5.

PASSIVE AND ACTIVE SYSTEMS USING

RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

Today, population growth and consequent need for this study, passive and active systems are examined in
industrialization has increased the energy requirement, the scope of heating, cooling, lighting, and electricity
bringing environmental pollution to dangerous levels. generation in buildings.
Excessive use of resources and increasing high demand
have led to efficient use of energy and accelerated 5.1. Passive Systems
renewable energy-based efforts (Sanchez and Izard, Passive systems are the oldest systems used to bene-
2015). As it is the case in all sectors, it has become ne- fit from solar and wind energy in buildings. In these
cessary to design buildings that use renewable energy systems, it is important to optimize the effects of solar
sources which are easy to maintain, economical and radiation (Özdemir, 2005). Heating, cooling, ventilation
environmentally friendly; and applications that use and lighting are provided through passive solar systems;
solar energy, wind energy and geothermal energy cooling and ventilation through passive wind systems.
have gained importance in the construction sector. Passive solar system applications can be utilized as
heat gain in winter, natural ventilation and cooling in
It can be said that solar, wind and geothermal energy summer. Passive systems are realized through plan-
are the most widely used renewable energy sources ning decisions and materials used during the design
for heating, cooling, ventilation, lighting, and electricity phase. In these systems, the sun rays reaching to the
production in buildings. Concerning the use of these wall, window and roof components of the building are
energy resources in buildings, there are two types of collected, stored and distributed to the interior spaces
systems as passive and active systems. The use of solar by using one or more of the transmission, transport
and wind energy for heating, cooling, ventilation, and and radiation paths (Gültekin and Demircan, 2017).
lighting during the design phase of the buildings is
considered as “passive systems”. Every technological Considering the passive systems in terms of solar
product added to the building design can be defined energy, there are three elements in the applications.
as “active systems”. Although there are many definiti- These elements can be classified as “collectors, storers
ons of passive and active systems in the literature, it is and distributers”. Solar walls (trombe walls), water walls,
difficult to differentiate these systems in some cases. In metal walls, roof ponds, solar rooms, thermosiphon

Energy Efficient Solutions For Built Environments 55

systems, solar chimneys and double-layer façades dolic ceiling applications are used for illumination and
act as collectors to collect and convert solar energy the labyrinth system is used for heating and cooling.
into heat. The collected heat enables the use of heat When passive systems are considered within the scope
through the “storers” in the absence of sunlight. After of wind energy, cooling and ventilation is provided by
the energy is stored, some of the heat is used immedi- shading elements, wind towers, chimney ventilation
ately and the rest is spread to the thermal mass (floor and atria, venturi chimneys and wind cowls.
and walls) for later use. Thermal masses can be made
of stone, brick or water. The task of “distributors” is to Passive systems are classified as “direct and indirect passive
transfer the energy collected by the collectors to the systems in the literature. These systems utilize openings
storage elements and the required places by radiation that provide heating and cooling. These openings are
and transport (Gültekin and Demircan, 2015). southern openings, roof openings and discrete (distant)
openings (Özdoğan, 2005). Heating and cooling methods in
In addition, in the use of solar energy through passive passive systems are given in Table 5.1 and Table 5.2 within
systems light shelves, light pipes, heliostats, and ani- the scope of direct and indirect systems (Bekar, 2007).

Table 5.1. Heating methods in direct and indirect passive systems (Bekar, 2007)
DIRECT PASSIVE SYSTEMS INDIRECT PASSIVE SYSTEMS

Southern Openings

Roof Openings

Table 5.2. Cooling methods in direct and indirect passive systems (Bekar, 2007)
DIRECT PASSIVE SYSTEMS INDIRECT PASSIVE SYSTEMS

Southern Openings

Roof Openings

56 Energy Efficient Solutions For Built Environments

In direct passive systems, the façade space consists and solid walls (see Figure 5.2.b, c). At night, the solar
of south facing façades and greenhouses. In order energy stored during the day is used indoors (see
to gain heat during the winter months, the ratio of Figure 5.2.d) (Özdemir, 2005).
the glass surface on the southern façade should be
increased and the glass surfaces on the other façades
should be kept at the minimum level. In the façade
openings, sunlight is taken from the south façade
into the space and is stored by massive walls and
converted into heat energy (Figure 5.1). In cases where
the temperature of the environment is high heat is
absorbed by the massive elements, and when the
temperature decreases heat energy is returned to
the environment by convection and radiation. Apart
from the dimensions of the windows, their shape and Figure 5.2. Working principle of direct passive
position also affect the transmission of radiation to systems (Özdemir, 2005)
the space. In winter, almost horizontal rays can rea-
ch the deepest parts of the internal space through In indirect passive systems, solar radiation is converted
vertical windows. In summer, the sun does not affect into heat outside the space and then transmitted to
the internal space much due to the steep angle of the space by conduction, convection and/or radiation.
incidence of the sun rays. Therefore, the arrangement In this system, the energy gain is provided with the
of the windows in the vertical position can be consi- help of an outside collector, whereby it is possible to
dered as the most appropriate choice. Roof openings give it to the building at night hours. However, one
used in direct passive systems are not as effective as of the disadvantages is the heat loss that occurs in
façade openings. However, it is recommended when this system which has a worse insulation level than a
there is insufficient sunlight from the southern front. well-insulated roof or façade (Sayın, 2007).
With the principle of rising up of the warming air, it
is seen as a suitable method for cooling the space in Solar walls (trombe walls), water walls, metal walls,
summer although it is not very efficient in heating roof ponds, solar rooms, thermosiphon systems, solar
the space in winter (Sayın, 2007). chimneys, wind towers, atria, double-layer façades,
venturi chimneys, wind cowls and labyrinth systems
can be examined within the scope of indirect passive
systems. In addition, advanced natural lighting sys-
tems that use new technologies today, also known as
advanced daylight systems, aim to reduce electricity
consumption in buildings as much as possible, as well
as providing natural lighting by significantly improving
the light quality of the interior. In this context, light
shelves, light pipes, heliostats and anidolic ceilings
can be considered in the context of passive systems.
Figure 5.1. Direct passive systems (Yüre, 2007)
5.1.1. Solar Walls (Trombe Walls)
The operation principle of direct passive systems is The solar walls consist of a glass surface and a thermal
given in Figure 5.2. Solar energy passing through the mass that stores the energy placed behind it. This mass
transparent surface during the day (see Figure 5.2.a) can be usually black colored concrete, adobe, solid
is stored by building elements such as concrete slabs brick or stone. In this system, which is expressed in

Energy Efficient Solutions For Built Environments 57

Figure 5.3, transferring the stored heat to the interior in
winter, and in summer, transferring heat from the gaps
such as chimneys or windows without transferring the
heat to the interior are the main principles. According
to Figure 5.3, firstly the sun rays pass through the glass
surface and come to the solar wall (see Figure 5.3-1).
Solar heat is transmitted to the surface through con-
duction by the solar wall, and then to the interior by
radiation and convection (see Figure 5.3-2). During the
day, the indoor cold air heats through the openings
on the solar wall and a circulation takes place (see Figure 5.4. Heating-cooling principle in trombe walls
Figure 5.3-3). At night, the openings on the solar wall (Gültekin and Demircan, 2015)
are closed so that the stored heat remains indoors
(see Figure 5.3-4). 5.1.2. Water Walls
Water walls were first developed by Steve Baer in 1971.
In the houses designed by Steve Baer, 55 water filled
cans were used behind the glass units and large alu-
minum shutters were used to cover these cans (Figure
5.5). These shutters also serve as reflectors.

Figure 5.5. Water wall application in Steve Baer

Figure 5.3. Working principle of solar walls house (Corrales, New Mexico) (Baer, 2009)
(Özdemir, 2005)
Benedictine Monastery, designed by Steve Baer in 1978,
In summer, natural ventilation is achieved by opening also shows that passive systems are used. At the same
the wings on the glass surfaces and the interior win- time, water walls are included in the scope of passive
dows. In addition to the summer shade and winter systems (Figure 5.6).
night insulation measures, another measure to be
taken for winter evenings is to close the ventilation
openings on the wall in order to prevent the cooling
of the interior by withdrawing the cold air from the
holes in the bottom so that the air movement reverses
and the heated air goes between the glass surface and
the wall. Figure 5.4 describes the working principle of
the system.

Figure 5.6. Water wall application in Benedictine

Monastery (Baer, 2009)

58 Energy Efficient Solutions For Built Environments

In the water walls, the heat storage mass (cans) is filled Metal walls are placed on the southern façade of
with water or a similar fluid (see Figure 5.7). The cans the buildings, approximately 10-30 cm from the
are painted black to form a beam collecting surface, building (see Figure 5.8). The south-facing exterior
so that the cans perform the collector and thermal wall of the building is covered with metal sheets
storage tasks together. The sun’s rays passing through such as perforated, dark aluminum or steel instead
the glass are absorbed by the black surface of the can of a transparent layer. The difference from other
and the thermal energy heats the water in the can. The passive systems is that the air is taken in through
heated cans transfer their energy into the building by the holes in the sheets. The air entering to the gap
radiation and convection. During the night, in order between the wall and the metal sheet heats up and
not to lose the heat gained during the day, insulated rises inside the façade by the chimney effect and is
covers in the shape of walls are closed in the evening transferred to different parts of the building through
and thermal losses are prevented (Özdemir, 2005). The fans (Erengezgin, 2001). The absorber plate on the
most important problems encountered in water walls metal wall is generally corrugated since it is thin.
are evaporation, corrosion and leakage (Gültekin and In this way, it is ensured that the air is brought into
Demircan, 2015). contact with a larger surfaceas well as increasing
the resistance of the absorber surface against wind
and other factors. In addition, the thin production
of the absorber plate ensures that all parts of the
plate can be heated homogeneously and quickly
(Ay and Khanları 2015).

Figure 5.7. Working principle of water walls

(Alparslan, 2010)

When the behavior of the water wall is examined in

summer, seasonal and intraday periods, similar problems
are encountered with the solar wall. Overheating of
the system during summer days is a possible problem.
Similarly, another possible problem is the loss of heat
at night collected during winter days. For this reason,
shading elements such as panels and shutters that
provide solar control and insulation on the outer surface
of the water wall should be used in order to ensure Figure 5.8. Placing the metal wall on the building
a continuous and efficient performance of the water façade (Ay and Khanları, 2015)
wall within 12 months (Yasan, 2011).
The work of metal walls is examined in four zones.
5.1.3. Metal Walls The first zone is the surface in front of the absorber
Metal walls were first produced in 1981 by a company plate. The second zone includes the inside of the ho-
called Wieneke in Germany to pre-heat the air supplied les on the absorber plate and the ventilation covers.
to buildings for ventilation. In the following years, some The third zone is the intermediate zone between
of these systems were used for heating buildings and the absorber plate and the wall. The fourth zone
others for drying food. Metal wall applications have started consists of the distribution channel cover, fan and
to gain new prevalence today (Ay and Khanları 2015). distribution channel.

Energy Efficient Solutions For Built Environments 59

In the winter application of the metal walls, the upper
ventilation cover in the second zone is closed, the
lower ventilation cover and the distribution channel
cover in the fourth zone are open. When the lower
ventilation cover is partially open, a portion of the air
leaving the building is discharged therefrom, and the
remainder enters the gap for reheating. This air entering
the gap combines with the heated air in the first and
the second zones, entering into the space through
the opening of the distribution channel cover in the
fourth zone (Figure 5.9).

Figure 5.10. Working principle of metal walls in

summer (Solar Wall, 2016)

5.1.4. Roof Ponds

Roof ponds were first developed by Harold Hay in 1973
under the name “Skytherm.” The operating principle of
Skytherm House is given in Figure 5.11. In this system,
the roof is made of metal. There are plastic bags filled
with water on top of the metal cover and movable
insulation materials on top of them.

Figure 5.9. Working principle of metal walls in winter

(Solar Wall, 2019)

In the summer application of the metal walls, the

ventilation covers on the upper and lower sides of
the system in the second zone are completely ope-
ned and the distribution channel cover in the fourth
zone is closed. Thus, a ventilation channel is created
in the gap(Figure 5.10). The absorber surface acts as a
shield against the sun’s rays, while the air flow in the
gap makes the building wall cooler. At the same time,
cooler air is circulated throughout the building through Figure 5.11. Skytherm House (Atascadero, California-
a window that opens from a north-facing façade inside USA) (Baer, 2009; Solar Wall, 2016)
the building (Ay and Khanları, 2015).
Roof ponds differ from other passive systems in terms
of the plane in which they are built. In other systems,
the heat trapping mass is formed vertically, while in this
system the heat trapping mass is formed horizontally. The

60 Energy Efficient Solutions For Built Environments

heat trapping mass on the roof is carried by the metal
construction below it. In this system, the mass of water
in the roof fulfills the task of thermal mass (Yüre, 2007).

Roof ponds are based on the principle that the solar

energy stored by the water-filled pool or plastic bags
is transferred from the ceilings of the space to indoors
as heat. With the help of insulating elements (such as
rolling shutters), these thermal masses are opened during
the daytime in winter and provided with solar energy,
while at night they are closed to prevent heat losses.
In summer, the opposite is applied during the day, it is
covered for protection from excess heat, and at night,
insulation elements are opened, allowing the space to Figure 5.13. Working principle of roof ponds (Sharifi
be cooled by heat transfer to outside (Uslusoy, 2012). and Yamagata, 2015)
Figure 5.12 and Figure 5.13 give the working principle
of roof ponds for the summer period. First of all, the 5.1.5. Solar Rooms
roof pond should be covered with insulated panels for Solar rooms can be defined as collectors that are for-
protection from the heat of summer. During the day, med between indoor and outdoor spaces, providing
the indoor air can be cooled by the effect of the roof heat, fresh air and humidity to the building and can
pond which is kept cool by means of insulation (see be lived in. Increasing the glass surfaces facing the
Figure 5.12.a, 5.12.b). During the daytime, the cooling sun in the solar rooms during winter increases the
air through the roof pond descends and is replaced by heat gain and creates heat losses in the absence of
heated air. At night time, the panels are opened (see sun. These surfaces cause negative effects such as
Figure 5.12.c), and the pool transfers the heat to the increases in undesired heat gain in summer. For this
exteriors (see Figure 5.12.d). During the winter season, reason, night insulation for winter evenings and sun
the water in the pond heats up during the day with protection for summer days are more important than
the effect of solar radiation. Thus, the effect of the roof the southern windows (Alparslan, 2010). Figure 5.14
pond ensures that the air in the space is also heated shows the working principle of solar rooms for day
(Özdemir, 2005). and night, and Figure 5.15 shows the heating-cooling
principle of solar rooms.

Figure 5.14. Working principle of solar rooms

(Alparslan, 2010)

Figure 5.12. Working principle of roof ponds

(Özdemir, 2005)

Energy Efficient Solutions For Built Environments 61

 embedded in the wall or placed on a plot with elevation
lower than the building. When the cold air or fluid is at
the lowest level of the collector area, it is heated by solar
radiation. Heated air or fluid moves by rising up to storage
mass to replace cold air or fluid to provide the circulation
(Figure 5.16) (Özdemir, 2005). In the thermosyphon sys-
tem given in Figure 5.16, the solar radiation is collected
by a solar collector. In other words, the passive system
is supported by an active system element.

Figure 5.15. Heating-cooling principle of solar rooms

(Gültekin and Demircan, 2015)

Besides providing an additional living space in winter

and transition seasons to the building, the solar rooms
function as livable places with high comfort value th-
roughout the year with moving and controlled shading
elements and ventilation units (Özdemir, 2005). The
obtained solar energy is converted into heat energy Figure 5.16. Working principle of thermosyphon
and stored by the flooring and walls that work as a systems (Özdemir, 2005)
collector element. The stored heat is transferred to the
interior that will be heated by convection. In order to 5.1.7. Solar Chimneys
transfer heat to the interior more quickly, the depth Solar chimneys and solar energy can be used for
of the solar room should be less, the heat-trapping ventilation and cooling purposes. These chimneys are
wall area should be larger, and small vents should be designed not to exceed the roof height on the south
opened above and below the wall separating the solar side of the building. The outer surface of the chimney
room and the interior (Yüre, 2007). is covered with transparent glass and the inner surface
is covered with dark metal material for absorbing sun-
5.1.6. Thermosyphon Systems light. The air inside the chimney rises with the effect of
Thermosyphon is the name given to the natural mo- the sun and rises out of the chimney. When the wind
vement of air or water due to temperature differences speed is low, the expulsion of air is accelerated by the
(Yedievli, 2009). Thermosyphon systems, which are rotating wind cowl placed on the top of the chimney.
continuous circulation systems, are generally used for Cool air entering the lower point of the chimney cre-
heating purposes. The main element in the system is ates air circulation and natural ventilation is provided
the solar collector called the thermosyphon current (Alparslan, 2010). Figure 5.17 describes the heating and
panel. The system consists of a heat-absorbing metal cooling principle of solar chimneys.
sheet painted in black and a glass or plastic surface
covered on the sheet (Ovalı, 2009). This collector is
similar to active solar panel collectors (Oral, 2005).

In the water heater systems, there is a collecting area

which provides the direct connection between the solar
radiation and living space separately from the building Figure 5.17. Heating-cooling principle of solar
façade. In this area, thermosyphon current panels are chimneys (Autodesk, 2017)

62 Energy Efficient Solutions For Built Environments

5.1.8. Shading Elements Outdoor plants such as trees, shrubs, ivy can also be
Design of outdoor shading elements in an objective used as shading elements (Figure 5.20). At the same
approach began in the 1940s with the research of the time, planting façades reduces the cooling loads of
Olgyay brothers in climate-balanced architecture and the building and provides thermal insulation.
urbanism (Ok et. Al., 2009). Shading elements are used
to provide protection against unwanted thermal effects
of the sun and to contribute to cooling. The shade ele-
ments can be used indoors, outdoors or between two
windows according to different conditions, horizontally
and vertically. Outdoor shading elements are compo-
nents designed as supplements to the building. These
components are produced from various materials such
as glass, metal, concrete, wood, plastic, fixed or moving. Figure 5.20. The effect of non-evergreen trees, ivy
and potted plants on solar control
Fixed shading elements used outdoors are one of the (Stack et. al., 2002)
most effective elements in reducing heat gain, since
they prevent solar heat from reaching the façade (Fi- Shading elements used indoors can be listed as curtains,
gure 5.18) (Şahinoğlu, 2012). The cassette-type shading shutters and blinds (Figure 5.21). Internal shading ele-
elements, which are formed by combining the vertical ments are easier to control and maintain than external
and horizontal shading elements, can cause negative shading elements. In addition, it can be said that glare
consequences in terms of illumination as they provide control is very effective with its ability to diffuse and
protection against high and low sun angle of incidence. reflect light (Şahinoğlu, 2012).

Figure 5.18. Fixed shading elements used outdoors

(Stack et. al., 2002) Figure 5.21. Shading elements used indoors
(Şahinoğlu, 2012)
The movable shading elements used outdoors can
be more easily adapted to the movement of the sun 5.1.9. Wind Towers
thanks to their flexibility and are more efficient than In wind towers, solar and wind energy are used toget-
fixed shading elements. Movable shading elements can her. Wind towers provide natural ventilation for the
be listed as roller shutters, awnings, blinds and roller interior and provide thermal comfort with necessary
blinds. These elements can be collected according humidity regulations. It has been widely used in the
to climate conditions, can be completely disabled or Middle East in countries such as Egypt, , Iraq, and Iran
associated with automation (Figure 5.19). as well as Afghanistan and Pakistan. Furthermore, in
buildings in the old settlements of hot-humid cities
such as Bandar Abbas, Abu Dhabi, Bahrain and Cairo
located around the Persian Gulf and hot-dry climates
such as Kerman, Yazd, Kashan, Bam, Meshed and Herat
(Ali and Özer, 2011).
Figure 5.19. Moving shading elements used outdoors
(Stack et. al., 2002) The wind towers take the cool air indoors and discharge

Energy Efficient Solutions For Built Environments 63

the rising indoor air that has been warmed up. The
cool air entering from the northern opening of the
wind tower during the day provides the ventilation
of the interior and the heated air on the south side is
thrown out. At night, air circulation is provided in the
indoor space through the wind tower (Figure 5.22).

Figure 5.24. Working principle of evaporation

ventilation (Center for the Built Environment, 2016)

A wind tower was also designed at the Masdar Institute

Figure 5.22. Day and night working principle of wind in Abu Dhabi (Figure 5.25). This wind tower is 45 m high
towers (Erkinay, 2012) and designed to cool the courtyard of 6 buildings. By
means of the tower, which became operational in 2010,
An example of the wind tower is the Ecology Research the cooling requirement of the institute was reduced
Center in Figure 6.23. In the method used in the Ecology by 50% compared to a building in the United Arab
Research Center, outside air is brought into contact with Emirates (Middle East Sustainable Cities, 2016).
a body of water in the wind tower before entering the
building, and the space is cooled by evaporation of
water (Engin, 2012). Thus, the temperature of the air
decreases from 85˚F to 59˚F and there is an increase
in the humidity of the air (Figure 5.24).

Figure 5.23. Ecology Research Center (Stanford) Figure 5.25. Masdar Institute Wind Tower (Middle
(Dangermond Keane Architecture, 2016) East Sustainable Cities, 2016)

On the upper part of the Masdar Institute Wind Tower,

sensor shutters have been designed to open in the
direction of wind at a height of 6 m. In the same part,
there is a thermal mass to store the air rising with
temperature (Figure 5.26).

64 Energy Efficient Solutions For Built Environments

 5.1.11.Double-Layer Façades
Double-layer façade applications have been widely
used in recent years especially in developed countries
in office buildings for ventilation, heating and cooling
purposes. Double-layer façades are formed by placing
two layers (outer shell and the inner shell) on the façade
with air gap between them. The outer shell provides
protection against the weather, while at the same time
preventing outside sound from entering the building.
The air gap between the outer shell and the inner shell
creates a buffer zone, reducing energy consumption and
allowing natural ventilation of the building. In double-layer
façade applications, the outer shell can be designed to
be continuous along with the height of the building or
discontinuous with intervals at the floor levels (Ovalı, 2009;
Alakavuk, 2010). Figure 5.28 shows a double-layer façade
application. In these applications, the air taken from the
lower part of the façade by inlet vents warms up after
Figure 5.26. Working principle of Masdar Institute a while. During the cold season, the air that heats up in
Wind Tower (Middle East Sustainable Cities, 2016) the air gap works as a thermal buffer zone to prevent
heat losses. It can be supplied indoors with heated air
5.1.10. Atria automation systems. In warmer seasons, the air that is
The atrium is a large section in the middle of the buildings, heated in the air gap is thrown out through outlet vents
optionally open or closed. Today, it is defined as an interior and cooling is provided (Erkinay, 2012).
element that is protected from external environmental
conditions, receiving natural light and constituting the
social center of the building. By creating a chimney effect,
the atria contribute to the comfort requirements of the
buildings such as heating, cooling and ventilation. At the
same time, it allows energy consumption to be reduced
by enabling the surrounding areas to benefit from daylight
(Göçer, 2006). Dirty air that expands and rises due to the
chimney effect in the atria is thrown out of the building
from the roof of the atrium and fresh air is provided into Figure 5.28. Double-layer façade application
the building through the wall openings (Figure 5.27). (Alakavuk, 2010)

The principles of ventilation in double-layer façades

can be listed as follows (Alakavuk, 2010):
• In winter, the air taken from the interior, between
the two shells in the lower levels of the inner wall
layer, heats up as it rises between the front shells
and is returned to the interior through the spaces
in the upper points of the interior wall. Thus, the air
with increased temperature is used for heating the
Figure 5.27. Working principle of atria (Uslusoy, 2012) interior (Figure 5.29.a).

Energy Efficient Solutions For Built Environments 65

• The air taken from the entrance opening at the bottom of 5.1.12. Venturi Chimneys and Wind Cowls
the façade from the outdoor space to the gap between Venturi chimneys and wind cowls, which take fresh air
the two façade shells rises between the façade shells in and exhaust used air, are simple devices that can
and is discharged from the external air vent at the top of be used in any building, from dwellings to industrial
the façade without being taken into the interior. During plants. As the blowing wind passes through a fun-
the rise of air between the façade shells, the amount of nel-like device, whose mouth is narrowed, its speed
heat the inner shell has due to solar radiation reduces, increases just as the speed of the water that increases
as the air contacts the surface of the inner shell facing when the mouth of the hose is narrowed (Figure
the air gap. Thus, the surface temperature of the inner 5.30). This breeze is allowed to enter the interior with
shell is at lesser degrees than the absence of air flow clean and cool air through the vertical channel. On
and the amount of heat passing to the interior from the other hand, the dirty air that is heated and rising
exterior space decreases (Figure 5.29.b). inside is ejected from the venturi chimney, which is
• In this ventilation method used to ventilate the interior a narrowed device, by the vacuum created by the
space, the air taken between the two shells from wind during the horizontal transition. The method
the vents located at the lower levels on the inner of venting a bottle is to blow strong air in a direction
shell is discharged from the air outlet vent located parallel to its mouth. The Venturi chimney draws the
at the upper part of the outer shell to outdoors. indoor air out on the same principle (Güneşevi, 2016).
(Figure 5.29.c). This system works with the principles of passive flue
• The air taken from the outer space into the space effect and performs its function even when the wind
between the two shells from the outer air inlet vent speed is low (Engin, 2012).
located in the outer shell is heated and raised here
and taken from the spaces located at the upper
points on the inner shell into the interior. With this
method, the temperature of the cold air in the out-
door environment is increased and taken into the
interior. The amount of energy to be spent to bring
the indoor air to the desired temperature values is
reduced with this method (Figure 5.29.d).
• In this ventilation method, gaps and vents on the inner
and outer façade layers are kept closed. No air inlet-outlet Figure 5.30. Working principle of venturi chimneys
is made between the two frontal shells, thereby forming (Erkinay, 2012)
a buffer zone. The heat exchange between the indoor
and outdoor space is prevented by the created buffer In the south of London, the architect Bill Dunster
zone and the external heat is prevented from affecting completed the first stage of a collective settlement,
the interior space (Figure 5.29.e). where wind cowls were used, in 2002 and opened
the Wallington in Bedzed (Beddington Zero Energy
Development) (Figure 5.31). These cowls provide
ventilation by taking advantage of the positive and
negative pressure of the wind. It provides air intake
from kitchen, bathroom and toilet volumes, while
transmitting heated or cooled air through heat re-
covery to living rooms and bedrooms.

Figure 5.29. Ventilation types in double-layer

façades (Alakavuk, 2010)

66 Energy Efficient Solutions For Built Environments

 Light shelves generally consist of a horizontal or al-
most-horizontal plate about 2 meters above ground
level. The purpose of light shelves is to reflect sunlight
into the space while preventing the sunlight coming
at unwanted angles from entering. The position and
dimensions of the light shelves at the front (inside,
outside or on both sides) and dimensions are deter-
mined according to the shading and daylight and
Figure 5.31. Bedzed wind cowl application lighting requirements. In this context, light shelves
(Wallington, London, United Kingdom) (Alamy, can be classified into three groups as light shelves
2017) placed inside the window (inner light shelf), outside
the window (outside light shelf) and placed on both
5.1.13. Light Shelves sides (Figure 5.33). Interior light shelves direct daylight
Light shelves are horizontal elements designed to passing through the window into the interior space.
prevent excessive sunlight and direct the daylight Exterior light shelves have an impact on the archite-
to the ceiling. It can be an integrated element to the cture of the building since they are placed out of the
façade, or it can be mounted later. While it protects building (Erel, 2004). An exterior light shelf shadows
the area close to the window from intense sunlight the window, while an interior light shelf provides
in order to use daylight more efficiently in interior illumination to the depths of the space. In addition,
spaces, it provides general lighting in the depths of the material (matte, glossy or specular), smoothness
the space with the light reflected on the ceiling. It (rough or smooth), color (light or dark), and slope of
protects the indoor area close to the window from the ceiling cover affect the diffusion of daylight into
the intense sunlight and illuminates the depths of the the space.
place with the reflected sunlight. It provides more
homogeneous light distribution by decreasing the
daylight level at the window edges and increasing
the daylight level in the depths of the interior space.
Light shelves are the systems that reduce the cooling
load by the function of shading element and reduce
the light load by reflecting the daylight to the indoor
ceiling thanks to the reflective surface of the shelf Figure 5.33. Examples of interior and exterior light
(Figure 5.32). With these features, light shelves are shelves (Ofluoğlu, 2017)
efficient systems in terms of reducing energy con-
sumption (Şahinoğlu, 2012). The depth of a light shelf must be increased to protect
the interior space from excessive daylight. However,
deep light shelves will reduce the external field of
view provided through the window. This problem
can be solved by covering the light shelf with moving
reflective film (Figure 5.34). The reflective film can be
adjusted appropriately depending on the different
solar incidence angles (Şahinoğlu, 2012).

Figure 5.32. Working principle of light shelves

(Günışığı, 2019)

Energy Efficient Solutions For Built Environments 67

 End-lit light pipes consist of three parts. The first part of
end-lit pipes is a transparent dome made of polycar-
bonate or acrylic. The dome formed by this injection
molding method has high light transmittance and is
resistant to weather conditions. It is mounted on a
bright plate in such a way that it refracts the daylight
at the correct angle (Yener, 2008). The external colle-
ctor unit, which is formed by this dome, prevents the
penetration of dust and water into the pipe while ke-
eping the ultraviolet rays out. Collectors are generally
two types. These are the dome-shaped elements that
capture the light coming from all directions or the “sun
Figure 5.34. Working principles of light shelves followers” aiming to provide the highest efficiency
with moving reflective film (Şahinoğlu, 2012) by following the sun in the sky (Tokuç and Yıldızber,
2009). The second part, the light pipe itself, consists of
5.1.14. Light Pipes intertwined tubes. The inner surface of the light pipe
Light pipes are systems used to direct daylight to deep is covered with a reflective film. The third part forms
volumes. These are the elements where the sunlight an illumination device or diffuser unit which allows the
taken from the small roof skylights is carried to the ceiling light to diffuse indoors. The external collector unit is
of the space by reflective pipes. The distribution of the generally placed on the roof of the building. Thus, the
light in the space is provided by the internal emitter light is transmitted by the collecting element with full
elements. The daylight sensitive lighting element internal reflection along the light pipe and is distribu-
placed in the pipe or emitter element may operate in ted in the internal space by the emitter element (Erel,
connection with daylight. Their performance is better 2004). As seen in Figure 5.36, the level of luminosity
when direct sunlight is available. A suitable system for and visual comfort in the volume is increased with
the illumination of small spaces and if the grid layout natural lighting.
is provided in large spaces, a smooth distribution of
daylight can be obtained (Deparsolar, 2019) Figure 5.35
shows a light pipe application.

Figure 5.36. Examples of light pipes (Günışığı

Aydınlatma, 2017)

Side-lit light pipes consist of three parts, a heliostat

unit mounted on the roof or outside of the building
to follow the sun and used to intensify the sunlight, a
secondary mirror placed at the entrance of the tube
Figure 5.35. Working principle of light pipes to transmit the collected light, and a light pipe used
(Inhabitat, 2019) to transmit the light. (Figure 5.37). Since these tubes
serve each floor, it is important to intensify and stren-
Light pipes are designed in 2 different ways; end-lit gthen the transmitted light. Therefore, movable side
and side-lit light pipes. elements such as a heliostat and a secondary mirror
support the system (Yener, 2008).

68 Energy Efficient Solutions For Built Environments

 5.1.16. Anidolic Ceilings
Anidolic ceilings are systems that collect diffuse daylight
using the optical properties of parabolic collectors.
These systems are mostly used in the regions where
overcast weather conditions prevail, to direct the dif-
fuse light in the sky to the depths of the spaces (Uyan
and Yener, 2011).
Figure 5.37. Heliostat unit with side-lit light pipe
system (Borusan Holding Management Center- The system consists of a light channel and reflectors
Istanbul) (Heliobus the Daylight Company, 2016, l) located at the beginning and end of this channel (Figure
5.39). The first reflector on the façade surface collects
5.1.15. Heliostats diffuse light and transmits it to the light channel. The inner
Heliostats are systems that collect light outside and surface of the light channel is highly reflective, and the
transmit it into the building. Heliostat is an integra- light is transmitted along the channel according to the
ted system that follows the sun with its automatic full internal reflection principle. The parabolic reflector
tracking system and consists of one or more mirrors at the exit of the light channel distributes diffused light
and a lens and collects the sun’s rays. This system neatly into the space (Ünal, Çetegen and Enarun, 2005).
is not a daylighting system alone, it transmits the There is a glass unit at the entrance of the system which
collected solar rays to a light carrier system, mostly is at an angle of 25° with the horizontal plane. This unit
light pipes. The sunlight carried in the light pipes directs the daylight on the light channel. There is also
is then diffused into the building with a distributor a glass unit at the exit of the system to ensure safety
outlet unit. An artificial light source (lamp) is also and reduce system maintenance costs. All external
added to this system and can be used in times of components in the system must be insulated to prevent
insufficient daylight. The purpose of the heliostats condensation and thermal bridges. An example of an
is to illuminate spaces without windows or natural anidolic ceiling is shown in Figure 5.39.
lighting with daylight and with a supplementary
lamp (International Energy Agency, 2000). Figure 5.38
shows an example of a heliostat.

Figure 5.39. Working principle of anidolic ceilings

(SPIE, 2019)

The main features of anidolic ceilings are to direct

the daylight to the area of usage without glare, pro-
viding a proper illumination and increasing the level
of illumination in the parts of the spaces which are
not illuminated adequately by traditional systems.
Anidolic ceilings can be used in commercial, indust-
Figure 5.38. Working principle of heliostats (Clear rial or educational buildings (International Energy
Comfortable Low Energy Architecture, 2019) Agency, 2000).

Energy Efficient Solutions For Built Environments 69

5.1.17. Labyrinth Systems 5.2. Active Systems
The labyrinth system was developed in order to take Active systems are the whole of mechanical and ele-
advantage of the natural coolness that exists at night ctronic systems used to produce heating, cooling and
in regions where the temperature differences between electricity in buildings by making use of solar energy,
day and night are high during the summer months. wind energy and geothermal energy. Supporting app-
The system was used for the first time in The Turkish lications with mechanical equipment and additional
Contractors Association Headquarters in Turkey (Figure heat storage measures in order to benefit from solar
5.40). In this building, a concrete labyrinth was designed energy, wind energy and geothermal energy in buildings,
under the basement car parks in order to minimize automatic control of heat distribution, application of
the energy consumption in heating and cooling by water-air collectors, use of high efficiency collectors
using the temperature difference between day and and solar cells, generation of electricity with wind
night, which is the most significant indicator of typical turbines, heat pumps and heating and cooling and
continental climate conditions in Ankara. generating electricity are defined as “active systems.

5.2.1. Solar Collectors

Solar collectors are used to meet the hot water requi-
rements of buildings. The solar collectors that provide
the heating of the cold water are systems that ope-
rate with the logic of collecting and intensifying the
Figure 5.40. Labyrinth system plan of Turkish radiation emitted from the sun. The most important
Contractors Association Central Building (Emporis, 2017) problem with this system is the freezing risk during
the winter time. This problem is solved by insulated
During the night in summer, the outdoor cold air circu- collectors, pipes and storage units. The efficiency of
lates through the chimneys and circulates through the the collector is defined as the ratio of the amount of
labyrinth, helping to cool the dense concrete mass and energy collected to the amount of energy received
trapping it as a battery. The hot air outside during the (Özdoğan, 2005).
day is passed through this battery and cooled by the
cold concrete mass and directed to the areas of usage. Solar collectors are classified as planar solar collectors,
In winter, the temperature is constant throughout the vacuum tube collectors and condenser collectors. The
year at a certain depth below ground level. In this way, most commonly used collector type in the construction
during the winter months, the outdoor air labyrinth cir- sector is planar solar collectors. There are high levels
culates and warms up and reaches the air handling units. of heat losses by convection from planar collectors
In order to contribute to the warming of the air in winter, through the glass cover. On the other hand, a vacuum
friction surfaces were increased (Figure 5.41). Thanks to is created between the transparent glass tube outside
this cycle, the minimum load is placed on air conditioners the vacuum tube collectors and the black painted
and energy consumption is prevented (Emporis, 2017). tube inside, reducing transport losses. Therefore, the
efficiency of vacuum tube collectors is higher than
that of planar collectors. Vacuum tube collectors are
used in hot water production, industrial processes,
heating and cooling of buildings (Alparslan, 2010). In
Figure 5.42, planar and vacuum tube solar collectors
are represented schematically.

Figure 5.41. View from the labyrinth system of Turkish

Contractors Association Central Building (Emporis, 2017)

70 Energy Efficient Solutions For Built Environments

 electrical energy. A wind turbine generally consists of
a tower, a generator, speed converters (gearboxes),
electrical-electronic elements and a propeller. The
electrical energy obtained from the generator is sto-
red by batteries or delivered directly to the receivers
(Elibüyük & Üçgül, 2014). The lifespan of wind turbines
Figure 5.42. Planar and vacuum tube solar collectors varies according to turbine quality and local climate
(Güneysan Solar Energy Systems, 2019) characteristics. The average lifespan is 20-25 years
(General Directorate of Electrical Power Resources
5.2.2. Solar Cells Survey and Development Administration, 2016). Wind
Solar cells are used to meet the electricity requirement turbines are classified according to their axes of rotati-
of buildings for heating, cooling and lighting. Among on, speed, power, number of blades, wind effect, gear
the renewable energy sources, it is one of the most characteristics and installation positions.
effective ways of generating electrical energy from the
sun, which is the easiest to access, abundant and clean. Wind turbines used in buildings are classified into
With the rapid growth of the solar energy industry, the three groups:
importance of solar cells has increased greatly in recent
years. These batteries, which are used to convert solar Building-independent wind turbines: Wind farms are
energy into electrical energy, are considered as one of examples of building-independent wind turbines that
the most important renewable energy technologies are independently designed apart from the building.
in energy efficient building design (Alparslan, Lee,
Manthapuri, Yi and Deb, 2014). Being environmentally Building-integrated wind turbines: The design phase of
friendly during use and not causing greenhouse ga- the building is based on the use of wind energy. The
ses are among its most important advantages (Said, aim is to transform the building into a mechanism that
El-Shimy and Abdelraheem, 2015). This technology collects the wind and directs it to the turbine.
used for electricity generation in buildings and solar
farms in many countries, has recently begun to attract Building-mounted wind turbines: The building is used
attention in Turkey. However, it has not become wi- as a kind of tower (Günel and Ilgın, 2008). The main
despread due to the high initial investment costs and purpose of all wind turbine uses is to provide some of
the lack of necessary information. Figure 5.43 shows the building’s electricity requirement from wind energy.
an example of the application of solar cells to the roof.
On the roof of the Munich Neues Technisches Rathaus
Administration Building, a Darrieus-type vertical axis
wind turbine was used. This turbine has a power of
40 kW (Figure 5.44).

Figure 5.43. Solar cells (Deparsolar, 2019)

5.2.3. Wind Turbines

Wind turbines are systems that convert kinetic ener- Figure 5.44. Wind turbines in Munich Neues Technisches
gy from wind into mechanical energy and then into Rathaus Administration Building (Emporis, 2017)

Energy Efficient Solutions For Built Environments 71

Savonius-type vertical-axis wind turbines were used in Horizontal axis wind turbines are mostly commercial
the Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation (OMRF) turbines. These turbines have high production efficien-
building (Elibüyük and Üçgül 2014). 18 wind turbines with cy, aesthetic appearance, quieter and causing less bird
a height of 5 m are placed on the roof of the building death. Portland Twelve West Building is an example of
and 4.5 kW power generation is provided (Figure 5.45). horizontal axis wind turbines (Figure 5.47). There are
4 wind turbines with a total installed power of 9.6 kW
on the roof of the building.

Figure 5.47. Wind turbines in Portland Twelve West

Building (Malin, 2017)

Figure 5.45. Wind turbines in Oklahoma Medical 5.2.4. Underground Heat Pumps
Research Foundation Building (Wind Turbines, 2017) A heat pump is an electrically powered system that
transports heat energy from one medium to another
12 Savonius-type vertical-axis wind turbines were used as befits its name. The underground source heat pump
in Chicago Greenway Self Park Building (Figure 5.46). The system is based on the fact that the temperature of
turbines are six meters high and made of aluminum. the earth remains constant throughout the year at a
It is placed vertically in the southwest corner of the certain depth. The working principle of this system
building, and the energy produced is primarily used for the winter months is to carry the heat stored in
for the exterior lighting of the building. Excess energy the soil layer or groundwater to the building; while
is supplied to the grid. its working principle in summer is to transport the
heat inside the building to the underground. Briefly,
underground acts as a heat source in winter and as a
heat pit in summer (Develioğlu, 2012).

Underground source heat pumps have been widely

used in recent years owing to their usability as a single
device for both heating and cooling purposes, being
more functional than traditional methods, providing
significant savings in energy consumption, having an
integrated structure and adapting to high control tech-
nology (Arslan, 2014). It consists of three main sections:
• A heat pump system that transfers heat between
the building and ground connection,
• Soil heat exchanger required to transfer heat from
the soil,
Figure 5.46. Wind turbines in Chicago Greenway • Heating-cooling system for heating and cooling the
Self Park Building (Greenway Self-Park / HOK, 2019) building.

72 Energy Efficient Solutions For Built Environments

The high-performance coefficients of underground and ground layers. Open circuit pipe laying systems are
heat pumps reduce the operating cost of the system. suitable for buildings with abundant and high-quality
The energy savings provided by the energy obtained water wells. These systems draw heat directly from
is higher than the energy consumed, both for the user well water. The well water is pumped from the source
and for the national economy. However, in the use well to the heat pump, and the water from the heat
of soil as a heat source, there is a soil heat exchanger pump is pumped into the return well. In general, the
which increases the initial investment cost. In order incoming water temperature in such systems is 6° C
to reduce this cost, first of all, temperature and heat higher than closed circuit systems, which makes the
storage load of soil geological units, soil structure, geothermal heat pump system work more efficiently.
thermal properties, humidity and ground water level High saline, chloride or mineral waters can damage the
and its variation according to climatic conditions should system or prevent it from working efficiently. Closed
be examined. Using the abovementioned indications, circuit systems from the lake are suitable for buildings
the optimum operating conditions of the heat pump on the lake shore. The pipes are placed directly at the
should be determined (Acar, 2009). bottom of the lake water. The transfer fluid passing
through the closed-circuit pipe takes the heat of the
Two systems, the open system and the closed system, lake (Table 5.3).
are used in underground heat pumps. In the open
system, wells, lakes, rivers and sea are used as heat Table 5.3. Underground pipe laying systems
sources. Water taken from the source is drawn into the (Principle of Heat Pumps, 2016)
heat pump unit to be pumped back in a manner that UNDERGROUND PIPE LAYING SYSTEMS
does not harm the environment and nature by taking
its heat. The closed system consists of heat exchangers, Horizontal closed circuit
closed circuit and polyethylene pipes underground.
In the closed system, the liquid is circulated in a conti-
nuous manner in the pipe under pressure (Yerlibucak,
2007). There are four different underground pipe laying Vertical closed circuit
options depending on the location of the building
and land where underground heat pump systems will
be installed. These are called horizontal closed circuit,
vertical closed circuit, “from water well-to water well”
(open circuit), “from lake” closed circuit (Principle of
Heat Pumps, 2016). Open circuit

Horizontal closed-circuit pipe laying systems are

preferred in wide soils that are easy to dig and not
arid. It requires wider soil area than other systems,
and the pipes are buried at a depth of 1.7-3 meters Closed circuit from the
of the soil. Vertical closed-circuit pipe laying systems lake
are suitable for buildings with limited soil area. The
temperatures are higher in deeper soil. Therefore,
less pipes are used than horizontal circuit systems.
Vertical drilling is carried out with a diameter of 13-18
centimeters and a depth of 20-100 meters with 3-6
meters distance from each other. Drilling depths and
number of drillings vary according to heat demand

Energy Efficient Solutions For Built Environments 73

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