Aβ<1 and Aβ>1.
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 ❖ If Aβ is less than unity then AβVin is less than Vin, and the output signal will die out,
when the externally applied source is removed.

❖ If Aβ>1 then AβVin is greater than Vin and the output voltage builds up gradually.
❖ If Aβ = 1, only then output voltage is sine wave under steady state conditions.

Practical Oscillator
❖ In a practical oscillator, it is not necessary to supply a signal to start the oscillations.
Instead, oscillations are self-starting and begin as soon as power is applied.
❑ This is possible because of electrical noise present in all passive components

❑ Therefore, as soon as the power is applied, there is already some energy in

the circuit at 𝑓𝑜 , the frequency for which the circuit is designed to oscillate.

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 ❖ This energy is very small and is mixed with all the other frequency components.
❑ Only at this frequency (𝑓𝑜 ) the loop gain is slightly greater than unity and
the loop phase shift is zero.
❑ At all other frequency the Barkhausen criterion is not satisfied.

❖ The magnitude of the frequency component 𝑓𝑜 is made slightly higher each time it
goes around the loop.

❖ Soon the 𝑓𝑜 component is much larger than all other components and ultimately its
amplitude is limited by the circuits own non-lineareties (reduction of gain at
high current levels, saturation or cut off).
❑ Thus the loop gain reduces to unity and steady stage is reached. If it
does not, then the clipping may occur.

Instructor: Mr. Biruk Simaani (M.Sc.) 17

 ❖ Practically, Aβ is made slightly greater than unity.
❑ So that due to disturbance the output does not change but if Aβ = 1 and
due to some reasons if Aβ decreases slightly then the oscillation may die
out and oscillator stop functioning.

❖ In conclusion, all practical oscillations involve:

❑ An active device to supply loop gain.
❑ A DC source to provide negative resistance.
❑ A frequency selective network to determine the frequency of
oscillation.
❑ Some type of non-linearity to limit amplitude of oscillations.

Instructor: Mr. Biruk Simaani (M.Sc.) 18

 Example – 1:
The gain of certain amplifier as a function of frequency is 𝐴(𝑗𝜔) =(-16 x 106 )/jω.
103
A feedback path connected around it has 𝛽 𝑗 𝜔 = Will the system
(2 𝑥 103 + 𝑗𝜔 )
oscillate? If so, at what frequency ?

Instructor: Mr. Biruk Simaani (M.Sc.) 19

 4.3. Sinusoidal Oscillator
❖The output waveform of this type of oscillator is sinusoidal, it is called
harmonic oscillator( sinusoidal Oscillator)
❖A feedback type harmonic oscillator circuit is shown in figure below

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 The DC and AC equivalent circuits are shown in figure below.
❑ The dc operating point is set by selecting 𝑉𝑐𝑐 , 𝑅𝐵 and 𝑅𝐸 .

DC equivalent circuits
AC equivalent circuits
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 ❖ The transformer provides 180° phase shift to ensure positive feedback so that at
the desired frequency of oscillation, the total phase shift from Vin to Vx is made
equal to 0° and magnitudes are made equal by properly selecting the turns ratio.

❖ 𝑅𝐸 also controls and stabilizes the gain through negative feedback.

❖ 𝐶2 and the transformers equivalent inductance make up a resonant circuit that
determines the frequency of oscillation.

❖ C1 is used to block DC (Otherwise the base would be directly tied to VCC)

through the low DC resistance of transformer primary.

❖ C1 has negligible reactance at the frequency of oscillation, therefore it is not part

of the frequency-determining network, the same applies to C3.

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 ❖ In this circuit, there is an active device suitably biased to provide necessary gain.
❖ Since the active device produces loop phase shift 180º (from base to collector), a
transformer in the feedback loop provides an additional 180º to yield to a loop
phase shift of 0º.

❖ The feedback factor is equivalent to the transformer's turns ratio.

❖ There is also a tuned circuit, to determine the frequency of oscillation.

❖ The load is in parallel with 𝐶2 and the transformer.

❖ If the load is resistive, which is usually the case, the Q of the tuned circuit and the
loop gain are both affected, this must be taken into account when determining the
minimum gain required for oscillation.
❖ If the load has a capacitive component, then the value of 𝐶2 should be reduced
accordingly.
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A. The RC Phase Shift Oscillator:
❖At low frequencies (around 100 KHz or less), resistors are usually employed to
determine the frequency oscillation.

❖Various circuits are used in the feedback circuit

including ladder network.

❖A block diagram of a ladder type RC phase shift

oscillation is shown in figure below.

❖It consists of three resistor R and C capacitors.

❖If the phase shift through the amplifier is 180º, then oscillation may occur at
the frequency where the RC network produces an additional 180 phase shift.
Instructor: Mr. Biruk Simaani (M.Sc.) 24
 To find the frequency of oscillation, let us neglect the loading of the phase shift
network. Writing the KVL equations, 𝑉𝑥 = −𝑖1 𝑅
1
𝑥𝑐 =
𝜔𝑐
𝑖1 𝑅 − 𝑗𝑖1 𝑥𝑐 +(𝑖1 − 𝑖2 )R=0 (1)
(𝑖2 − 𝑖1 )R − 𝑗𝑖2 𝑥𝑐 +(𝑖2 − 𝑖3 )R=0 (2)
(𝑖3 − 𝑖2 )R − 𝑗𝑖3 𝑥𝑐 +𝑉𝑜 =0 (3)
𝑉
𝑖1 = − 𝑥 (4)
𝑅
𝑖1 𝑉𝑥
Using eq(1) and (4) 𝑖2 = (2𝑅 − 𝑗𝑥𝑐 )= −
2 (2𝑅 − 𝑗𝑥𝑐 ) (5)
𝑅 𝑅
1 𝑉
Substituting Eq(5) in to Eq(2) 𝑖3 = (2𝑅 − 𝑗𝑥𝑐 )2 ( − 𝑥2 ) + 𝑉𝑥
𝑅 𝑅
2 2
3𝑅 −𝑥𝑐 −𝑗4𝑅𝑥𝑐
=− 𝑉𝑥 (6)
𝑅2

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 3𝑅2 −𝑥𝑐 2 𝑗4 𝑥𝑐 𝑉𝑥
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐸𝑞 6 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝐸𝑞(3) − 𝑉0 = − 𝑅 − 𝑗𝑥𝑐 𝑉𝑥 + (2𝑅 − 𝑗𝑥𝑐 )
𝑅2 𝑅

3𝑅2 − 𝑅𝑥𝑐 2 − 𝑗4𝑅2 𝑥𝑐 − 𝑗3𝑅2 𝑥𝑐 3 − 4𝑅𝑥𝑐 2 + 2𝑅3 − 𝑗𝑅2 𝑥𝑐

−𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑥
𝑅3

𝑉𝑥 𝑅3
𝛽= = 3
𝑉0 𝑅 − 5𝑅𝑥𝑐 2 − 6𝑗𝑅2 𝑥𝑐 + 𝑗𝑥𝑐 3

1
Putting 𝑥𝑐 = , we get
𝜔𝑐
𝑉𝑥 𝑅3
𝛽= = 2
𝑉0 3 5𝑅 6𝑗𝑅 𝑗
𝑅 − 2 2− + 3 3
𝜔 𝑐 𝜔𝑐 𝜔 𝑐

Instructor: Mr. Biruk Simaani (M.Sc.) 26

 𝑉𝑥
For phase shift equal to 180 0 between 𝑉𝑥 and VO, imaginary term of must be zero.
𝑉0
𝑗 6𝑗𝑅2
3 3
− =0
𝜔 𝑐 𝜔𝑐
3 3
𝜔𝑐
𝜔 𝑐 = 2
6𝑅
1
𝜔=
𝑅𝐶 6
1
Therefore 𝑓 = This is the frequency of oscillation.
2𝜋𝑅𝐶 6
Substituting this frequency in Vx/VO expression.
𝑉𝑥 𝑅3 1
= 3 2
=− =β
𝑉𝑜 𝑅 − 5𝑅. 6𝑅 29
This show that 180𝑜 phase shift from 𝑉𝑜 to 𝑉𝑥 can be obtained if
1 1
𝑓= , and the gain if feedback circuit becomes
2𝜋𝑅𝐶 6 29

Instructor: Mr. Biruk Simaani (M.Sc.) 27

 ❖ In order to ensure the oscillation, initially |Aβ| >1 and under steady state Aβ =1.
❑ This means the gain of the amplifier should be initially greater than
29 (so that Aβ >1) and under steady stat conditions it reduces to 29.

❖ This oscillator can be realized using FET amplifier as shown in figure below

Instructor: Mr. Biruk Simaani (M.Sc.) 28

 The input impedance of FET is very high so that there is no loading of the
feedback circuit.
In this circuit, the feedback is voltage series feedback.
𝑉𝑥 = 𝑉𝐺𝑠 + 𝑉𝑠 𝑜𝑟𝑉𝐺𝑠 = 𝑉𝑥 − 𝑉𝑠
❖ The same circuit can be realizing using OP-AMP. The circuit is shown in figure
below.

Instructor: Mr. Biruk Simaani (M.Sc.) 29

 ❖ The input impedance is very high and there is no overloading of feedback
circuit.
❖ The OPAMP is connected in an inverting configuration and drives three
cascaded RC sections.

❖ The inverting amplifier causes a 180° phase shift in the signal passing through it.
❖ RC network is used in the feedback to provide additional 180° phase shift.
❖ Therefore, the total phase shift in the signal, of a particular frequency, around
the loop will equal 360° and oscillation will occur at that frequency.

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 ❖ The gain necessary to overcome the loss in the RC network and bring the loop
gain up to 1 is supplied by the amplifier.
The gain is given by
𝑉𝑜 𝑅𝑓
=−
𝑉𝑥 𝑅
❖Note that input resistor to the inverting amplifier is also the last resistor of the RC
feedback network.

Example -2: Design a RC phase shift oscillator that will oscillate at 100 Hz

Instructor: Mr. Biruk Simaani (M.Sc.) 31

Instructor: Mr. Biruk Simaani (M.Sc.) 32