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Centre For Hellenic Studies
King’s College London
Publications 8
BYZANTINE WOMEN:
VARIETIES OF
EXPERIENCE
800–1200

edited by
Lynda Garland
First published 2006 by Ashgate Publishing

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

First issued in paperdback 2016

Copyright © 2006 Lynda Garland

The editor has asserted her moral right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act,
1988, to be identified as the editor of this work.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any
form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retri eval system,
without permission in writing from the publishers.

Notice:
Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only
for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Byzantine Women: Varieties of Experience, 800–1200. – (Publications for the Centre for
Hellenic Studies, King’s College London; no. 8)
1. Women – Byzantine Empire – Social conditions. 2. Byzantine Empire – Social
life and customs. I. Garland, Lynda, 1955– II. King’s College (London, England).
Centre for Hellenic Studies
305.4’2’09495’0902
US Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Byzantine Women: Varieties of Experience 800–1200 / edited by Lynda Garland.
p. cm. – (Publications for the Centre for Hellenic Studies, King’s College
London; 8)
Includes biographical references and index.
1. Women – Byzantine Empire. 2. Women – History – Middle Ages, 500–1500.
I. Garland, Lynda, 1955–. II. Series: Publications (King’s College (University of
London). Centre for Hellenic Studies); 8.
HQ1147.B98B98 2007
305.409495'09021–dc2 2006016617

ISBN-13: 978-0-7546-5737-8
ICL

ISBN-13: 978-1-138-25951-5
pCL
 Contents

Contributors vii
List of Figures and Plates ix
List of Abbreviations xi
Editor’s Introduction xiii

1. Changing Functions of Monasteries for Women

during Byzantine Iconoclasm 1
Judith Herrin
2. Kassia the Nun c.810–c.865: an Appreciation 17
Anna M. Silvas
3. Propriety, Practicality and Pleasure: the Parameters of
Women’s Dress in Byzantium, A.D. 1000–1200 41
Timothy Dawson
4. Taxing Sophronia’s Son-in-law: Representations of Women
in Provincial Documents 77
Leonora Neville
5. Mary ‘of Alania’: Woman and Empress Between Two Worlds 91
Lynda Garland & Stephen Rapp
6. Middle Byzantine Family Values and Anna Komnene’s Alexiad 125
Dion C. Smythe
7. Women in Byzantine Novels of the Twelfth Century:
an Interplay Between Norm and Fantasy 141
Corinne Jouanno
8. Street Life in Constantinople: Women and the Carnivalesque 163
Lynda Garland
9. Imperial Women and Entertainment at the Middle Byzantine Court 177
Lynda Garland

Bibliography 193
Index 215
 Con tributors

A chequered career as a re-enactor, professional history educator and

entertainer, and historical craftsman has given TIMOTHY DAWSON an
intensely practical approach to the subjects he tackles, which provides a
valuable complement to conventional academic methods. He is responsible
for [Link], a site devoted to the medieval history of the
Levant.

LYNDA GARLAND is an Associate Professor in the School of Classics,

History and Religion at the University of New England, New South Wales,
and author of Byzantine Empresses. Women and Power in Byzantium, AD 527–
1204 (1999) and with M. Dillon. Ancient Rome: from the Early Republic to the
Assassination of Julius Caesar (2005). Her current project is a monograph on
Byzantine Humour and its Social Context, AD 527–1453.

JUDITH HERRIN is Professor of Late Antique and Byzantine Studies at

King’s College London. From 1995–2002 she was Director of the Centre for
Hellenic Studies, KCL, and prepared two volumes for publication in this
series: Alexandria, Real and Imagined (2004), Personification in the Greek World
(2005). Her most recent book is Women in Purple. Rulers of Medieval
Byzantium (2001) and she is just finishing an introductory study, a
‘Byzantium for Beginners’.

CORINNE JOUANNO is professor of ancient Greek literature at the

University of Caen (France). Her main field of research is Byzantine novel.
She has published a translation of Digenis Akritas (1998), an essay about the
Alexander Romance (2002), and is presently completing a translation of the
Life of Aesop.

LEONORA NEVILLE is associate professor of history and associate

director of the Center for the Study of Early Christianity at The Catholic
University of America. Her first book, Authority in Byzantine Provincial
Society, 950–1100, was published in 2004. She is currently studying the
political theory expressed in the history of Nikephoros Bryennios.

vii
viii CONTRIBUTORS

STEPHEN H. RAPP, JR. is Associate Professor of medieval Eurasian and

Byzantine history and the Director of the Program in World History and
Cultures at Georgia State University (USA). He is the author of Studies in
Medieval Georgian Historiography: Early Texts and Eurasian Contexts.

DION C. SMYTHE studied at St Andrews with Paul Magdalino and in

Vienna. He is Lecturer in Byzantine Studies at Queen’s University, Belfast.
He works on Byzantine outsiders and labelling theory, and the role of
computers in teaching and research.

ANNA SILVAS has made successful forays not only into Byzantine history
but also Western medieval studies, resulting in Jutta and Hildegard: the
biographical sources (Turnhout: Brepols, 1998). She has spent some years on
the Cappadocian Fathers, resulting in The Asketikon of St Basil the Great
(Oxford: OUP, 2005), and is currently finishing books on the letters of St
Gregory of Nyssa and on St Macrina.
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 List of Figures and Plates

Fig. 1 A Protospatharissa as donor in her ‘Sunday best’ – a

brocaded dress, gold-edged mandyas and savanion. 65

Fig. 2 A servant with the sleeves of her hand-me-down

delmatikion tied behind her. 65

Fig. 3 A fashionable twelfth-century outfit of a savanion and

sphinktourion / makhlamion. 65

Fig. 4 An unusual form of the kavadion. 65

Fig. 5 A young, unmarried woman wearing the civilian

version of the epilorikion. 65

Fig. 6 A dancing girl’s stage costume comprising a kolovion

over a decorated roukhon. 65

Fig. 7 Combined esophorion and himation pattern employed

in the reconstructions, based upon the Manazan
Caves esophorion. 66

Pl. 1 Detail of donor couple of Protospathariate rank

presenting the manuscript to Christ. Koutloumousiou
Monastery, Mount Athos, Codex f. 1v, first quarter of
the twelfth century. 67

Pl. 2 Nativity detail, fresco, Kiliçar Kusluk, Chapel 33,

Göreme, Cappadocia, eleventh century. 67

Pl. 3 Nativity detail, fresco, Church of Hagios Nicholaos

tou Kaznitzi, Kastoria, twelfth century. 68

Pl. 4 Head of donor, fresco Kiliçar Kusluk, Chapel 33,

Göreme, Cappadocia, eleventh century 68

ix
x FIGURES AND PLATES

Pl. 5 Shoes from Egypt, sixth century. After Frauberger. 69

Pl. 6 Woman’s red leather boot trimmed in gold, Egypt,

sixth century. After Frauberger. 69

Pl. 7 Slipper from ‘Pharoah’s Island’, Gulf of Aqaba, late

twelfth or early thirteenth century. 70

Pl. 8 Reconstruction of the dress of a mid-eleventh-century

noblewoman, based principally upon Vat. Gr. 752, f.
449v. 71

Pl. 9 The outfit comprises a propoloma, esophorion,

delmatikion and zonarion. 72

Pl. 10 Reconstruction of the outdoor dress of a common

woman, tenth to twelfth centuries. 73

Pl. 11 Detail of the simple himation or roukhon of the

previous outfit. 74

Pl. 12 Reconstruction of the flounced kolovion of an

eleventh-century Choreutes based upon Bib. Marc. Z
479, f. 12v. 75
 Abbreviations

AASS Acta Sanctorum Bollandiana, Brussels, 1643–1779; Paris &

Rome, 1866–87; Brussels, 1894–.
AT Achilles Tatius, Leukippe and Clitophon.
BHG Bibliotheca Hagiographica Graeca, ed. F. Halkin, edn. 3, Subsidia
Hagiographica 8a, Brussels, 1957.
Bib. Marc. Saint Mark’s Library, Venice
Bib. Nac. Madrid Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid.
Bib. Nat. Paris Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris.
Bib. Vat. Vatican Library, Rome.
BMGS Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies.
CFHB Corpus Fontium Historiae Byzantinae.
Char. Chariton Aphrodisiensis, Chaereas and Kallirhoe.
CSHB Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae.
DAI Constantine Porphyrogenitus, De Administrando Imperio, ed. & tr.
Gy. Moravcsik & R.J.H. Jenkins, Washington DC: Dumbarton
Oaks, rev. edn. 1967.
DC Niketas Eugenianos, Drosilla and Charicles.
de cer. Constantine Porphyrogenitos, De cerimoniis aulae byzantinae, ed.
J.J. Reiske, 2 vols, Bonn: CSHB, 1829; partial French
translation by A. Vogt, Constantin Porphyrogénète. Le livre des
cérémonies, 2 vols, Paris: Budé, 1935–40.
DOP Dumbarton Oaks Papers.
GRBS Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies
Hel. Heliodoros, Aethiopika.
HH Eustathios Makrembolites, Hysmine and Hysminias.
PG Patrologiae Cursus Completus, Series Graeca, ed. J.-P. Migne.
RD Theodore Prodromos, Rodanthe and Dosikles.
V. and A. Victoria and Albert Museum, London.
Xen. Xenophon of Ephesus, Ephesiaka.

xi
 Editor’s Introduction

Byzantine society was unquestionably patriarchal. Nevertheless, as in all

medieval cultures attitudes towards women were ambivalent. It can be
argued that women were a marginalized group, in theory an inferior sex, and
conventionally were supposed to be seldom seen and never heard in public.
They were debarred from all priestly functions and denied the power of
giving instruction in church. Nevertheless the church acknowledged that
women were spiritually equal to men and there were many well-known early
Christian female martyrs. Women founded monasteries, their relics might
perform miraculous cures and some achieved sainthood. The Theotokos (the
‘Mother of God’) was always a central figure in the devotion of both men and
women and was seen as the mediator between mankind and Christ.
Though separation of the genders was ideologically considered a norm, it
is increasingly clear that women were not ‘secluded’ in the Byzantine world.
The gynaikonitis (women’s quarters) which was a feature of the palace and
noble homes was not an area to which women were restricted, but one where
the women of the family could enjoy some privacy and pursue their
traditional occupations such as spinning and weaving. ‘Respectable’ women
from the higher socio-economic class were clearly privileged enough to be
able to stay at home and delegate activities outside the household to servants
and retainers. The majority of the female population, however, which could
include anything from housewives and small-scale retailers to prostitutes,
maintained a ubiquitous presence on the streets of Byzantine cities as part of
their daily routine. Some women had to work outside the house as a matter
of course, and housewives would go shopping, attend church services, visit
the baths or relatives, and participate in festivals and saints’ days. In
Constantinople we even hear of girls and upper-class women (“women who
had never before left the gynaikonitis”) taking part in a spontaneous street
riot, when the Empress Zoe was threatened with tonsure and exile by her
adopted nephew Michael V in April 1042.

From Byzantine Women: Varieties of Experience 800–1200, ed. Lynda Garland.

Copyright © 2006 by Lynda Garland. Published by Ashgate Publishing Ltd, Gower
House, Croft Road, Aldershot, Hampshire, GU11 3HR, UK.

xiii
 INTRODUCTION xiv

Women also played an important economic role in Byzantium. Aristocratic

women could be shop-owners or supervise a workshop in the basement of
their house, and women were deeply involved in retail trade as bakers, cooks
or innkeepers. They acted as bath keepers, washerwomen, and midwives,
maintained a public profile as prostitutes and entertainers, and engaged in
specialist trades as weavers and silk-workers. Women could also be
extremely wealthy in their own right. Imperial and aristocratic women
possessed huge estates and property within Constantinople while Danielis, a
widow from Patras, in the ninth century, controlled “not a small part of the
Peloponnese”, and reportedly owned innumerable slaves. She freed three
thousand of them and settled them in southern Italy. Such women were
expected to take an active role in the maintenance of their household and
supervision of family, servants and property. Women could play an important
role as abbesses and nuns, and noble ladies founded monasteries and acted
as patrons of literature. Female literacy was primarily confined to a reading
knowledge of the bible and certain saints’ lives, but Byzantium did produce
some exceptional female writers.
Since with a few valuable exceptions what we know about women is
derived primarily through the viewpoint of male authors, who wrote about
and for other men, understanding Byzantine women is to some extent
inseparable from understanding Byzantine society as a whole. This volume
focuses on how the male authors of the discourse of the dominant ideology
viewed, understood and presented the public actions of imperial and non-
imperial women in the period. The unique role of women was to bear
children to ensure the continuation of the family. They were excluded from
the public fields of politics, war and church that rewarded and engaged men.
Women from non-élite backgrounds enter the historical record only when
they are prominent at court or acquire wealth and influence. Male authors
praise women for the traditional qualities of patience, silence, beauty,
modesty and fertility. Yet women shared the same perceptions of and
engagement with their society and social institutions as men. They engaged
in imperial intrigue and family networking, inherited and managed wealth,
founded monasteries, traded in the marketplace, bought and sold land and
paid taxes.
We are fortunate to have from this period the works of a female poet and
hymnographer and a historian. In the ninth century Kassia speaks from the
perspective of a woman among women, and about women’s attitudes
towards a range of issues and priorities. She provides a suggestive
counterpoint to other narratives and a perspective largely absent from the
historical literature. Her non-liturgical poems give unvarnished observations
on friendship, beauty, women, good and bad fortune, wealth and poverty,
and vices such as envy and stupidity. The historian Anna Komnene, eldest
 INTRODUCTION xv

daughter of Alexios I Komnenos, enjoyed an exceptional education and

wrote a biography of her father, the Alexiad, in the first half of the twelfth
century. Her work gives rise to invaluable evidence regarding women’s
perceptions of the family and for family values generally in the Middle
Byzantine period.
The distinguished international authors of this collection discuss central
issues including the following: In what ways did the functions of monasteries
change for women during the period of Byzantine iconoclasm? (Herrin)
Empresses and other imperial women often founded monasteries to which
they retired when replaced by a new generation of rulers, or were removed
from their quarters in the Great Palace by political change. There is a
common pattern of such activity going back to Late Antiquity, but it
becomes more pronounced in the late eighth and early ninth century, a
period associated with two highly divisive issues: the divorce of Constantine
VI and the resumption of iconoclasm by Leo V. This paper explores the
question whether such foundations were the result of male pressure on
imperial women, who were thus forced to retire from the world of courtly
politics to monastic retreats, or whether certain women took the initiative to
ensure their own independent and comfortable retirement, as a political
insurance against the violent and unsettling times in which they lived. They
ensured not only their survival but also prepared a retirement home in which
they might enjoy a more peaceful old age in circumstances of their own
choosing and ensure the commemoration of their death. Of course, this was
not always successful, but there are sufficient clues to indicate a good deal of
feminine planning behind the establishment of certain imperial monastic
foundations of this period.
What did the abbess Kassia contribute to liturgical and secular poetry in
this period? (Silvas). A number of women successfully competed with men
in the area of hymnography, foremost amongst them Kassia, for, of the
women hymnographers known, only Kassia’s works are included in the
ecclesiastical books. It is significant that women felt themselves able to write
hymns, and even more significant that some of these hymns came to be
included in the liturgy, even though some of them are attributed to male
authors. Twenty-three of the forty-nine hymns ascribed to Kassia in the
manuscripts are considered genuine, and she is well-known for her troparion
‘On Mary Magdalene’, which is included in the Triodion, as well as for her
gnomic poetry. This includes forthright epigrams, beginning ‘I hate…’,
which reflect her disdain for people who behave inappropriately, speak
deceptively or do things for selfish reasons. Clearly, in the ninth century,
certain women had the inclination to compose both sacred and secular
poetry and sufficient education to do so successfully. This paper analyses
Kassia’s originality of thought and perception of the world, as evidenced in
 INTRODUCTION xvi

her hymns and epigrams, and discusses what can be learnt from her work
about the ways in which educated women viewed society and social norms of
the ninth century.
What should we deduce from the prominence of women in Byzantine
fiscal records? (Neville). Understanding any aspect of the lives of Byzantine
women is complex because Byzantine women can only be seen through their
representations in the surviving literature, law and art. Often these are not
women and men, but characters created by authors and artists. Since the
writers of tax registers are among the most artless of all conceivable writers,
their testimony is important, however terse. The officials who compiled tax
registers focused on the task of recording who owed what tax on which piece
of land. They used any means necessary to define a given individual
precisely: surnames, place names, nicknames and relationships to other
individuals. At times the author of the Cadaster of Thebes used a woman’s
prominence and name recognition as a means of identifying men who were
less easily known in their own right. Widows are frequently listed as
taxpayers. Some women owned many small plots of land. Some owned
watermills. Some owned land they inherited from their husbands. Here we
see that one of the positions open to women was that of property owner.
This information has the advantage of stemming from a source for which we
know the audience and purpose of the writing. The tax assessors wrote
registers for tax collectors so that they would know how much each person
owed. The author of the register needed to depict the reality of provincial
landholding as accurately as possible. Ideas about what roles women should
play either in society or in approved literature were not allowed to interfere
with the matter at hand. The information provided by the tax register that
landowners were frequently women and that this position brought some
women public prominence is useful when historians turn to assessing
statements about the prominence of women. This paper surveys the
evidence provided by fiscal records about the status of women in provincial
society and shows how this information may effect our reading of other
contemporary sources.
To what extent was a foreign-born empress, without a family network in
Byzantium, able to become a player in Byzantine politics and society? (Rapp
and Garland). Mary of ‘Alania’, daughter of Bagrat IV of Georgia, was only
the second foreigner to reach the Byzantine throne since Irene, the first wife
of Constantine V. Despite her foreign origins, she was to become a
significant factor in Byzantine politics and society in the late eleventh
century as the wife of Michael VII Doukas. She became empress for the
second time by marrying Nikephoros III Botaneiates after his coup d’état
during her first husband’s lifetime, and was a prime mover in the successful
coup of Alexios Komnenos against Nikephoros. She appears to have retained
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