(Affiliated to PCI & BMU)

Human Anatomy &Physiology

Subject Code: 1040201108

B. PHARM 1ST SEMSTER

 BHAGWAN MAHVIR UNIVERSITY
BHAGWAN MAHAVIR COLLEGE OF PHARMACY

Certificate
Enrollment No.: ______________________

This is to certify that Mr./Miss. __________________________________

of 1st Sem B.Pharm, has satisfactory carried out experiments
recorded in this journal in the laboratory of
_______________________________________during the academic year
20___- 20___.

No. of experiments certified: _______/_________

Grade: ______________

Date: ________________

Examiner Signature

Teacher / In charge College Stamp Principal

Signature Signature
 BHAGWAN MAHVIR UNIVERSITY
BHAGWAN MAHAVIR COLLEGE OF PHARMACY

Pharmacist’s Oath
I swear by the code of e th ics of Pharmacy Council of Ind ia, in
relation to the community and sh all ac t as an integral part of heal th
c are team.

I shall uphold the l aws and stan dards governing my profession.

I shall strive to perfect and enlar ge my kn owl edge to con tribu te to

the adv ancement of pharmac y and publ ic heal th .

I shall follow the system which I co ns ider best for pharmaceu tical
c are and coun sel ling of p atients.

I shall en de avour to discover an d manuf ac ture drugs of qu ality to

al leviate suf ferings of hum ani ty.

I shall hold in conf idence the knowl edge g ained about the p atients
in connec tion with my prof essional pr actice and never divulge
unless compelled to d o so by th e law.

I shal l assoc iate wi th org an izations having their obje ctives for
betterment of th e profession of Ph armacy and m ake contribution to
c arry ou t the work of those organiz ations.

While I con tin ue to keep th is oath unv io lated, may it be gr an ted to

me to enj oy life and the pr ac tic e of ph arm acy respecte d by all, at
al l times!

Should I tresp ass an d violate th is oath, m ay the reverse be my lot!

Laboratory Rules
 Students should always behave in a mature and responsible manner in the

laboratory.

 Do not lean, hang over or sit on the laboratory work tables.

 Do not leave your assigned laboratory station without permission of the

teacher.

 Follow all written and verbal instructions carefully.

 Do not eat, drink, or chew gum in the laboratory.

 Keep aisles clear. Push your chair under the desk when not in use.

 Keep pathways clear by placing extra items (books, bags, etc.) on the

shelves or under the work tables.

 Keep your work area clean and tidy.

 Lab aprons have been provided for your use and should be worn during

laboratory activities.

 Students are not permitted in the storage rooms or preparation areas

unless given specific permission by their teacher.

 Keep complete lab records of all experiment.

INDEX

S.No. Name of Experiment Pg No. Date Grade Signature

1. To study the compound microscope.

Microscopic study of epithelial and

2.
connective tissue.
Microscopic study of muscular and nervous
3.
tissue.

4. To find out the bleeding time of own blood.

To find out the clotting/coagulation time of

5.
own blood.

6. Introduction to Hemocytometry.

Enumeration of total leucocyte (WBC) count

7.
of own blood.

Enumeration of total RBC count of own

8.
blood.

To estimate haemoglobin content of own

9.
blood.

10. To find out the blood group of own blood.

To determine the blood pressure of the

11.
subject.

To determine the heart rate and pulse rate of

12.
the subject.
INDEX

S.No. Name of Experiment Pg No. Date Grade Signature

13. To find out the erythrocyte sedimentation rate

(ESR) of own blood.

14. Identification of axial bones.

15. Identification of appendicular bones.

VERIFIED BY SUBJECT IN-CHARGE

____________________________________
Name & Signature of subject in-charge
REQUIREMENT
 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 1|Page

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Date: _______________

EXPERIMENT NO. 1
AIM: TO STUDY THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

REFERENCE: Goyal R.K. And Dr. Patel N.M. “Practical Anatomy and Physiology”, 14 th Edition,
2009-2010. B.S. Shah Prakashan, Ahmedabad; Pg No.: 3-4

REQUIREMENTS: Compound microscope

THEORY:

DESCRIPTION OF COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

It consists of three parts: the stand, the body and the train of optical lenses. The stand has a heavy foot
and limb which are joined by a hinge joint. The limbs bear the optical system.

The optical system consists of the external tube and the internal tube. The external tube has the nose
piece which bears the objective lens of various magnification: High power, low power and oil
immersion lens.

The optical system is held in position by the body which houses coarse adjustment and the fine
adjustment knobs. These are to adjust the height of the tube such that the objective lens is at its focal
length from the object. Just below the optical system lie stage, sub stage and the mirror.

The stage is a platform which accommodates a glass microscope slide on which object, to be examined
is mounted. The stage may be of mechanical type. It has two micrometre screws which move the slide
in two planes – from side to side and forward- backward.

The sub stage consists of a condenser and an iris – diaphragm. The purpose of condenser is (i) to focus
the parallel rays of light from mirror to the objects.

Use and The Care of the microscope

1. Always keep the microscope clean, dust free and covered.

2. Concave mirror is used while using low power lens and the plane mirror is used while using
high power or oil immersion lens. Adjust the mirror such that the maximum and even
illumination is obtained.

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 2|Page

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 3|Page

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

3. After placing the slide over the stage bring down the low power lens using coarse adjustment
knob. Bend by the side of the tube and bring your eyes at the level of slide while bringing it
down. Never bring down the objective with coarse adjustment knob while looking through the
eye piece of the microscope. Bring it down to the extent that it is just near to the slide.

4. To use high power lens, raise up the objective again, changes the lens and then bring it down
looking from the side. The objective is again raised while looking through the eye piece till the
object is seen.

5. Remove the eye piece for a while and look into the tube. Adjust the position of condenser to
get better results. It should be racked down while observing unstained objects or using low
power lenses.

6. Adjust the iris –diaphragm to cut a thin peripheral rim of rays. Iris diaphragm should be
partially closed while observing Neubauer counting chamber.

7. After adjusting condenser and iris, replace the eye piece and observe again. The object will be
very clear.

COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 4|Page

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 5|Page

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

8. While using oil immersion lens, condenser should be racked up, preferably having a capillary
space between it and the slide. A drop of cedarwood oil is placed on condenser to fill the
capillary space, and also on the slide and it must touch the objective lens also. The cedarwood
oil is preferred to other oils because its refractive index (a) is nearer to that of glass (a).

9. If condenser cannot be raised to touch the slide, oil should not be placed on it. The oil on the
condenser and objective should be removed first with a dry soft cloth and then with a little
xylol on it. Use of excess xylol should be avoided.

RESULT:

STUDY QUESTIONS:

1. What is the utility of microscope?

2. Enlist Different parts of microscope.

3. Define magnification value of microscope.

4. What is oil-immersion objective?

SIGNATURE OF INCHARGE

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 6|Page

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 7|Page

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Date: _______________

EXPERIMENT NO. 2
AIM: MICROSCOPIC STUDY OF EPITHELIAL AND CONNECTIVE TISSUE

REFERENCE: Goyal R.K. And Dr. Patel N.M. “Practical Anatomy and Physiology”, 14 th Edition,
2009-2010. B.S. Shah Prakashan, Ahmedabad; Pg No.: 99-108.

REQUIREMENTS: Charts and Slides

THEORY:

EPITHELIAL TISSUES: It is made up of one or more layers of cells that provide covering or lining
of body and cavities. It is classified as Simple epithelium, Compound epithelium

1) Simple Epithelium: This is the type of epithelial tissue having single layer of cell. Different types
of simple epithelial tissues are Squamous, Columnar, Cuboidal, Ciliated, Pseudo stratified
epithelium.

a) Squamous epithelium: It is made up of single layer. Flat polygonal in surface view centrally
located nucleus.

Location: Lungs, Bowman’s capsule, Henle’s loop of kidney inner wall of blood vessels,
smooth inner lining of heart, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, lymph vessels as endothelium.

Functions: Excretion, protection, secretion, absorption, filtration

b) Cuboidal epithelium: It’s made up of single layer o cubical cells arranged on basement
membrane

Location: Stomach, small intestine, large intestine, Gall bladder.

Functions: Secretion, absorption

c) Columnar epithelium: Made up of single layer of pillar shaped cells.

Location: Stomach, small intestine, large intestine, Gall bladder.

Function: Secretion, Absorption

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 8|Page

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 9|Page

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

d) Ciliated epithelium: It’s made up of single layer. The cells may be Cuboidal (or) columnar.
The cells have hairlike structures called cilia on its border (or) free surface area.

Location: Cuboidal ciliated (urinary tubules), Columnar ciliated (Fallopian tube, Bronchioles)

Function: The wave like movement of cilia propels the contents of the tube

e) Pseudo stratified epithelium: The epithelium is named because it shows two incomplete layers
of columnar cells. In this tissue only on layer of cells are present all the cells touch the basement
membrane but some short cells do not reach the surface.

Location: Large ducts of digestive glands, salivary glands and trachea.

2) Compound epithelium: It consists of more than one layer of cells. It’s divided into four types.
Stratified cuboidal epithelium, stratified columnar epithelium, Stratified squamous epithelium,
Transitional epithelium.

a) Stratified cuboidal epithelium: It is made up of two or more layer of cube shaped cells attached
on basement membrane.

Location: Linnig of sweat gland, male urethra, uterus and anus.

Function: Protection, Secretion, Absorption

b) Stratified Columnar Epithelium: It is made up of two or more layer of rectangular shaped

cells attached on basement membrane.

Location: Epiglottis, Urethra, Mammary gland, Pharynx, Fornix of conjunctiva.

Function: Protection, Secretion

c) Stratified Squamous Keratinized Epithelium: It is compound of many layers of cells. The

superficial layer of cells are flat type and horny, while depper layer cells are polyhedral.

Location: Skin, Nails, Hair, Palms.

Functions: Horny layers prevent the loss of water and mechanical injury

d) Stratified Squamous Nonkeratinized Epithelium: It is made up of several layers of cells. No

keratinisation. living squamous cells.

Location: Buccal cavity, Pharynx, Oesophagus, Vagina.

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 10 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 11 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Functions: Protect from drying

e) Transitional epithelium: Change shape, from flat to cuboidal and back, as organs such as the
urinary bladder stretch (distend) to a larger size and then collapse to a smaller size.

Location: Urinary bladder, Urethra, Uterus.

Functions: Allow the stretching when bladder fill with urine

Type of epithelium tissue

CONNECTIVE TISSUE: it is a type of primary tissue that serves as the binding structure between
two tissues. Cells are less in number but intercellular substance called matrix is found in abundance.
It performs the function of binding and supporting different tissue.

a) Areolar Tissue: Transparent jelly like matrix is found. It contains various of cells like fibroblasts,
histocytes, basophiles cells, plasma cells, pigment cells. Two type’s fibres are present.

White fibre- Fine, wary flexible and un branched made up of collagen proteins.

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 12 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Type of connective tissues

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 13 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Yellow fibre- They are thick, straight, flexible, elastic and branched made up of elastic protein.

Function: It connects the skin with muscle, blood vessels and nerves with the surrounding tissue,
serve as packing material

b) Adipose tissue: It’s made up of large round or oval flat cells containing fat droplets and fat
globules. It is two types (i) White adipose tissue (ii) Brown adipose tissue. Matrix contains
fibroblasts, macrophages and fibres.

Location: Sub-Cutaneous areas, mesentery.

Function: Stores energy in the form of fat, gives shape to the limbs and Body. Regulation of body
Temperature.

c) White fibrous tissue: It consists of white collagen fibres. The tissue is tough and inelastic due to
presence of protections called collagen.

Location: It forms tendons, ligaments, articular capsule.

Function: They bind different tissues and different organ of the body and provide them protection

d) Yellow elastic tissue: It’s a type of proper connective tissue. Fibres are straight, flexible, elastic
and occur single and made up of elastic protein. They are thicker, branched and yellow in colour.

Location: Lungs, Walls of blood vessels, Bronchioles.

Function: Provides strength, movement of organs and also in expiration

e) Reticular tissue: It consists of reticular cells and reticular fibres. Reticular fibres are thinner than
white fibres and branched. It’s a member of reticular endothelial systems made up of reticular
protein.

Location: Spleen, lymph gland, liver, bone marrow.

Function: The cells are phagocytic and provide defence to the body

Skeletal tissue

a) Cartilage: Cartilage is a type of connective tissue that is hard but elastic in nature. It’s made up of
large amount of matrix cartilage cells and chondroblasts. It’s divided into three types i) Hyaline
cartilage ii) Fibro cartilage iii) Elastic cartilage

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 14 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 15 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Hyaline cartilage: It’s made up of cartilage cells. It’s made up of (or) it’s surrounded by a tough
layer of dense connective tissue called perichondrium

Location: Articular ends of bones, costal cartilages, nose, larynx, Trachea, bronchi. Function:
Maintenance of shape and rigidity of the structure.

Fibro Cartilage: It is present in places where great tensile strength with flexibility, rigidity as
required.

Location: Intervertebral discs, mandibular joint, public symphysis.

Elastic cartilage: It is yellow in colour and contains many elastic fibres and collagen fibres also

Location: In external ear, Eustachian tube, epiglottis and in some of the laryngeal cartilage

Bone: Compact bone tissue consists of osteocytes in matrix of calcium phosphate minerals.

Location: From long network that support all organs of human body.

Function: Support, protection, movement and storage

Vascular tissue

a) Blood: It’s a fluid connective tissue. It provides one of the means of communication between cells
of different organs of the body and external environment. It carries Oxygen from lungs to tissues
and C02 from tissues to lungs for excretion. Nutrients from alimentary canal to the tissues and cell
waste to the exactor organs like Kidneys Blood consist of a straw-coloured transparent fluid called
plasma in which in which different types of cells are suspended.

Plasma: It constitutes about 45-55% of blood vol. and it contains plasma proteins, inorganic salts,
nutrients, hormones, gases. Cellular Components of blood like Erythrocytes (Red blood cells),
Leucocytes (White blood cells), Platelets (Thrombocytes). All the blood cells originate from
pluripotent stem cells and go through several developmental stages before entering the blood. The
formation of blood cells is called Hemopoiesis which takes place in red bone marrow.

b) Lymph: The lymph is dear watery fluid present in the lymphatic vessels. Interstitial fluid or tissue
fluid a lymph is basically the same. The major difference between the two is location. After entry
of the interstitial fluid from the interstitial space into the lymphatic vessels is called as lymph.

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 16 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 17 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

RESULT:

STUDY QUESTIONS:

1. Define and classify tissue.

2. Explain the characteristics of epithelial tissue.

3. Explain the characteristics of connective tissue.

SIGNATURE OF INCHARGE

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 18 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 19 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Date: _______________

EXPERIMENT NO. 3
AIM: MICROSCOPIC STUDY OF MUSCULAR AND NERVOUS TISSUE

REFERENCE: Goyal R.K. And Dr. Patel N.M. “Practical Anatomy and Physiology”, 14 th Edition,
2009-2010. B.S. Shah Prakashan, Ahmedabad; Pg No.: 99-108.

REQUIREMENTS: Charts and Slides

THEORY:

MUSCULAR TISSUE

Muscular tissue produces body movement, maintain posture and generates heat. It provides protection.
It is classified into three types

1) Skeletal muscles

Skeletal muscle tissue is named for its location—it is usually attached to the bones of the skeleton.
Another feature is its striations, alternating light and dark bands within the fibres that are visible under
a light microscope. Skeletal muscle is considered voluntary because it can be made to contract or relax
by conscious control. Skeletal muscle fibres can vary in length from a few centimetres in short muscles
to up to 30–40 cm (about 12–16 in.) in your longest muscles. A muscle fibre is roughly cylindrical in
shape, and has many nuclei located at the periphery. Within a whole muscle, the individual muscle
fibres may be parallel to one another.

2) Smooth Muscle

Smooth muscle tissue is located in the walls of hollow internal structures such as blood vessels, airways
to the lungs, the stomach, intestines, gallbladder, and urinary bladder. Its contraction helps constrict or
narrow the lumen of blood vessels, physically break down and move food along the gastrointestinal
tract, move fluids through the body, and eliminate wastes. Smooth muscle fibres are usually
involuntary, and they are nonstriated (lack striations), hence the term smooth. A smooth muscle fibre
is small, thickest in the middle, and tapering at each end. It contains a single, centrally located nucleus.
Gap junctions connect many individual fibres in some smooth muscle tissues, for example, in the wall
of the intestines Such muscle tissues can produce powerful contractions as many muscles fibres
contract in unison. In other locations,

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 20 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Type of muscular tissue

Structure of Neuron and Neuroglial cell

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 21 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

such as the iris of the eye, smooth muscle fibres contract individually, like skeletal muscle fibres,
because gap junctions are absent.

3) Cardiac Muscle

Cardiac muscle tissue forms most of the wall of the heart. Like skeletal muscle, it is striated. However,
unlike skeletal muscle tissue, it is involuntary; its contraction is not consciously controlled. Cardiac
muscle fibres are branched and usually have only one centrally located nucleus; an occasional cell has
two nuclei.
They attach end to end by transverse thickenings of the plasma membrane called intercalated discs,
which contain both desmosomes and gap junctions. Intercalated discs are unique to cardiac muscle
tissue. The desmosomes strengthen the tissue and hold the fibres together during their vigorous
contractions. The gap junctions provide a route for quick conduction of muscle action potentials
throughout the heart.

4) Nervous Tissue

Despite the awesome complexity of the nervous system, it consists of only two principal types of cells:
neurons and neuroglia. Neurons, or nerve cells, are sensitive to various stimuli. They convert stimuli
into electrical signals called action potentials (nerve impulses) and conduct these action potentials to
other neurons, to muscle tissue, or to glands. Most neurons consist of three basic parts: a cell body and
two kinds of cell processes - dendrites and axons.

The cell body contains the nucleus and other organelles. Dendrites are tapering, highly branched, and
usually short cell processes (extensions). They are the major receiving or input portion of a neuron.
The axon of a neuron is a single, thin, cylindrical process that may be very long. It is the output portion
of a neuron, conducting nerve impulses toward another neuron or to some other tissue. Even though
neuroglia do not generate or conduct nerve impulses, these cells do have many important supportive
functions.

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 22 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 23 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

RESULT:

STUDY QUESTIONS:

1. Explain the types of muscular tissue.

2. Explain the types of nervous tissue.

3. Explain the characteristic of nervous tissue.

SIGNATURE OF INCHARGE

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 24 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 25 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Date: _______________

EXPERIMENT NO. 4
AIM: TO FIND OUT THE BLEEDING TIME OF OWN BLOOD

REFERENCE: Goyal R.K. And Dr. Patel N.M. “Practical Anatomy and Physiology”, 14 th Edition,
2009-2010. B.S. Shah Prakashan, Ahmedabad; Pg No.: 32-33

REQUIREMENTS: Sterile disposable pricking needle, Filter paper, Stop watch, Cotton swab, 70 %
V/V Ethanol Or 70 % Methylated spirit

THEORY:

Bleeding time is time interval between blood escape from blood vessel and cessation of flow of blood.
Factors affecting bleeding time are physical size and shape of injury, the vascularity, endothelial
smoothness and elasticity of blood vessels, capillary contractility, Sealing by platelets, Number of
thrombocytes (blood platelets) etc.
The capillary contractility and platelets play an important role in cessation of bleeding. These are
relatively simple mechanisms than the mechanism of clotting hence bleeding time is shorter than
clotting time
Significance in diagnosis: Increase in bleeding time
1. In thrombocytopaenia (less thrombocytes or platelet count)
2. In scurvy due to deficiency of vit. C (Ascorbic acid)
3. In purpura (platelet deficiency with red spots on skin)

PROCEDURE:

1. Keep ready filter paper (With aim of experiment and roll number in corner of it) Neatly
bordered.

2. Wash the hands properly and allow to dry them.

3. Apply 70 % v/v alcohol with cotton swab to the ball of finger to be pricked (Preferably left-
hand ring finger.) Allow to dry.

4. Take a bold prick to have deep skin puncture about 3-5 mm depth and immediately start the
stop watch.

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 26 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 27 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

5. Blot drop of blood from prick on filter paper serially in a row. After every 30 seconds, with the
help of stop-watch.

6. Till there is no stain on filter paper i.e. when bleeding stops, stop the stop watch.

7. Count and number the spots of blood on filter paper.

8. Calculate and record bleeding time.

9. Compare the result with normal bleeding time (1to 3 min).

RESULT:

STUDY QUESTIONS:

1. Define bleeding time and what is its normal range?

2. Give significance of bleeding time determination.

3. Explain disorders associated with abnormal bleeding time.

SIGNATURE OF INCHARGE

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 28 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 29 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Date: _______________

EXPERIMENT NO. 5
AIM: TO FIND OUT THE CLOTTING/COAGULATION TIME OF OWN BLOOD

REFERENCE: Goyal R.K. and Dr. Patel N.M. “Practical Anatomy and Physiology”, 14th Edition,
2009-2010. B.S. Shah Prakashan, Ahmedabad; Pg No.: 32

REQUIREMENTS: Sterile disposable pricking needle, Dry glass capillary tube, Stop watch, Cotton
swab, 70 % v/v ethanol or 70 % Methylated spirit.

THEORY:

When the blood vessel ruptures, in a few minutes blood loses its fluidity and sets into a semisolid mass
called clot. This process is called blood coagulation.

1. In vitro - blood clots outside the body on cuts and injuries.

2. In Vivo - Blood clots inside the blood vessels.

Haemophilia: A genetic disorder where longer clotting time due to absence of some clotting factors.

Clotting time: It is the time interval in between blood escape from blood vessels and formation of
fibrin-like structure.

PROCEDURE:

Lee and White’s method:

About 4 cc blood is obtained through a venepuncture and 1 cc is placed in each of four small test tubes.
As soon as blood enters the barrel of syringe, stop watch is started. The test tubes are placed in water
bath at 37oC. the test tubes are tilted at every 30 sec. The time when blood does not move on tilting is
being noted down.

Wright’s method:

1. Apply alcoholic 70 % v/v to the clean finger with cotton swab. Allow it to dry naturally.

2. Prick the finger with usual aseptic precautions. Immediately stop watch is started.

3. Dip one end of the capillary into blood drop gently without pressure.

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 30 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

OBSERVATION:

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 31 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

4. Allow to fill the capillary with blood by lowering the end of fitted capillary. (Do not suck the
blood) around ¾th of its length undipped.

5. After every 30 seconds, using stopwatch, break a small piece of capillary.

6. Repeat breaking at regular time intervals, till fibrin thread appears at the broken end of
capillary tube. Do not pull away the cut pieces ling apart and bristly.

7. Record time interval between pricking finger and first appearance of fibrin thread at the broken
ends of capillary tube. That is clotting time of blood.

Duke’s Method:

The finger is sterilized and a drop of blood approximately 5 mm diameter is placed on a special
glass slide. The slide is held vertical at every 30 seconds. The time is noted when no change in the
shape of the drop is seen. This gives the clotting time.

RESULT:

The usual time of clotting is 4-10 minutes.

My own clotting time was found to be_______ minutes.

STUDY QUESTIONS:

1. Why clotting time is more than bleeding time?

2. Differentiate between bleeding time and clotting time.

3. Write mechanism of blood clotting.

SIGNATURE OF INCHARGE

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 32 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

RBC and WBC dilution pipettes

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 33 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Date: _______________

EXPERIMENT NO. 6
AIM: INTRODUCTION TO HEMOCYTOMETRY

REFERENCE: Goyal R.K. and Dr. Patel N.M. “Practical Anatomy and Physiology”, 14th Edition,
2009-2010. B.S. Shah Prakashan, Ahmedabad; Pg No.: 7- 9

REQUIREMENTS: Haemocytometer set which consists of neubauer’s counting chamber, WBC &
RBC pipette, Thomas cover slip, Xylol and microscope.

THEORY:

The Counting of cells (RBC or WBC) in blood using haemocytometer set is called as hemocytometry.
The Number of cells in the blood are too many and the size of cell is too small. The cells will appear
in cluster if seen through microscope. This difficulty is partly overcome by diluting blood to known
degree. Haemocytometer set which is used for counting the number of cells in blood consist of (1)
Diluting pipettes (2) Counting chamber (named as Thomas or Neubauer’s counting chamber) (3)
special coverslip (also known as Thomas coverslip).

The Dilution Pipettes:

It consists of four Parts- the long stem, the bulb, the short stem and the sucker.

The long stem has a uniform capillary bore extending from a well ground conical tip and merging in
the bulb. The long stem is divided into 10 equal parts from the tip to the mark 1 just near the bulb. The
fifth division is heavily marked and labelled as 0.5. This part is to measure exact amount of blood
taken for counting. The fluid in this part does not take part in the dilution and hence this quantity must
be deducted while calculating the dilution factor. The bulb is part where the dilution of blood take
place. It consists of white or red bead which helps in uniform mixing of blood with dilution fluid. The
bulb ends in a short stem which have the 11 (in WBC pipette) or 101 (in RBC pipette). The short stem
also consists of uniform capillary bore. The sucker is fitted to the end of short stem.

The sucker is rubber or polythene tube. At the end of tube there is the plastic mouth piece. The
differentiating points of RBC and WBC dilution pipettes have been illustrated in below figure.

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 34 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 35 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Counting chamber:

It is a single piece thick glass slide having two counting area in central part. The two counting areas
are separated from each other part of slide by an ‘H’ shaped groove. On the either side of these area
are platforms which are raised by 0.1 mm above the counting area. On these platforms resets special
coverslip-Thomas coverslip.

The ruling areas of chamber are the sharp contrast of bright lines against the darker metallised
background. A thin semi-transparent layer of the metal has been deposited on the glass counting area
and the lines are ruled out through the metal surface. Just as one cannot see the stars during the day,
the ruling cannot be seen in bright light is focused on the chamber

To adjust the chamber, one must partially close the diaphragm of the microscope.

The total ruling area of each slide is 3 mm in length and 3 mm in breadth. It is divided into nine equal
squares of 1 sq.mm area. The boundary lines of these squares are triple linings.

Four squares of corners are used for WBC counting while centre square is for RBC counting.

Each WBC square is further divided into 16 equal squares by single lining, area of each square is
1/4*1/4 = 1/16 sq.mm.

Each RBC square is divided by triple lines into 25 equal small RBC squares, and each of these 25
small RBC squares are further divided into 16 smallest squares by single lining.

Thus, whole central square is divided into 400 smallest squares, the area of each is 1/20*1/20 = 1/400
sq.mm

The Dilution fluids:

Various dilution fluids are used in haemocytometer but the basic criteria for preparing the dilution
fluid is that it should be isotonic to blood plasma. The composition of dilution fluid depends on other
requirements such as staining, fixation etc.

Composition of WBC Dilution Fluid

Substance Amount Purpose
Glacial acetic acid 2.0 ml Destroys RBCs
Gentian or Methyl violet (1%) 1.0 ml Stains nuclei of WBCs
Water Up to 100 ml Diluent

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 36 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 37 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Composition of Hayem’s RBC Dilution Fluid

Substance Amount Purpose
Sodium chloride 1 gm Provide isotonicity, Prevents
haemolysis
Sodium sulphates 5.5 gm Provide isotonicity, Prevents
roulex formation
Mercuric chloride 0.5 gm Cause fixation of cells
Water Up to 100 ml Diluent

RESULT:

STUDY QUESTIONS:

1. Enlist the component of haemocytometer.

2. Justify the dilution of blood with diluting fluid before cell counting.

3. Differentiate the features of RBCs and WBCs diluting pipettes.

SIGNATURE OF INCHARGE

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 38 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 39 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Date: _______________

EXPERIMENT NO. 7
AIM: ENUMERATION OF LEUCOCYTE (WBC) COUNT OF OWN BLOOD

REFERENCE: Goyal R.K. and Dr. Patel N.M. “Practical anatomy and Physiology”, 14 th edition,
2009-2010. B.S. Shah Prakashan, Ahmedabad; Pg no.: 14-17.

REQUIREMENTS: Haemocytometer set which consists of neubauer’s counting chamber, WBC

pipette, Thomas cover slip, Watch glass, WBC diluting fluid, Pricking needle, 70 % alcohol, Xylol
and microscope.

THEORY:

The numbers of white blood cells in blood are too many and the size of cells is too small. It is therefore
not possible to count the cells even under high power. This difficulty is partially overcome by diluting
the blood with a suitable dilution fluid to a known degree. The diluted blood is placed in a capillary
space of known capacity in between counting chamber and cover slip.

The number of cells in the small capillary space of known volume is then counted under the high power
of the microscope. The count can be calculated by multiplying the number with the dilution factor

Composition of WBC Dilution Fluid

Substance Amount Purpose
Glacial acetic acid 2.0 ml Destroys RBCs
Gentian or Methyl violet (1%) 1.0 ml Stains nuclei of WBCs
Water Up to 100 ml Diluent

PROCEDURE:

1. The Thomas coverslip, counting chamber and the lenses of Microscope are cleaned first with
the help of xylol and then absorbent cotton.

2. The Thomas counting chamber was adjusted and observed under low power of microscope,
keeping the Thomas coverslip resting on the platform of the slide.

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 40 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

CALCULATION

Total number of WBC in 4 small squares (64 smallest WBC squares = N

Length of small square = 1 mm

Breadth of small square = 1 mm

Area of small WBC square = 1 *1 = 1 sq.mm.

Volume of fluid in small WBC square = 1 * 1/10 = 1/10 cmm

Volume of fluid in 4 small squares = 4 * 0.1 cmm = 0.4 cmm

Therefore, 0.4 cmm of diluted fluid contains N WBC

0.1 cmm of diluted fluid contains = N*1/4

1 cmm of diluted fluid contains = N * ¼ *10

Dilution is 0.5 in 10 or 1 in 20

Therefore, total number of WBC in undiluted fluid = N*1/4*10*Dilution factor

= N*50/cmm

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 41 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

3. The ring finger was sterilized with the alcohol and it was pricked boldly with the help of
pricking needle.

4. The first drop of blood was discarded and the second drop was sucked in the WBC pipette up
to the mark 0.5, immediately the WBC dilution fluid was sucked up to mark 11. The pipette
was brought to a horizontal position and the finger was placed over the tip of the pipette. A
simple knot was given to the rubber tube.

5. The pipette was rolled between the palm to mix the blood with the dilution fluid for one minute.

6. Few drops are discarded and then pipette was held at the angle of 45o to the surface of counting
chamber and tip was applied to the narrow slit between the counting chamber and the coverslip.

7. The fluid was allowed to settle for three minutes on the stage of microscope.

8. The WBC chamber was located and WBCs are counted in smallest 16 squares. This was
repeated in another four such chamber.

DISCUSSION:

General characteristics of W.B.C. (White blood cells or Leucocyte)

Leucocytes are wandering cells which are nucleated and do not contain any haemoglobin. They are
slightly bigger in size and less in number. Their origin is extravascular. Granulocyte are derived from
red bone marrow while agranulocytes are derived mainly from spleen and lymph glands. Their life
span is too short, i.e. few hours to few days. Normal WBC count is 4000-11,000/cmm. If the count
goes below 4,000/cmm it is known as leukopenia. While if total WBC count goes beyond 11,000 /
cmm it is known as leucocytosis.

Function of WBC

1. Phagocytosis: It is engulfing of foreign material, bacteria or foreign particles. Neutrophils and

monocytes are generally involved in this function. Thus, WBC are involved in defensive
mechanism.

2. Antibody formation: Antibodies are gamma-globulins formed in response to invasion by any

antigen. This function is carried out by lymphocytes.

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 42 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 43 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

3. Formation of fibroblasts: WBC plays an important role in the tissue repair and inflammation.
Lymphocytes are generally converted into these types of cells.

4. Liberation of histamine and allergic reaction: Eosinophil are chiefly involved in these
reactions.

5. Secretion of heparin: Heparin is an anticoagulant. Basophils are generally rich in heparin.

RESULT:

Total WBC count of my blood is ______________/cmm

Therefore, my blood is ________________.

STUDY QUESTIONS:

1. Write composition of WBC diluting fluid.

2. How the dilution factor calculated for WBC counting?

3. Enumerate role of each component of WBC count in blood?

4. Enlist the function of WBC.

SIGNATURE OF INCHARGE

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 44 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 45 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Date: _______________

EXPERIMENT NO. 8
AIM: ENUMERATION OF TOTAL RBC COUNT OF OWN BLOOD

REFERENCE: Goyal R.K. and Dr. Patel N.M. “Practical anatomy and Physiology”, 14 th edition,
2009-2010. B.S. Shah Prakashan, Ahmedabad; Pg no.: 22-25

REQUIREMENTS: Neubauer’s counting chamber, RBC pipette, Thomas cover slip, Watch glass,
RBC diluting fluid, Pricking needle, 70 % alcohol, Xylol and microscope.

THEORY:

The numbers of red cells in blood are too many and the size of cells is too small. It is therefore not
possible to count the cells even under high power. This difficulty is partially overcome by diluting the
blood with a suitable dilution fluid to a known degree. The diluted blood is placed in a capillary space
of known capacity in between counting chamber and cover slip.

The number of cells in the small capillary space of known volume is then counted under the high power
of the microscope. The count can be calculated by multiplying the number with the dilution factor

Composition of Hayem’s RBC Dilution Fluid

Substance Amount Purpose

Sodium chloride 1 gm Provide isotonicity, Prevents haemolysis

Sodium sulphates 5.5 gm Provide isotonicity, Prevents roulex

formation

Mercuric chloride 0.5 gm Cause fixation of cells

Water Up to 100 ml Diluent

PROCEDURE:

1. The Thomas coverslip, counting chamber and the lenses of Microscope were cleaned first with
the help of xylol and then absorbent cotton.

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 46 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

CALCULATION:

Total number of RBC in 80 smallest squares = N

Length of one smallest square = 1/5 * ¼ = 1/20 mm

Breadth of one smallest square = 1/20 mm

Area of one smallest square = 1/20 *1/20 = 1/400 sqmm

Volume of fluid in smallest RBC square = 1/400 * 1/10 = 1/4000 cmm

If 80 smallest squares contain N RBC in diluted fluid

Then, 1 smallest square contains N/80 RBC in diluted blood

Therefore, 1 cmm diluted blood contains N/80 * 4000 RBCs

1 cmm undiluted blood contains N/80 * 4000 * dilution factor RBCs = ______ RBCs/cmm

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 47 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

2. The Thomas counting chamber was adjusted and observed for RBC squares under low power
of microscope, keeping the Thomas coverslip resting on the platform of the slide.

3. The RBC pipette was cleaned and dried. The ring finger was sterilized with the alcohol and it
was pricked boldly with the help of pricking needle.

4. The first drop of blood was discarded and the second drop was sucked in the RBC pipette up
to the mark 0.5, immediately the RBC dilution fluid was sucked up to mark 101. The pipette
was brought to a horizontal position and the finger was placed over the tip of the pipette. A
simple knot was given to the rubber tube.

5. The pipette was rolled between the palm to mix the blood with the dilution fluid for one minute.

6. Few drops were discarded and then pipette was held at the angle of 45o to the surface of
counting chamber and tip was applied to the narrow slit between the counting chamber and the
coverslip.

DISCUSSION:

Red blood corpuscles are circular, biconcave, non-nucleated cells. They contain respiratory pigment
haemoglobin. Normal RBC is 7.2 µ in diameter and 2.2 µ in thickness. These are thinner in centre thus
appearing like dumb bell shaped. RBC formed in spleen and liver in embryo, in adults RBC are formed
in red bone marrow. Formation of RBC is known as erythropoiesis. RBC show various properties:

1. Haemolysis: If RBC is kept in hypotonic solution, it swells and finally ruptures liberating
haemoglobin. This is known as haemolysis.

2. Roulex Formation: It is the property of RBC to come together over one another like pile of
coins.
3. Suspension Stability: It is ability of RBC to remain suspended in plasma as long as blood is
flowing
4. Erythrocyte sedimentation rate: If RBCs are allowed to stand and anti-coagulant is present,
they settle down leaving clear plasma as supernatant. ESR is defined as mm of the clear plasma
formed at the top of vertical column in one hour. It is reciprocal of suspension stability.
Suspension stability α 1 / ERS.

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 48 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 49 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Function of RBC:
Function of RBCs are carried out by haemoglobin
They are:
1. Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide
2. Maintenance of acid base balance, ionic balance and viscosity of blood
3. Formation of bile pigments as a result of their destruction by reticulo-endothelial system

RESULT:
Total RBC count of my blood is _____/cmm.
My blood is __________

STUDY QUESTIONS:

1. Write composition and role of each component of RBC diluting fluid.

2. Write function of RBC.

3. What is erythropoiesis process? Explain their regulation.

SIGNATURE OF INCHARGE

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 50 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Sahli’s Hemoglobinometer

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 51 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Date: _______________

EXPERIMENT NO. 9
AIM: TO ESTIMATE HAEMOGLOBIN CONTENT OF OWN BLOOD

REFERENCE: Goyal R.K. and Dr. Patel N.M. “Practical anatomy and Physiology”, 14 th edition,
2009-2010. B.S. Shah Prakashan, Ahmedabad; Pg no.: 18-22

REQUIREMENTS: Sahli’s haemoglobinometer or hemometer which consists of two sealed

comparison tubes fixed in rack, a specially graduated diluting tube, a thin glass rod (stirrer) and
micropipette of 20 cubic millimetre (cmm) capacity, Pricking needle, N/10 HCL, distilled water, 70
% alcohol or spirit and absorbent cotton.

THEORY:

Sahli’s Method

When blood is mixed with N/10 HCL, RBCs are haemolysed and HB is liberated. This HB is converted
into acid hematin which is reddish brown in colors.

The solution is diluted with distilled water till it matches with the standard glass tubes. The HB % can
directly be read from the graduated tube.

PROCEDURE:

1. The graduated diluting tube and the micropipette were cleaned thoroughly and dried.

2. The graduated diluting tube was filled with N/10 HCl up to mark 2 gm or till the micropipette
touches the level of acid in the tube.

3. The finger was cleaned with 70 % alcohol and it was pricked to obtain a drop of blood. First
drop was wiped out, second drop was sucked in the micropipette up to mark of 20 µl.

4. The blood was immediately deposited at the bottom of graduated tube. The pipette was rinsed
two to three times in HCl.

5. The blood was mixed with the help of stirrer then solution was allowed to stand for 10-15
minutes so that all Hb is converted into acid hematin.

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 52 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

OBSERVATION & CALCULATION

Observed Hb gm % = _____ gm %

Observed Hb % = ______ %

International value of Hb is 14.5 gm % = 100 %

Calculated Hb % = gm % / 14.5 % *100

Oxygen carrying capacity:

Amount of O2 in cc. carried by 100 ml of blood during one pulmonary circulation

Hb gm % * 1.34 cc

1 gm of Hb contains 1.34 cc oxygen

Therefore, N gm of Hb contains = N * 1.34 cc oxygen

= _______ cc oxygen %

Color index = Hb % / RBC %

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 53 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

6. The mixture was then diluted with distilled water. Distilled water was added drop by drop and
every drop it was stirred till the exact match with standard glass tube was obtained.

7. When the matching was complete stirrer was taken out from the diluting tube and the scale was
read on the side of tube.

DISCUSSION:

The color index is defined as relative amount of haemoglobin present in single RBC. It can be easily
determined by finding out the ratio of haemoglobin and RBC %

Color Index = Hb% / RBC %

Normal range of color index is 0.85 to 1.15. if color index is less than 0.85 it is described as
hypochromic anaemia. If color index is more than 1.15 it is described as hyperchromic anaemia.

RESULT:

My own blood contains ___________Hb gm%.

My blood is _____________.

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 54 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 55 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

STUDY QUESTIONS:

1. How much oxygen is carried by one haemoglobin molecule?

2. Explain the principle of Sahli’s method of haemoglobin determination.

3. Enlist the pathological condition with low haemoglobin contents.

4. Name and components of Sahli’s haemoglobinometer.

SIGNATURE OF INCHARGE

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 56 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 57 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Date: _______________

EXPERIMENT NO. 10
AIM: TO FIND OUT THE BLOOD GROUP OF OWN BLOOD.

REFERENCE: Goyal R.K. and Dr. Patel N.M. “Practical anatomy and Physiology”, 14 th edition,
2009-2010. B.S. Shah Prakashan, Ahmedabad; Pg no.: 26-28

REQUIREMENTS: Glass slides, Glass marking pencil, Dropper, Pricking needle, Test Tube, Normal
Saline, 1 % sodium citrate prepared in normal saline, 70 % alcohol or spirit, Anti-A, Anti-B, Anti-D
Serum.

THEORY:

The blood contains various antigens.

Blood group: The type of blood according to different agglutinogen (antigens) present in R.B.C. RBCs
of different individuals have the different types of Antigens.

Depending on types of antigens present or absent the four types of blood groups. Blood group depends
upon types of antigens present or absent in the blood.

There are four types of blood groups

Blood Group A, Blood Group B, Blood Group AB, Blood Group O. This classification is based on the
presence of agglutinogen A, B, Both or none. As Landsteiner stated, if particular type of agglutinogen
is present in the blood, then the corresponding agglutinin is always absent and if the particular type of
agglutinogen is absent in the blood, then the corresponding agglutinin is always present.

The anti-sera A consists of agglutinin alpha and it causes clumping of RBCs of blood containing
agglutinogen A. the anti-sera B consists of agglutinin beta and it causes clumping of RBCs of blood
containing agglutinogen B. hence, blood group can be determined as follows:
1 Clumping in anti-sera A ----- Blood group A
2 Clumping in anti-sera B ----- Blood group B
3 Clumping in both anti-sera A and B ---- Blood group AB
4 No clumping in any of the sear ---- Blood group B

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 58 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

OBSERVATION

Slide No. Anti-Serum Clumping

1. (A) Anti Serum A
2. (B) Anti Serum B
3. (C) Anti-Rh Factor

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 59 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

The blood groups are assigned as +ve or –ve, according to the ‘Rh’ system. If ‘Rh’ factor (a type of
agglutinogen) is present the blood group is assigned as +ve and if it is absent, the blood group is
assigned as –ve. Anti-sera D contain antibodies against ‘Rh’ factor, hence, if clumping is seen in his
sera, blood group will be +ve and if not seen, it will be -ve.

PROCEDURE:

1. Take the three slides and mark them A, B and C.

2. Place ‘Type A serum’ (anti serum A) on slide A and anti-serum B on slide B. on the third slide
anti-serum D.

3. Sterilize the finger and prick it boldly. Place one drop of blood on each of the sera.

4. Mix the cell and serum with the help of another slide. (Use separate slide or separate edges for
mixing each serum.

5. Allow it to react for 5 min.

6. Examine after 5 minutes, but not later than 10 minutes. The reaction may not be complete before
5 minutes and drying may occur after 10 minutes. Both these factors may yield false results.

RESULT:
My Own blood group is ______

STUDY QUESTIONS
1. What are agglutinogens and agglutinins?
2. What is Rh factor?
3. What is agglutination reaction?

SIGNATURE OF INCHARGE

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 60 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Stethoscope

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 61 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Date: _______________

EXPERIMENT NO. 11
AIM: TO DETERMINE THE BLOOD PRESSURE OF THE SUBJECT

REFERENCE: Goyal R.K. and Dr. Patel N.M. “Practical anatomy and Physiology”, 14 th edition,
2009-2010. B.S. Shah Prakashan, Ahmedabad; Pg no.: 38-42

REQUIREMENTS: Stethoscope, sphygmomanometer, A wrist watch with second’s arm

THEORY:

STETHOSCOPE

It is the instrument commonly used for auscultation. The commonly used stethoscope is binaural
stethoscope and consists of: 1) Ear Frame 2) Conducting tube 3) Chest piece

Ear frames: consists of two metallic tubes joined by a flat curved strip which acts as a spring to pull
together the upper ends of the two tubes. Each tube has an upper horizontal limb which runs medially,
downward and forward giving a curvature suitable to be fitted in the external auditory meatus.

Conducting Tubes: They are simple, flexible and soft pressure tubes of rubber or latex material. These
tubes connect to the chest piece with the ear frame.

Chest piece: It consists of metallic tambour, about 3 cm in diameter and having an air chamber of 3
mm -5 mm in depth. The diaphragm which is made up of cellulose material, covers the air chamber.
The diaphragm causes amplification of sounds which are heard much louder than original.

SPHYGMOMANOMETER

It is the instrument used to measure the blood pressure of human being. It consists of 1) Mercury
manometer 2) Rubber bag covered with a linen cuff 3) Rubber pump with a valve

Mercury manometer: consists of two limbs. One limb is long and graduated from 0 at the base to 250
at the top. The other limb is short and broad, forming a sort of mercury well. The long limb is open to
the atmosphere at the upper end, and is filled with a valve which prevents spilling of mercury. The
short limb is covered with an airtight lid containing a valve which

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 62 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Sphygmomanometer

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 63 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

allow free communication of air but prevents spilling of the mercury even when it is laid horizontal

Rubber Bag: Which is covered by a linen cuff is soft and elastic and is fitted with two pressure rubber
tubings. One tube is fitted with a metal adapter, which an air-tight joint with the short limb of the
manometer. The other tube is joined to the air pump. The linen cuff has a broad but short extension on
one side and a long tapering tail on the other side which is provided with a metallic hook.

Rubber Pump: it is a simple thick-walled rubber bulb of an oval shape and a size that fits in the fist.
It has two openings which are fitted with valves

Principle of sphygmomanometer

The blood flow through a large sized artery is obstructed by means of air pressure exerted through a
rubber bag wrapped around the limb. The pressure is slowly released and the entry of blood through
the obstruction is studied by (i) feeling of pulse (Palpatory method) (ii) observation of oscillations of
the mercury level (oscillatory method) (iii) hearing with the stethoscope the sounds produced in the
segment of the artery distal to obstruction (auscultatory method)

The blood flow stops when the pressure transmitted to the artery through the rubber bag is equal to or
more than the blood pressure. The first entry of blood through an obstruction indicates the blood
pressure.

PROCEDURE:

1. The subject was asked to sit or lie down at ease on a couch in the supine position. The garments
round the arms are removed, the arm was placed on a table and the position was adjusted such
that it was at the level of heart.

2. The cuff was tied around the arm. It should be neither too tight to cause any discomfort to the
subject nor too loose to allow its movement round the arm.

3. The artery was felt and its course was marked in the cubital fossa.

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 64 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 65 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

4. The manometer was placed by the side of the subject between his arm and the body. The screw
of the rubber pump was tightened and the pump was pressed to inflate the bag.

5. Keeping the eyes fixed at mercury level and the finger at the pulse, pressure was slowly
released by unscrewing the valve of the rubber pump.

6. The reading of the level of mercury when the pulse reappears give the systolic pressure. This
is palpatory method.

7. This method does not give any idea of diastolic pressure. The systolic pressure recorded by this
method is about 5-10 mm lower than the actual systolic pressure.

When the pulse appears, it is also noted that mercury starts oscillating. The first oscillation
level gives systolic pressure. On continuation of deflation the oscillation starts increasing in
magnitude and then slowly diminish. The level at which the oscillation are maximum is taken
as the diastolic pressure. This is oscillatory method.

In the auscultatory method, after inflation as usual, the chest piece of stethoscope is placed
over the brachial artery in the cubital fossa and deflation is started by slowly releasing the
pressure. The level at which a sudden tap is heard is the systolic blood pressure. The sound
suddenly gets muffled and disappear is diastolic pressure.

DISCUSSION:

Blood flows from regions of higher pressure to regions of lower pressure, the greater the pressure
difference, the greater the blood flow. Contraction of the ventricles generates blood pressure (BP), the
hydrostatic pressure exerted by blood on the walls of a blood vessel. BP is determined by cardiac
output, blood volume, and vascular resistance (described shortly). BP is highest in the aorta and large
systemic arteries; in a resting, young adult, BP rises to about 110 mmHg during systole (ventricular
contraction) and drops to about 70 mmHg during diastole (ventricular relaxation). Systolic blood
pressure is the highest pressure attained in arteries during systole, and diastolic blood pressure is the
lowest arterial pressure during diastole Blood pressure also depends on the total volume of blood in
the cardiovascular system.

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 66 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 67 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

The normal volume of blood in an adult is about 5 litters (5.3 qt). Any decrease in this volume, as from
haemorrhage, decreases the amount of blood that is circulated through the arteries each minute. A
modest decrease can be compensated for by homeostatic mechanisms that help maintain blood pressure
but if the decrease in blood volume is greater than 10% of the total, blood pressure drops. Conversely,
anything that increases blood volume, such as water retention in the body, tends to increase blood
pressure.

RESULT:

My own blood pressure was found to be __________ mmHg.

My Blood pressure is _________

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. Define blood pressure. What is systolic and diastolic blood pressure?

2. Describe the sound produced during recording of blood pressure

3. Name and explain the method of recording of blood pressure.

4. What is the normal level of blood pressure? Give its clinical significance.

SIGNATURE OF INCHARGE

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 68 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 69 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Date: _______________

EXPERIMENT NO. 12
AIM: TO DETERMINE THE HEART RATE AND PULSE RATE OF THE SUBJECT

REFERENCE: Goyal R.K. and Dr. Patel N.M. “Practical anatomy and Physiology”, 14 th edition,
2009-2010. B.S. Shah Prakashan, Ahmedabad; Pg no.: 44-45.

REQUIREMENTS: Stethoscope, sphygmomanometer, A wrist watch with second’s arm

THEORY:

The alternate expansion and recoil of elastic arteries after each systole of the left ventricle creates a
travelling pressure wave that is called the pulse. The pulse is strongest in the arteries closest to the
heart, becomes weaker in the arterioles, and disappears altogether in the capillaries. The pulse may be
felt in any artery that lies near the surface of the body that can be compressed against a bone or other
firm structure. Heartbeat is the sound of the valves in your heart closing as they push blood from one
chamber to another. Heart rate is the number of times the heart beats per minute (BPM), and the pulse
is the beat of the heart that can be felt in any artery that lies close to the skin.

The heart beats at different rates depending on whether your body is at rest or at work. When resting,
the heart rate beats an average of 72 times per minute for high school students and an average of 85
BPM for middle school students.

During strenuous physical activity, your heart rate or pulse increases, sometimes to twice or more its
resting rate. Your stroke volume, the amount of blood pumped for each heartbeat, also increases. This
is because the muscles that are working demand more blood to supply them with oxygen and other
nutrients. Heart rate is measured by counting the number of times your heart beats in one minute. One
way to determine your heart rate is to manually take your pulse.

The two most common locations used to take a pulse are at the radial artery in the wrist and the
carotid artery in the neck. It is best to practice locating and counting your pulse when you are at rest
and again during physical activity.

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 70 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Pulse rate measurement

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 71 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

PROCEDURE:
Pulse rate examination:
1. The subject was asked to be seated comfortably and fully relaxed.
2. Locate the redial artery at the own wrist level
3. Palpate the radial artery by pressing them with finger against the underlying bones (the pulse
will be felt).
4. Record the pulse for 1 minute
5. Take three reading at the interval of 5 minutes and calculate the mean pulse rate.
Normal values of pulse rate/minutes
Neonates- 140 beats, Children- 100 beats, Adult- 60-80 beats

Hear rate monitoring:

1. The subject was asked to be seated comfortably and fully relaxed.
2. Place the chest piece of stethoscope against thoracic wall
3. Record the heart beat for the period of 1 minutes.
4. Take three reading at the interval of 5 minutes and calculate the mean heart rate
Normal values of heart rate/minutes
Foetus- 140-160 beats
Children- 140 beats
Adult males- 64-74 beats
Adult female- 72-80 beats

RESULT:
My own pulse rate and heart rate were found to be __________ & __________ /min respectively.

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 72 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 73 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. Define pulse.

2. What are the significances of increased or decreased pulse rate?

3. Give the function of SA node.

4. What are significances of the increased and decreased heart rate.

SIGNATURE OF INCHARGE

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 74 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 75 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Date: _______________

EXPERIMENT NO. 13
AIM: TO FIND OUT THE ERYTHROCYTE SEDIMENTATION RATE OF OWN
BLOOD

REFERENCE: Goyal R.K. and Dr. Patel N.M. “Practical anatomy and Physiology”, 14 th edition,
2009-2010. B.S. Shah Prakashan, Ahmedabad; Pg no.: 34-36

REQUIREMENTS: Westergren’s pipette and Westergren stand, Oxalate bulb, sodium citrate
solution, sterilized syringe and needle to collect the blood by venepuncture.

THEORY:

Erythrocytes of blood have a tendency to settle down because of their greater density than plasma and
roulex formation. Thus, if the blood mixed with anti-coagulant placed in a long vertical tube, the
sedimentation of erythrocytes occurs leaving a small clear plasma at the top. ESR is mm of clear
plasma at the top in a vertical column in one hr.

PROCEDURE:

1. A sample of blood was obtained by a venepuncture and was mixed either 3.8 % sodium citrate
solution in proportion of four parts blood to one part of citrate solution.

2. The mixing of blood was done by rotating the sample gently between the palms of hands.

3. The blood was then sucked slowly up to the mark zero in the Westergren’s tube.

4. The tube was set up right in the Westergren stand, taking care that no blood escapes. The tube
was fixed with the help of screw cap.

5. At the end of one hour and two hours, the upper level of red cell column read, it will indicate
mm of clear plasma.

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 76 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

OBSERVATION
Time mm of clear plasma

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 77 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

RESULT:

ESR of my own blood was found to be ________ mm after 1hour

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. Explain the process of RBCs sedimentation.

2. What do you mean by Rouleaux formation?

3. Write the factors affecting ESR.

SIGNATURE OF INCHARGE

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 78 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Human Skeleton
(Label the axial skeleton)

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 79 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Date: _______________

EXPERIMENT NO. 14
AIM: IDENTIFICATION OF AXIAL BONES

REFERENCE: Goyal R.K. and Dr. Patel N.M. “Practical anatomy and Physiology”, 14 th edition,
2009-2010. B.S. Shah Prakashan, Ahmedabad; Pg no.: 68-69

REQUIREMENTS: Charts and Slides.

THEORY:

The bones of the human body can be divided into two broad groups, the axial skeleton and
the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton comprises the bones found along the central axis
traveling down the centre of the body. The appendicular skeleton comprises the bones appended to the
central axis.

The bones of the axial skeleton make up the central axis of the body including the skull, auditory
ossicles (ear bones), hyoid, vertebrae, ribs, sternum, sacrum, and coccyx.

The skull
(Bones of the head)
Cranium (The brain Box) Facial Bones (Bones of face)
Frontal (1) Maxilla (2)
Parietal (2) Mandible (1)
Occipital (1) Nasal (2)
Temporal (2) Palatine (2)
Sphenoid (1) Zygomatic (2)
Ethmoid (1) Lacrimal (2)
Vomer (1)
Inferior turbinate (2)

(Mostly flat bones. Meant (Mostly irregular bones. Gives shape

for protection of brain) of face

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 80 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Skull bones
(Label the skull bones)

Facial bones
(Label the facial bones)

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 81 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Bones of the trunk

The vertebral column Thoracic Bones
(The back bone) 12 thoracic vertebrae ribs (12 pairs):
Cervical vertebrae (7) True 7 pairs & False 5 pairs
Bones of neck Costal cartilage sternum
I Atlas
II Axis (Flat bones, specially meant for
III to VII Typical cervical vertebrae protection of heart and lungs)
Thoracic vertebrae (12)
Lumbar vertebrae (5)
Coccyx vertebrae (2-3)

(All bones are irregular shaped, in

vertebral disc are present between
each vertebra)

THE SKULL
Cranium Facial bones
Bone Position Bone Position
Frontal (1) Front and central Maxilla (2) Forms upper jaw with teeth
Parietal (2) Side walls and roofs Mandible (1) Forms lower jaws largest
facial bone
Occipital (1) Back and base with an Nasal (2) Small bone in the middle,
opening foramen magnum attached to frontal bones
Temporal (2) Lateral and base Palatine (2) Small bones
Sphenoid (1) Like the bird ‘bat’ two wings. Zygomatic (2) Cheek bones prominent on
Lies at the base and in the cheeks
front of temporal bone
Ethmoid (1) Cubical shaped, lies in the Lacrimal (2) Smallest and fragile
space between the orbits
Vomer (2) Thin, vertical separates nasal
cavity
Turbinates (2) Spongy and curved

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 82 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Thoracic bones
(Label thoracic bones)

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 83 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

The Vertebral Column

Each vertebra consists of Body: Anterior circula, body with two neural arches Two arches form body
ring for spinal cord, Spinous processes: Projection from back of bony ring, Transverse Processes:
Two projections one on each inside from the body ring.

Bones of The Thorax (Chest Cavity)

Consists of sternum and ribs attached to vertebral column.

Sternum: Flat, dragger shaped, slightly convex anteriorly and concave posteriorly sternum has three
parts like Manubrium: Triangular, attached to it are clavicle, the first and second ribs, Body:Attached
to 3rd to 6th ribs, Xiphoid process: Cartilaginous in children ossified in adults.

Ribs
Ribs are in 12 pairs. They are ‘C’ shaped, flat bones, ship like 1st to 6th ribs are attached to sternum
(manubrium and body). 7th to 10th ribs are joined together to one cartilage which finally joins to the
body at the sternum. 11th and 12th ribs are ‘floating ribs’ joined only to vertebral column.

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 84 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Cervical Vertebrae

Thoracic Vertebrae

Lumbar Vertebrae

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 85 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. What is the main function of the ribs in the human body?

2. How does the structure of the skull differ between infants and adult?

3. What are the main components of the human cranium and what is their function?

SIGNATURE OF INCHARGE

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 86 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 87 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Date: _______________

EXPERIMENT NO. 15
AIM: IDENTIFICATION OF APPENDICULAR BONES

REFERENCE: Goyal R.K. and Dr. Patel N.M. “Practical anatomy and Physiology”, 14 th edition,
2009-2010. B.S. Shah Prakashan, Ahmedabad; Pg no.: 68-69

REQUIREMENTS: Charts and Slides.

THEORY:

The bones of the human body can be divided into two broad groups, the axial skeleton and
the appendicular skeleton. The bones of the appendicular skeleton include those of the appendages
and the joints with those appendages including the shoulder girdle (clavicle and scapula) and the hip
joint (coxae or hip bones). These are the bones of the limbs, hands, and feet, the bones of the pectoral
(shoulder) girdles, and the coxal (hip) bones of the pelvic girdle.

Upper limb (32) and Lower Limb (31)

The scapula is the large flat bone, anteriorly concave and posteriorly convex. Upper portion has
coracoids process and acromion. Lateral upper part has glenoid cavity in which head of the humerus
fits in.

The Clavicle is long bone and has two curves. Bones of lower limb are the pelvis (sacrum and hip
bones) Femur, Tibia, Fibula, Tarsals, metatarsals and phalanges.

The pelvis is consists of sacrum and hip bones. Sacrum is fusion of 5 sacral bones. Hip bone consists
of ilium, Ischium and pubis. Pubis has acetabulum and obturator foramen.

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 88 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

The Scapula

The Pelvis

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 89 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Bones of Arm Bones of leg

Humerus Femur
Bone of upper arm Bone of thigh
Consists of head but no neck Consists of head and neck
Head is ball like Head is ball like
A long cylindrical shift A long cylindrical shaft

Radius Tibia
Upper end has smooth round head a neck Long, strong, cylindrical shaft
and occipital tuberosity
Other end is broader with stylod process Strongest bone
Has a long shaft Upper end is flat and femur rests on it

Ulna Fibula
Upper end expanded strong hook like Long, weak, thinner shaft, Upper end is little
structure in with a large ‘C’ shaped cavity round, Lower end is have’s lateral malleolus,
(trochlear notch), Other end has styloid Muscles are attached to fibula, Patella is
process, Shaft is broader and becomes mobile small disk of bone forming knee cap
thinner downwards

Carpals Tarsals
Small, square bones scapod, lunar, Small, but stout bones situated in two rows
triquetral pisiform, trapezium, trapezoid
capitates and hamate

Metacarpals Metacarpals
Small but long bones with a small shaft and Small longer bones, one end thicker,
two heads; 5 in number Navicular, curve form (two)

Phalanges Phalanges
Like metacarpals but some are short Identical to phalanges of hard but smaller

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 90 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 91 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Radius & Ulna Femur

Tibia & Fibula Humerus

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 92 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 93 | P a g e

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical (1040201108)

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. What are the differences between the human clavicle and scapula in term of function and
structure?

2. What role does the pelvic girdle play in the human body, and how does it differ between males
and females?

3. What bones are included in the appendicular skeleton? Write about the function of appendicular
skeleton.

SIGNATURE OF INCHARGE

Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Surat. 94 | P a g e