Department of Mechanical Engineering

Regulation 2021
III Year – V Semester
ME3492 HYDRAULICS AND PNEUMATICS

Authour

Dr. K. Balamurugan
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
 HYDRAULICS AND PNEUMATICS

UNIT I FLUID POWER PRINICIPLES AND HYDRAULIC PUMPS

Introduction to Fluid power – Advantages and Applications – Fluid power systems – Types
of fluids– Properties of fluids and selection – Basics of Hydraulics – Pascal’s Law –
Principles of flow – Friction loss – Work, Power and Torque Problems, Sources of
Hydraulic power : Pumping Theory – Pump Classification – Construction, Working, Design,
Advantages, Disadvantages, Performance, Selection criteria of Linear and Rotary – Fixed
and Variable displacement pumps – Problems.

UNIT II HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS AND CONTROL COMPONENTS

Hydraulic Actuators: Cylinders – Types and construction, Application, Hydraulic
cushioning – Hydraulic motors – Control Components: Direction Control, Flow control and
pressure control valves – Types, Construction and Operation – Servo and Proportional
valves – Applications – Accessories: Reservoirs, Pressure Switches – Applications – Fluid
Power ANSI Symbols – Problems.

UNIT III HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS

Accumulators, Intensifiers, Industrial hydraulic circuits – Regenerative, Pump Unloading,
Double- Pump, Pressure Intensifier, Air-over oil, Sequence, Reciprocation, Synchronization,
Fail-Safe, Speed Control, Hydrostatic transmission, Electro hydraulic circuits, Mechanical
hydraulic servo systems.

UNIT IV PNEUMATIC AND ELECTRO PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS

Properties of air – Perfect Gas Laws – Compressor – Filters, Regulator, Lubricator, Muffler,
Air control Valves, Quick Exhaust Valves, Pneumatic actuators, Design of Pneumatic circuit
– Cascade method – Electro Pneumatic System – Elements – Ladder diagram – Problems,
Introduction to fluidics and pneumatic logic circuits.

UNIT V TROUBLE SHOOTING AND APPLICATIONS

Installation, Selection, Maintenance, Trouble Shooting and Remedies in Hydraulic and
Pneumatic systems, Design of hydraulic circuits for Drilling, Planning, Shaping, Surface
grinding, Press and Forklift applications. Design of Pneumatic circuits for Pick and Place
applications and tool handling in CNC Machine tools – Low cost Automation – Hydraulic
and Pneumatic power packs.
TEXT BOOKS

1. Majumdar S.R., “Pneumatic systems – Principles and maintenance”, Tata McGraw

Hill, 1995

2. Anthony Lal, “Oil hydraulics in the service of industry”, Allied publishers, 1982.

3. Anthony Esposito, “Fluid Power with Applications”, Pearson Education 2000.

REFERENCE BOOKS

1. Anthony Esposito, “Fluid Power with Applications”, Pearson Education 2000.

2. Majumdar S.R., “Oil Hydraulics”, Tata McGraw-Hill, 2000.

3. Majumdar S.R., “Pneumatic systems – Principles and maintenance”, Tata McGraw

Hill, 1995

4. Anthony Lal, “Oil hydraulics in the service of industry”, Allied publishers, 1982.

5. Harry L. Stevart D.B, “Practical guide to fluid power”, Taraoeala sons and Port Ltd.
Broadey, 1976.

6. Michael J, Prinches and Ashby J. G, “Power Hydraulics”, Prentice Hall, 1989.

7. Dudelyt, A. Pease and John T. Pippenger, “Basic Fluid Power”, Prentice Hall, 1987.
 UNIT III HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS

Accumulators

1. Weight – loaded, or gravity, type

2. Spring-loaded type
3 Gas –loaded type

The weight-loaded type is historically the oldest. This type consists of a

vertical, heavy-wall steel cylinder, which incorporates a piston with packing to
prevent leakage. A dead weight is attached to the top of the piston the force of
gravity of the dead weight provides the potential energy in the accumulator. This
type of accumulator creates a constant fluid pressure throughout the full volume
output of the unit regardless of the rate and quantity of output.
In the other types of accumulators, the fluid output pressure decreases as a
function of the volume output of the accumulator. The main disadvantage of this
type of accumulator is its extremely large size and heavy weight, which makes it
unsuitable for mobile equipment.
 A spring-loaded accumulator is similar to the weight-loaded type except that
the piston is preloaded with a spring, the spring is the source of energy that acts
against the piston, forcing the fluid into the hydraulic system. The pressure
generated by this type of accumulator depends on the size and preloading of the
spring. In addition, the pressure exerted on the fluid is not a constant. The spring-
loaded accumulator typicality delivers a relatively small volume of oil at low
pressures. Thus, they tend to be heavy and large for high-pressure, large-volume
systems. This type of accumulator should not be used for application requiring high
cycle rates because the spring will fatigue and lose it elasticity. The result is an
inoperative accumulator.

Gas-loaded accumulators (frequently called hydro pneumatic accumulators)

have been found to be more practical than the weight-and spring –loaded types.
The gas-loaded type operates in accordance with Boyle’s law of gases, which
states that for a constant temperature process, the pressure of a gas varies in verily
with its volume. Thus, for example, the gas volume of the accumulator would be cut
in half if the pressure were doubled. The compressibility of gases accounts for the
storage of potential energy. This energy forces the oil out of the accumulator when
the gas expands due to the reduction of system pressure when, for example, an
actuator rapidly moves a load.

Gas-loaded accumulators fall into two main categories:

1.Nonsparator type
2.Separator type

The nonseparator type consists of a fully enclosed shell containing an oil port
on the bottom and a gas charging valve on the top the gas is confined in the top and
the oil at the bottom of the shell. There is no physical separator between the gas
and oil, and thus the gas pushes directly on the oil. The main advantage of this
type is its ability to handle large volumes of oil. The main disadvantage is
absorption of the gas in the oil due to the lack of a separator. This type must be
installed vertically to keep the gas confined at the top of the shell. This type is not
recommended for use with high-speed pumps because the entrapped gas in the oil
could cause cavitations and damage to the pump. Absorption of gas in the oil also
makes the oil compressible, resulting in spongy operation of the hydraulic actuators.

The commonly accepted design of gas-loaded accumulator is the separator

type. In this type there is a physical barrier between the gas and the oil. This
barrier effectively utilizes the compressibility of the gas.
The three major classifications of the separator accumulator are

1. Piston type
2. Diaphragm type
3. Bladder type

Piston Type

The piston type consists of a cylinder containing a freely floating piston with
proper seals, the piston serves as the barrier between the gas and oil. A threaded
lock ring provided a safety feature, which prevents the operator from disassembling
the unit while it is precharged. The main disadvantages of the piston type are that
they are expensive to manufacture and have practical size limitation. Piston and
seal friction may also be a problem in low-pressure systems. Also, appreciable
leakage tends to occur over a long period of time, requiring frequent precharging.
Piston accumulators should not be used as pressure pulsation dampeners or shock
absorbers because of the inertia of the piston and the friction of the seals. The
principal advantage of the piston accumulator is its ability to handle very high or low
temperature system fluids through the utilization of compatible O-ring seals.

A piston –type accumulator that has a safety seal feature. This unique
design concept permits the end cap O-rings to lose their pressure seal through a
limited degree of housing deformation should pressures exceed safe operating
limits and before fracture can occur. A specially designed end cap with a split-ring
locking arrangement prevents the pressure within the accumulator from dislodging
the end caps.

Diaphragm-type accumulator
The diaphragm-type accumulator consists of a
diaphragm, secured in the shell, which serves as an elastic barrier between the oil
and gas A shutoff button, which is secured at the base of the diaphragm, covers the
inlet of the line connection when the diaphragm is fully stretched. This prevents the
diaphragm from being pressed into the opening during the precharge period. On
the gas side, the screw plug allows control of the charge pressure and charging of
the accumulator by means of a charging and testing device. The hydraulic pump
delivers oil into the accumulator and deforms the diaphragm. As the pressure
increases, the volume of gas decreases, thus storing hydraulic energy. In the
reverse case, where additional oil is required in the circuit, it comes from the
accumulator as the pressure drops in the system by a corresponding amount. The
primary advantage of this type of accumulator is its small weight to volume ratio,
which makes it suitable almost exclusively for airborne applications.

A bladder-type accumulator contains an elastic barrier (bladder) between the

oil and gas, as illustrated in Fig. The bladder is fitted in the accumulator by means
of a vulcanized gas-valve element and can be installed or removed through the
shell opening at the poppet valve. The poppet valve closes the inlet when the
accumulator bladder is fully expanded. This prevents the bladder from being
pressed into the opening. A shock- absorbing device protects the valve against
accidental shocks during quick opening. The greatest advantage of this types of
accumulator is the positive sealing between the gas and oil chambers. The light
weight bladder provides quick pressure response for pressure regulating, pump
pulsation, and shock-dampening applications.

The hydraulic pump delivers oil into the accumulator and deforms the
bladder. As the pressure increases, the volume of gas decreases, thus storing
hydraulic energy. In the reverse case, where additional oil is required in the circuit,
it comes from the accumulator as pressure drops in the system by a corresponding
amount.

An actual bladder-type accumulator, which contains the following features:

1. The gas valve is integrally molded in the separator bag.

2. The spring-loaded poppet valve maintains the bag inside the shell. This
increases volumetric efficiency.
3. There is a drain plug for bleeding air from the system.
 One of the most common applications of accumulators is an auxiliary power
source. The purposed of the accumulator in this application is to store oil delivered
by the pump during a portion of the work cycle. The accumulator then releases this
stored oil upon demand to complete the cycle, thereby serving as a secondary
power source to assist the pump. In such a system where intermittent operations
are performed, the use of an accumulator results in being able to use a smaller-
sized pump.

A second application for accumulators is as a compensator for internal or

external leakage during an extended period of time during which the system is
pressurized but not in operation. The contacts on the pressure switch then open to
automatically stop the electric motor that drives the pump. The accumulator then
supplies leakage oil to the system during a long period of time. Finally, when
system pressure drops to the minimum pressure setting of the pressure switch, it
closed the electrical circuit of the pump motor until the system has been recharge.
The use o an accumulator as a leakage compensator saves electrical power and
reduces heat in the system.
In some hydraulic systems, safety dictates that a cylinder be retracted even
though the normal supply of oil pressure is lost due to a pump or electrical power
failure. Such an application requires the use of an accumulator as an emergency
power source, a solenoid actuated three way valve is utilized in conjunction with the
accumulator. When the three-way valve is energized, oil flows to the bland end of
the cylinder and also through the check valve into the accumulator and rod end of
the cylinder. The accumulator charges as the cylinder extends. If the pump fails
due to an electrical failure, the solenoid will de-energize, shifting the valve to its
spring offset mode. Then the oil stored under pressure is forced from the
accumulator to the rod end of the cylinder. This retracts the cylinder to its starting
position.

One of the most important industrial applications of accumulators is the

elimination or reduction of high-pressure pulsations or hydraulic shock. Hydraulic
shock (or water hammer, as it is frequently called) is caused by the sudden
stoppage or deceleration of a hydraulic fluid flowing at relatively high velocity in a
pipeline. This hydraulic shock creates a compression wave at the source, where
the rapidly closing valve is located. This compression wave travels at the speed of
sound upstream to the end of the pipe and back again, causing an increase in the
line pressure. This wave travels back and forth along the entire pipe length until its
energy is finally dissipated by friction. The resulting rapid pressure pulsation or
high-pressure surges may cause damage to the hydraulic system components.
The pressure pulsation or high-pressure surges can be suppressed. In this
application the accumulator serves as a shock-suppressing device.

Application of accumulation
 An automotive power-steering example of a mechanical-hydraulic servo
system (closed-loop system). Operation is as follows:

1. The input or command signal is the tuning of the steering wheel.

2. This move the valve sleeve, which ports oil to the actuator (steering cylinder)
3. The piston rod moves the wheels via the steering linkage.
4. The valve spool is attached to the linkage and thus move with it.

Intensifier circuit:
An intensifier is a device which converts low pressure fluid power into high
pressure fluid power intensifiers are used to multiply forces when a great force is
needed for a relatively short distance. Hydraulic presses, riveting machines and
spot-welders are typical application.

An intensifier consist of two cylinders of different sizes having a common

piston. Oil is admitted under pressure to the bigger cylinder and exerts a force on
the larger end of the piston. The smaller end of the piston exerts the same force on
the hydraulic fluid in the smaller cylinder in the intensifier chamber. Since the area
of the high pressure end of the piston in the intensifier is smaller than that of the low
pressure end of the piston, the pressure exerted by the smaller piston is increased
or intensified.

P0 = Pressure exerted on large or operating end of the piston

P1= Pressure exerted by the small end of the piston
A0 = Area of the large end of the piston
A1 = Area of the small end of the piston
P0.A0 = Pi.Ai
Pi = (P0.A0)/Ai
Intensifier ration = Pi/P0 = A0/Ai

Intensifier Press Circuit

This circuit is used for the punch-press application. When the direction
control valve (DCV) is shifted to the left position, the oil flows to the rod end of the
cylinder. So one the pressure builds-up, the pilot signal opens the check valve and
retraction of the cylinder occurs.

When the DCV is shifted to the right mode, the oil flow to the blank of the
cylinder, through the check valve. When the pressure in the cylinder reaches the
sequence valve pressure setting, the intensifier stats to operate. The pressure is
intensified and the high pressure output of the intensifier closes the check valve and
pressurizes the blank end of the cylinder to perform the punching operation.

The intensifier should be installed near the cylinder to keep the high pressure
lines as short as possible.
Regenerative Circuit

A regenerative circuit is used to speed up the extending speed of a double

acting hydraulic cylinder. Both ends off the hydraulic cylinder are connected in
parallel so that one port of the four way valve is blocked.

When the DCV is shifted to its left mode, the fluid by passes the DCV and
enters into the rod end of the cylinder. Fluid in the blank end drains back to the tank
through the DCV as the cylinder retracts.

When the DCV is shifted into its left mode, the cylinder extends. The speed
of extension is grater for a regular double acting cylinder.

Extending speed The equation for the extending speed can be obtained as
follows. The total flow rate (Qr) entering the blank end of the cylinder equals the
pump flow rate (Qp) plus the regenerative flow rate (Qr) coming from the rod end of
the cylinder.

Qr  Q p  QR
solving for the pump flow.
Q r  Qr  QR
But Q r  Ap  VEXT
Q R = (A p  AR )  VEXT
where A R = Rod Area,A p = Piston area, VEXT = Extending speed
Q p = (A p  VEXT )   (A p  AR )  VEXT 
 A R  VEXT
VEXT  Q p / AR
So the extending speed is equal to the pump flow rate divided by the area of the
rod. Thus a small rod area provides a large extending speed.

Speed Ratio
Qp
Retracting speed VRET 
( Ap  AR )
VEXT Q p / AR A  AR
  p
VRET Q p ( Ap  AR ) AR
Upon futher simplification
VEXT Ap
= -1
VRET AR
 In general, the grater the ration of piston area to rod area, the grater is the
ratio of extending speed to retracting speed. When the piston area equals two
times the rod area, the extension and retraction speeds are equal.

Load carrying capacity In accordance with Pascal’s law, the same system
pressure is acting on both sides of the piston during the extension stroke.

Fload  ( Ap  P )  ( Ap  AR )  P 
= AR  P

So the load carrying capacity of a regenerative cylinder during extension is

less than that obtained from a regular double acting cylinder. The carrying capacity
for a regenerative cylinder equals the product of the pressure and the piston rod
area rather than the pressure and the piston area. Thus due to the regenerative
cylinder the extension speed is increased at the expense of the lo0ad carrying
capacity.

Synchronizing Circuits

Many times in hydraulic machines, some object or platform is to be lifted with

the help of two or more hydraulic cylinders simultaneously. In such cases it
becomes absolutely necessary that both the cylinders move in unison.

There are many ways of synchronizing the mechanical motions of the actuators.

Tie cylinders: Cylinders tied together for mechanical synchronization are perhaps
the most advantageous in action. This arrangement works well on heavy
equipment when the mechanical linkage is rigid. Rack and pinion connections are
good if the mesh is proper and backlash is not present. This method id limited to
cylinders which move in the same direction.
Fluid from the pump is delivered to the blank end of cylinder 1 and fluid from
the rod end of the cylinder 1 is delivered to the blank end of the cylinder2. Fluid
returns to the tank from the rod end of cylinder 2 via the DCV. Thus the cylinders
are hooked in series.

For the two cylinders to be synchronized the piston area of cylinder 2 must
be equal to the difference between areas of piston and rod for cylinder 1.

i.e., Ap2  Api  Api  AR1

The force euqtion are
P1 Ap1  P2 ( Api  AR1 )  F1
P2 Ap2  P3 ( Ap2  AR2 )  F2
 Adding both equation, we note that Ap2  Api  AR1 and that P3  0 (due to the
drain line to the tank)

P1 Ap1  F1  F2

So, the pump must be capable of delivering a pressure equal to that required
for the piston of cylinder 1 to overcome the loads acting on both the cylinders.
1. Fail-Safe Systems in Fluid Power
Definition:
A fail-safe system in fluid power is designed to ensure that, in case of failure, the system will
go into a safe state that minimizes damage, risks, or accidents. It is used in critical applications
where sudden loss of control can lead to severe consequences.
Common Fail-Safe Mechanisms:
• Spring-Return Valves: These valves return to a default position (e.g., neutral or off)
when power is lost. They are commonly used in hydraulic circuits to ensure that a
failure in power does not result in uncontrolled movements.
• Pressure Relief Valves: These valves protect the system from overpressure by
diverting excess fluid to the reservoir when the pressure exceeds a set threshold. This
is particularly useful when the pressure rises due to system failure.
• Accumulator-Based Fail-Safe: Accumulators store pressurized fluid, which can be
used to maintain critical operations in the event of a power failure.

Applications:
Fail-safe systems are typically found in industries involving heavy machinery, aviation
(landing gear systems), medical equipment (hospital beds), and defense applications.
2. Speed Control in Hydraulic Systems
Definition:
Speed control refers to regulating the speed of actuators (hydraulic cylinders or motors) in a
fluid power system. It is essential for applications requiring variable speed control, such as
robots, lifts, and conveyors.
Methods of Speed Control:
• Flow Control Valves: By controlling the rate of fluid flow, these valves can regulate
the speed of actuators. They adjust the flow entering or exiting the actuator, thus
controlling its speed.
o Throttle Valves: These are commonly used in circuits to restrict the flow of
fluid, thereby reducing the speed of the actuator.
• Pressure-Compensated Flow Control Valves: These valves maintain a constant flow
rate despite changes in load pressure. They are often used in systems where speed
consistency is critical, such as in automotive transmissions.
• Proportional Valves: These allow for more precise control of flow and speed by
varying the flow rate based on control signals.

Applications:
• Robotics: Precise speed control is required for actuators in robotic arms.
• Automated Manufacturing: In CNC machines and conveyor systems, speed control
is essential for efficient operations.
• Aerospace and Automotive: Hydraulic actuators in aircraft and car systems require
accurate speed control for safety and performance.
3. Hydrostatic Transmission
Definition:
A hydrostatic transmission (HST) uses hydraulic power to provide smooth, infinitely variable
speed control in machinery. It converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy and back into
mechanical energy to drive wheels or other machinery components.
Working Principle:
• A hydraulic pump is driven by the engine to generate hydraulic flow.
 • This fluid is directed to a hydraulic motor, which then drives the machinery.
• The speed and torque of the motor can be varied by adjusting the displacement of the
pump or the flow of hydraulic fluid.
The system offers efficient and smooth operation with the ability to reverse direction, adjust
speed seamlessly, and generate high torque at low speeds.

Advantages:
• Variable Speed: Offers continuous and smooth speed adjustment, unlike traditional
mechanical transmissions.
• High Efficiency: Capable of transmitting power more efficiently, especially in high
torque applications.
• Reversibility: Some systems allow for reverse operation without needing additional
gears or switches.
Applications:
• Agriculture Equipment: Tractors, combine harvesters, and other machinery benefit
from hydrostatic transmissions for variable speed and direction control.
• Construction Machinery: Excavators and loaders use hydrostatic systems for
smoother operation and precise control.
4. Electro-Hydraulic Circuits
Definition:
An electro-hydraulic circuit integrates electrical control with hydraulic actuators to provide
precise control of fluid power systems. The electrical component often involves solenoids or
servos that control the position, speed, and force of hydraulic components.
Working Principle:
• Electrical Signals: Electrical signals from controllers (e.g., PLC or computer-based
systems) drive solenoids that control hydraulic valves.
• Hydraulic Actuators: These valves regulate the flow of hydraulic fluid to actuators,
enabling the desired motion or force.
The combination of electrical control and hydraulic power allows for precise, remote, and
complex control that would be difficult to achieve with mechanical linkages alone.

Applications:
• Robotic Systems: Electro-hydraulic circuits provide precise control for robotic arms
and other automation systems.
• Aerospace: Flight control surfaces in aircraft use electro-hydraulic systems for precise
and fast actuation.
• Automotive: Modern vehicles often employ electro-hydraulic braking and suspension
systems.
5. Mechanical Hydraulic Servo Systems
Definition:
A mechanical hydraulic servo system is a closed-loop control system that uses hydraulic
actuators to control the motion of mechanical parts. The system relies on feedback from the
mechanical output (position, speed, or force) to adjust the hydraulic input and achieve the
desired result.
Working Principle:
• Feedback Loop: The system continuously measures the actuator's position or force and
compares it to the desired value (setpoint).
• Hydraulic Valves: The system uses servo valves to control the hydraulic fluid flow to
the actuator based on feedback signals.
• Closed-Loop Control: Adjustments are made continuously to ensure the actuator
performs precisely as required, maintaining the desired motion or force.
Advantages:
• High Precision: Provides precise control of position, speed, and force, even in
challenging environments.
• High Performance: Capable of handling high loads and speeds, often used in
applications where mechanical systems alone are not sufficient.
Applications:
• Aerospace: Used in flight control systems (e.g., rudders, flaps).
• Robotics: For controlling the motion of robotic arms with high accuracy.
• CNC Machines: Servo systems are employed in industrial machines for accurate
motion control.