🧬 AP BIO UNIT 2 — Cell Structure and Function (Albert
Review Notes)
1. Cell Membranes and Selective Permeability
Phospholipid Bilayer Structure
● Each phospholipid = hydrophilic head + hydrophobic tails.
● Heads face the watery environments (intra/extracellular).
● Tails face inward → forming a hydrophobic interior.
Selective Permeability
● Small nonpolar molecules (O₂, CO₂) diffuse easily.
● Polar or charged molecules (ions, glucose, water) need transport proteins.
● Hydrophobic tails are the main barrier → block ions and polar molecules.
Transport Types
● Passive transport = no energy (diffusion, facilitated diffusion).
● Active transport = requires ATP (moves substances against their gradient).
2. Na⁺/K⁺ Pump and Membrane Potential
Function
● Uses ATP to pump:
○ 3 Na⁺ ions out of the cell.
○ 2 K⁺ ions in to the cell.
● Maintains ion gradients and membrane potential.
If ATP is unavailable:
● Pump stops → Na⁺ leaks in, K⁺ leaks out (down their gradients).
● Ion concentrations equalize; membrane potential collapses.
● Water may enter the cell (not exit) since Na⁺ builds up inside.
3. Osmosis and Diffusion (Modeling a Cell)
Key Concept
● Molecules move from high → low concentration (diffusion).
● Water moves from hypotonic → hypertonic areas (osmosis).
In a cell model experiment:
● To mimic real cells, use a selectively permeable membrane to control which molecules
can pass.
● This shows how concentration gradients drive molecular movement.
4. Membrane Fluidity Adaptation
Temperature and Fatty Acids
● Hot environment: Cells use saturated fatty acids → pack tightly, reduce fluidity.
● Cold environment: Cells use unsaturated fatty acids → prevent solidification,
maintain fluidity.
● Organisms adjust membrane composition to survive temperature changes.
5. Intracellular Membranes and Compartmentalization
Eukaryotic Cells
● Have internal membrane-bound organelles (ER, Golgi, lysosomes, mitochondria,
nucleus).
● Allow compartmentalization → specialized functions within the same cell.
Prokaryotic Cells
● No internal membranes; only a plasma membrane.
● All cellular processes occur in the cytoplasm.
● So an enzyme that targets internal membranes would affect eukaryotes, not prokaryotes.
6. Endomembrane System (ER, Golgi, Vesicles)
Smooth ER
● Synthesizes lipids and phospholipids.
● Detoxifies drugs and poisons.
● Does not make proteins or vesicles for secretion.
Rough ER
● Covered with ribosomes → synthesizes secretory and membrane proteins.
Golgi Apparatus
● Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins into vesicles.
● Vesicles bud from the Golgi and transport proteins to the plasma membrane or
lysosomes.
Vesicle Flow Summary
→ Rough ER → Golgi → vesicle → plasma membrane (exocytosis)
7. Lysosomes and Vacuoles
Lysosomes
● Contain digestive enzymes that break down macromolecules and worn-out organelles.
● Found in animal cells.
● Enzymes are made by the rough ER and processed by the Golgi.
Vacuoles
● Found mainly in plant cells.
● Function in storage, water regulation, and sometimes toxin isolation (e.g., cyanide in
plants).
Example:
● The vacuole in white clover stores cyanide compounds to protect against herbivores.
8. Tay–Sachs Disease and Lysosomal Function
Cause
● Mutation in Hexosaminidase A (Hex-A) → a lysosomal enzyme.
● Failure to break down lipids (gangliosides) → lipid accumulation in lysosomes.
Effect
● Lysosomes swell with undigested materials.
● Plasma membrane integrity and maintenance are disrupted.
● Most affected in neurons, since nerve cells rely on proper lipid and membrane function.
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Most impacted function:
Membrane production and maintenance
🍃 9. Water Movement in Plants (Adaptation to Environment)
Example: Submerged vs Floating Leaves
● Submerged plants (e.g., Myriophyllum) have dissected leaves → high surface
area-to-volume ratio (SA/V).
○ Increases CO₂ diffusion for photosynthesis in low-CO₂ water.
● Floating leaves (e.g., water lilies) are broad and flat for sunlight absorption.
Key takeaway:
Higher SA/V ratio = faster diffusion, better gas exchange.
10. Kidney Function and Loop of Henle
Descending Loop
● Permeable to water (has many aquaporins).
● Water moves out into salty medulla → filtrate becomes concentrated.
Ascending Loop
● Impermeable to water (few aquaporins).
● Actively pumps out Na⁺ and Cl⁻ → filtrate becomes dilute.
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Structural Difference
Ascending loop cells have fewer aquaporins than descending loop cells.
→ Helps the kidney conserve water.
11. Intracellular Membrane Functions
● Intracellular membranes increase surface area for metabolic reactions (like ATP
synthesis, lipid production, and protein modification).
● Contain membrane transport proteins that regulate what enters/exits organelles.
● Allow separation of incompatible reactions within a cell (e.g., enzyme reactions in
lysosomes vs cytoplasm).
🧬 12. Endoplasmic Reticulum Surface Area in Active Cells
● Cells with high protein/lipid synthesis (e.g., liver, pancreas) have large ER surface
area.
● Rough ER → produces secretory and membrane proteins.
● Smooth ER → produces lipids and detoxifies substances.
● Larger ER = more surface area for synthesis and transport.
🧾 Summary Table
Concept Key Main Function Example Question
Organelle/Structur Connection
e
Selective Phospholipid bilayer Regulates entry/exit of Diffusion & facilitated
permeability molecules transport
Na⁺/K⁺ pump Plasma membrane Maintains ion gradients ATP inhibition question
via ATP
Temperature Phospholipid tails Controls membrane Oak tree membrane Q
adaptation fluidity
Internal ER, Golgi, lysosome Compartmentalization Enzyme on prokaryotes
membranes vs eukaryotes
Vesicle transport Golgi apparatus Protein modification & SER vs Golgi function Q
export
Lysosome Membrane-bound Digestive enzyme Tay–Sachs Q
vesicle activity
Vacuole Plant cell storage Stores water/toxins Cyanide isolation Q
ER surface area Liver/pancreatic Protein & lipid Liver cell ER Q
cells synthesis
Leaf adaptations Leaf morphology Gas exchange Dissected leaves Q
efficiency
Loop of Henle Kidney nephron Water conservation Aquaporin difference Q
