Introduction

Agriculture, in its simplest sense, refers to the practice of cultivating land

and rearing animals to meet human needs for food, fiber, and raw
materials. It is not merely an economic activity but a complex cultural and
environmental interaction that shapes both people and places. The study
of agricultural geography seeks to understand the spatial patterns of
agricultural practices, their environmental determinants, and their socio-
economic implications.

As agriculture evolved in different parts of the world, it gave rise to

diverse systems — ranging from intensive rice cultivation in monsoon Asia
to commercial grain farming in North America. Understanding these
variations requires systematic classification. Classifying agricultural
regions allows geographers and planners to identify similarities and
differences, assess productivity, and design policies suited to local
conditions.

In this context, Derwent Whittlesey’s work, “Major Agricultural Regions of

the Earth” (1945), stands out as a landmark contribution. His classification
was one of the first to provide a global framework that integrated physical
geography, economic purpose, and cultural practices. Whittlesey’s model
remains a cornerstone in agricultural geography, influencing both
academic research and policy formulation. This paper aims to explain
Whittlesey’s classification, its basis, regional types, limitations, and
enduring importance in today’s world.

Whittlesey’s Contribution to Agricultural Geography

Derwent Whittlesey (1890–1956) was an American geographer best

known for his studies on the cultural landscape and regional geography.
He emphasized that human activities, particularly land use, are closely
tied to environmental and cultural conditions. His approach went beyond
purely physical or economic explanations; he viewed agriculture as a
reflection of human adaptation to nature.

In 1936, and later refined in 1945, Whittlesey proposed a detailed

classification of the world’s agricultural regions. His objective was to group
areas with similar agricultural practices based on observable
characteristics such as dominant crops, livestock, intensity, and purpose
of production. His framework synthesized vast amounts of geographical
data available at the time, offering a global view of agricultural diversity.

Whittlesey’s contribution was groundbreaking because it merged

empirical observation with regional synthesis. He understood that
agriculture could not be explained solely by physical factors like soil and
climate; instead, cultural, economic, and technological influences were
equally significant. His classification thus marked a shift from
environmental determinism to a more holistic, human-environment
approach — an idea that later became central to modern geography.

Basis of Whittlesey’s Classification

Whittlesey’s classification was not random or arbitrary. He followed a

scientific basis and used specific criteria to delineate agricultural regions.
His system was built on five main factors:

1. Crop and Livestock Combination

Whittlesey emphasized the types of crops grown and animals reared as

the primary indicators of agricultural regions. The combination of these
elements reflects both environmental suitability and cultural preference.
For instance, rice cultivation dominates Southeast Asia, while wheat and
cattle are prevalent in the North American prairies.

2. Purpose of Production

He distinguished between subsistence agriculture, where the main goal

is to meet family needs, and commercial agriculture, aimed at market
production. This distinction helped him explain the economic orientation
of different regions.

3. Intensity of Cultivation

Intensity refers to how much labor and capital are applied per unit area.
Intensive systems (e.g., paddy farming in India or Japan) use high labor
input on small plots, while extensive systems (e.g., ranching in Australia)
use large areas with low labor density.

4. Degree of Mechanization

The level of technological advancement also influenced classification.

Mechanized farming characterized commercial grain regions, while
traditional hand tools defined shifting or subsistence agriculture.

5. Relationship to Physical and Cultural Factors

Whittlesey acknowledged the impact of climate, soil, topography, and

cultural practices on agricultural patterns. For example, Mediterranean
climates support olives and grapes, while steppe climates favor wheat and
pastoralism.
By integrating these factors, Whittlesey divided the agricultural world into
several major types. His classification was both descriptive and
analytical, offering a snapshot of global agricultural organization in the
mid-20th century.

Whittlesey’s Major Agricultural Regions

Whittlesey identified and described thirteen major agricultural types.

Each represents a distinct combination of natural environment, crops,
livestock, and human practices. Below is an overview of the main
categories:

1. Nomadic Herding

This is one of the oldest forms of agriculture, practiced mainly in arid and
semi-arid regions such as the Sahara, Central Asia, and parts of the
Arabian Peninsula. It involves the seasonal movement of pastoral
communities and their herds in search of pasture and water. Livestock
includes camels, sheep, goats, and reindeer. It is a subsistence system
adapted to harsh climates.

2. Shifting Cultivation

Commonly found in tropical forests of Southeast Asia, Africa, and South

America, this system involves clearing patches of land (through slash-and-
burn), cultivating for a few years, and then abandoning it for natural
regeneration. It reflects adaptation to poor soils and high rainfall. Crops
include yam, cassava, and maize.

3. Rudimentary Sedentary Agriculture

In this form, farmers settle permanently in one place but still use
traditional tools and techniques. Found in parts of tropical Africa and Asia,
it represents a transition from shifting to more settled farming.

4. Intensive Subsistence Farming (Rice Dominant)

This system is highly labor-intensive and practiced mainly in monsoon

Asia — China, India, Japan, and Southeast Asia. Farmers cultivate small
plots, primarily growing paddy rice. Irrigation, terracing, and manual labor
characterize this type, which sustains dense populations.

5. Intensive Subsistence Farming (Non-Rice)

Found in areas where climate does not favor rice, such as northern China,
parts of India, and the Middle East. Crops include wheat, barley, and
millets. Livestock are often kept for plowing and milk.
6. Commercial Plantation Agriculture

This system involves large estates producing a single crop for export. It is
typical of tropical regions — tea in India and Sri Lanka, coffee in Brazil,
cocoa in Ghana, and rubber in Malaysia. Plantation farming developed
under colonial influence and depends heavily on cheap labor and
transport networks.

7. Commercial Grain Farming

Practiced in temperate grasslands such as the North American Prairies,

Argentine Pampas, and Russian Steppes. The main crops are wheat and
maize. This type is highly mechanized and oriented toward large-scale
market production.

8. Dairy Farming

Dairy farming is concentrated in regions near urban markets, such as

northwestern Europe, northeastern United States, and New Zealand. It
requires advanced management, good transport, and refrigeration
facilities. Milk, butter, and cheese are primary products.

9. Livestock Ranching

Extensive commercial livestock raising, mostly in regions with vast

grasslands and low rainfall, such as the western United States, Australia,
and Argentina. Ranches cover large areas, and mechanization has
replaced much manual labor.

10. Mediterranean Agriculture

Practiced in regions with dry summers and mild, wet winters — such as
Southern Europe, California, Chile, and parts of Australia. Crops include
olives, grapes, citrus fruits, and wheat. Irrigation and mixed cropping are
common.

11. Commercial Gardening and Horticulture

Also known as “truck farming,” this system focuses on fruits, vegetables,

and flowers for nearby urban markets. Found in the USA, Netherlands, and
France, it requires intensive labor, greenhouses, and quick transport.

12. Mixed Farming

Involves the joint cultivation of crops and rearing of animals on the same
farm. Common in Central and Western Europe, this system provides
balanced income and soil fertility through crop rotation.

13. Forestry and Gathering Economies

Practiced in cold, forested regions like Canada and Siberia, this involves
collecting forest products, hunting, and fishing. It represents a pre-
agricultural or transitional system.

Evaluation of Whittlesey’s Classification

Whittlesey’s classification has been widely praised for its

comprehensiveness and clarity. It was among the first to view agriculture
in a global and comparative framework.

Merits include:

 It integrates physical, economic, and cultural dimensions of

farming.

 It covers almost all regions of the world, giving a global perspective.

 It serves as a valuable base for further geographical and economic

studies.

 It introduced the idea that human culture and environment together

shape agricultural systems.

Limitations include:

 The classification reflects the conditions of the 1940s and does

not account for post-Green Revolution transformations.

 It overlooks technological and political changes that have

restructured agriculture.

 Some regions are too generalized; for instance, “commercial grain

farming” includes both mechanized U.S. farms and smaller Eastern
European ones.

 It does not easily accommodate modern forms like organic

farming, corporate agriculture, or urban hydroponics.

Nevertheless, Whittlesey’s model remains a cornerstone of agricultural

geography. Later scholars, such as Grigg (1974) and Morgan & Munton
(1971), refined and expanded his ideas, but his conceptual foundation
endures.

Relevance in the 21st Century

Despite technological advances, Whittlesey’s classification continues to

hold relevance. His categories help explain how geography and culture
interact even in modern agricultural systems.
In the 21st century, agriculture faces new challenges: globalization,
climate change, and mechanization. Traditional systems like
subsistence farming are declining, but modified forms persist in
developing regions. At the same time, commercial agriculture has become
more specialized and globally interconnected — echoing Whittlesey’s
insight into regional distinctiveness.

New agricultural types such as organic farming, precision agriculture,

vertical farming, and aquaponics may not fit neatly into Whittlesey’s
scheme, but they can be interpreted as evolutions of his basic principles
— shaped by new technologies and market demands. Thus, while the
framework requires updating, its analytical spirit remains vital.

Conclusion

Whittlesey’s classification of agricultural regions remains one of the most

influential theoretical contributions in agricultural geography. It provided a
structured understanding of how physical conditions, economic motives,
and cultural traditions produce distinct agricultural landscapes across the
world. While modern developments have transformed many of these
systems, the fundamental logic behind Whittlesey’s classification
continues to guide agricultural research, planning, and policy. His work
reminds us that agriculture is not merely an economic pursuit but a
complex human response to nature’s opportunities and constraints. As we
navigate the challenges of sustainable agriculture in a changing climate,
revisiting Whittlesey’s insights can still offer valuable lessons about
adaptation, diversity, and regional balance.