4.1.

Batteries Collection
A successful recycling strategy for end-of-life batteries requires an efficient collection system.
The number of spent batteries entering the recycling stream is determined by the collection
rate, which is a key factor in the economic and ecological output of the recycling system as a
whole.
However, the lack of collection is often considered a limiting factor for recycling, as individuals
and companies tend to hoard used batteries for too long or dispose of them improperly in
ordinary household waste.
Creating an effective collection infrastructure is a significant obstacle due to the diversity of
battery types available in the market. Lithium-ion batteries are utilized in various applications,
which leads to a vast range of battery designs differing in capacity, size, shape, and chemical
composition [159].
Various collection systems need to be established due to significant differences in the markets.
For example, the collection of smaller household batteries from electronic devices can be
facilitated by placing containers at manufacturer and retail partner sites. In contrast, larger
modules from EV and stationary battery energy storage devices necessitate disassembly and
should only be handled by dedicated personnel [160].
Despite the potential benefits of direct recycling processes for LIBs, the current challenge lies in
obtaining sufficient quantities of waste (black mass) for a single source, such as a laboratory. To
overcome this issue, research centers, universities, and industries need to collaborate.
Companies can facilitate a stable supply of spent LIBs while identifying technical obstacles in
industrial production. To expand the scope of experiments and address technical concerns,
universities and laboratories can conduct research. On the other hand, the research centers
should experiment with new technologies at a larger scale than the laboratory ones and address
technical issues.
By conducting both lab-scale and industrial-scale experiments on spent LIBs, the collaboration
between industry, universities, and laboratories can break through technical barriers and
ultimately support the realization of LIBs recycling facilities in increased TRL in comparison to
the laboratory scale ones. This collaborative effort could significantly minimize pollution and
maximize the benefits of recycling.
Future research should prioritize tackling the existing challenges that hinder efficient recycling,
while also fostering a comprehensive understanding of the recycling system among all
stakeholders.
4.3. Lack of Policies and Regulations
The successful implementation of government regulations and legislative management is
crucial for the efficient and sustainable recycling of LIBs. It is essential to have globally
implemented regulations that ensure the safe and effective handling of spent batteries. In
China, the government has already implemented recycling policies for end-of-life EVs and
waste LIBs. However, there is a need to enhance the collection rate of end-of-life spent LIBs to
avoid potential pollution problems [162]. Furthermore, a recent study focusing on the policies
of power battery recycling in China highlighted the concentration of recycling policies at the
midstream processing end, while the upstream and downstream policies are comparatively
deficient. The study also emphasized the lack of top-level legal construction and the imperfect
recycling network, suggesting the need for modifications and relevant policy suggestions [163].
European governments and companies in the battery sector are making efforts to improve
legislation on batteries and accumulators [164]. The Chinese experience provides valuable
insights into the need for a holistic approach to recycling policies, covering all stages of the
battery life cycle, from production to end-of-life management. Such policies should aim to
improve collection rates, establish legal frameworks, and create incentives for echelon
exploitation enterprises. Additionally, the focus on the entire life cycle of power batteries
highlights the need for a systemic and integrated approach to recycling policies, ensuring
environmental sustainability and resource conservation.
One important aspect of the regulations is the standardization of pack and module design,
which can facilitate automatic recognition and disassembly. This can be achieved through clear
external labeling that includes important information such as the manufacturer, manufacturing
date, and battery type. Proper safety measures and regulations should also be in place to
mitigate the risks associated with battery disassembly, such as flammable electrolytes and
potential short circuits that could cause explosions or fires.
The development of effective regulations requires consideration of the technical differences in
battery design and usage, as well as the immaturity of technology in this field. Developing
guidance documents and expanding Extended Producer Responsibility systems while allowing
for flexible implementation is suggested to facilitate the creation of a large-scale, efficient, and
traceable LIB recycling management system in Europe [164]. The successful implementation of
recycling regulations for lead-acid batteries could serve as a useful template for LIB recycling
regulations. Increasing public awareness and education, establishing relevant organizations,
and improving overall environmental literacy are also important steps towards successful
implementation.
National-level recycling centers established by local governments, known as governmental
recycling centers, can promote proper regulations and management of the LIB recycling market.
They can improve recycling networks and increase recycling through regulated channels
following relevant national laws. Although most countries do not have government-affiliated LIB
recycling centers currently, they are expected to be established in the future.
To prevent spent LIBs from entering the black market and to create an organized recycling
market, it is necessary to establish a battery-tracking mechanism. Each battery can be
assigned an identification number, which can be uploaded into the tracking system throughout
the end-of-life value chain to facilitate recycling development. This can also help to ensure that
recycling processes comply with established regulations and standards. By implementing these
measures, we can establish a sustainable and efficient circular economy for LIBs, which
benefits both the environment and society.