CERTIFICATE OF ACHIEVEMENT
Roll No:
This is to certify that Miss/Master
has satisfactorily completed the Physics Investigatory Project of grade
12 during the academic session 2025-26 as prescribed by the Central
Board of Secondary Education, New Delhi.
Teacher – in – Charge
Date of Examination:
External Examiner Internal Examiner
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
With the completion of my project, I would like to take this opportunity
to whole heartedly thank every individual who has supported me in
conducting this experiment.
Firstly, I would like to express my deep gratitude to Ms. Suja Wilson, for
her invaluable guidance and knowledge. I owe all my gratitude to her for
being my mentor and enriching my project with her valuable inputs.
My heartfelt gratitude to my parents without whose constant support,
critical advice and the encouragement given to me, I would not be able to
excel in all spheres.
Incessant support and guidance were provided to us by our laboratory
assistants, Ms. Ambika, and Ms. Zainab, who aided us with all the
required apparatus.
I am highly indebted to the school faculty, especially our Senior
Leadership Team, for providing me with the facilities required during the
making of this project.
Last but not least, a warm thank you to my dear peers and team members
for their insightful comments and ideas as well as their contribution to
this project.
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CONTENTS
Serial Title Page
number number
1 Aim 4
2 Introduction 4
3 Theory 4
4 Case One 6
5 Case Two 8
6 Case Three 9
7 Case Four 10
8 Conclusion 11
9 References 12
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Aim
1. To analyze and identify the causes of mechanical failures in aircraft.
2. To understand the critical role of mechanical components in aircraft operation and
safety.
Introduction
Mechanical components such as engines, control surfaces, hydraulic actuators, and
structural elements operate under complex physical forces and demanding conditions.
When these components malfunction—whether due to material fatigue, design flaws,
manufacturing defects, or maintenance lapses—the consequences can be devastating.
This paper explores key incidents in aviation history where mechanical malfunctions led
to tragic outcomes, and analyzes the physical principles underlying these failures.
Through this exploration, the essential role of physics and engineering in ensuring safe
flight will be emphasized, underlining the continuous need for vigilance, innovation, and
collaboration in the aviation industry.
Theory
How do airplanes fly?
An aircraft in straight and level flight is acted upon by
four forces: lift, gravity, thrust and drag. The opposing
forces balance each other: Lift equals gravity, and thrust
equals drag.
Lift/Gravitational Force
A boundary layer of air sticks to the wing’s surface and drags adjacent layers via viscosity,
splitting the flow of air above and below the wing.
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Flow over the wing:
● Air must curve sharply around the nose of the wing and therefore undergoes
centripetal acceleration. This curvature causes higher velocity over at the top. By
Bernoulli’s principle, higher velocity leads to lower static pressure.
Flow under the wing:
● Similarly, the flow under the wing experiences less curvature and therefore has a
lower velocity change which leads to a higher static pressure compared to the top.
This pressure difference constitutes the lift required to oppose gravity and weight of the
airplane. Take-off is only possible once lift exceeds the G-force (gravitational force).
Excessive curvature or tilt will trigger stall(losing lift).
Drag/Thrust
The air resists the motion of the aircraft and the resistance force is called drag. Drag is
directed along and opposed to the flight direction. There are many factors that affect the
magnitude of the drag force including the shape of the aircraft, and the velocity of the
aircraft etc.
To overcome drag, airplanes use a propulsion system to generate a force called thrust.
The magnitude of the thrust depends on many factors associated with the propulsion
system including the type of engine, the number of engines, and the throttle setting. The
job of the engine is just to overcome the drag of the airplane, not to lift the airplane
For jet engines, aircraft thrust is a reaction to the hot gas rushing out of the nozzle. The
hot gas goes out the back, but the thrust pushes towards the front.This is in accordance
with Newton’s Third Law of Motion.
If all the forces are balanced, the aircraft cruises at constant velocity. If the forces are
unbalanced, the aircraft accelerates in the direction of the largest force.
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Case One: Alaska Airlines Flight 261
Background
Alaska Airlines Flight 261 was a tragic aviation incident
that occurred on January 31, 2000, when the aircraft, a
McDonnell Douglas MD-83, crashed into the Pacific Ocean,
resulting in the loss of all 88 individuals on board.
The flight, which had departed from Puerto Vallarta,
Mexico, was en route to Seattle-Tacoma International Airport with a planned stop in San
Francisco. Approximately two hours after takeoff, the crew reported a jammed horizontal
stabilizer and sought to divert to Los Angeles International Airport.
Cause
The National Transportation Safety Board’s investigation revealed that the accident was
caused by a combination of factors that contributed to the failure of a critical component
in the horizontal stabilizer, called a jackscrew assembly, which is essential in the vertical
control of an airplane. The component also did not have a fail-safe backup in the event of
a malfunction.
Mechanical
The stabilizer is a fixed wing section whose job is to
provide stability for the aircraft, to keep it flying straight.
The horizontal stabilizer prevents up-and-down which is
also known as pitching of the aircraft nose. In an aircraft,
a jackscrew assembly is a mechanical system used to
adjust the angle of the horizontal stabilizer. The elevator is
the small moving section at the rear of the stabilizer that
is attached to the fixed sections by hinges. Because the
elevator moves, it varies the amount of force generated by the tail surface and is used to
generate and control the pitching motion of the aircraft. There is an elevator attached to
each side of the body of the aircraft. The elevators work in sync. The elevator is used to
control the position of the nose of the aircraft and the angle of the wing.
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Changing the inclination of the wing to the local flight path changes the amount of lift
which the wing generates. This, in turn, causes the aircraft to climb/dive. During take off
the elevators are used to bring the nose of the aircraft up to begin the climb out.
In the case of a malfunction of the components of a horizontal stabilizer, reduced pitch
control, difficulty in maintaining altitude, and even a stall.
In the case of Alaska Airlines Flight 261, the horizontal stabilizer got jammed resulting in
an unrecoverable dive that eventually led to an unfortunate crash.
Case Two: United Airlines Flight 585
Background
United Airlines Flight 585 was a passenger flight on March 3, 1991,
from Denver to Colorado Springs, Colorado, carrying 20 passengers
and 5 crew members on board. The plane experienced a rudder
hardover while on final approach to runway 35 at Colorado Springs
Municipal Airport, causing the plane to roll over and enter an
uncontrolled dive. All 25 people on board theBoeing 737 were killed
on impact.
Cause
It was determined that a malfunction in the rudder Power Control Unit (PCU) was to
blame. Specifically, a jam in the dual concentric servo valve within the PCU could cause
the rudder to deflect in the opposite direction of the pilot’s input—a condition known as
a rudder reversal.
Mechanical
The Rudder Power Control Unit (PCU) is a key hydraulic component in an aircraft's flight
control system, specifically designed to control the rudder, which governs the aircraft's
yaw (rotation around the vertical axis). Mounted on the vertical tail fin, the rudder
swings side to side, shifting the tail left or right and causing the nose to move in the
opposite direction.
Like the elevator, the rudder works by changing the angle of attack on the stabilizer.
When the rudder is deflected, the trailing edge moves. This results in a force (like lift)
that pulls the tail in the opposite direction of the deflection.
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Inside the PCU, a dual concentric servo valve
regulates the flow of hydraulic fluid to the rudder
actuator( device that physically moves an aircraft’s
rudder) based on inputs from either the pilot or the
aircraft’s yaw damper system. The PCU also
includes an input shaft and crank mechanism, as
well as a yaw damper actuator, which helps
stabilize the aircraft by automatically correcting
for unwanted yaw motions.
Together, these components ensure precise and responsive rudder control during flight.
When this happens, the valve may misinterpret the input and send fluid in the wrong
direction, causing an uncommanded rudder movement, often opposite to what the pilot
intended. This can result in rudder hardover and loss of control.
Case Three: American Airlines flight 191
Background
American Airlines flight 191 crashed on May 25, 1979, near
Chicago O’Hare International Airport. A total of 273 people
died including two individuals at the site of the crash. That toll
makes the crash the deadliest aviation accident in U.S. history.
American Airlines flight 191 was a three-engined McDonnell
Douglas DC-10 jet bound for Los Angeles.
Cause
The engine had broken off causing severed hydraulic lines that controlled leading-edge
slats designed to lower a wing’s stall speed, ripped a section from the front of the wing,
and disabled instruments that would have informed the pilot of the precise situation. The
Hydraulic fluid drained away and even wing slats retracted. The engine separation that
caused the crash was a result of the failure of a mounting pylon that had been
damaged by a forklift during an engine change two months earlier.
Mechanics
During takeoff and landing the airplane's velocity is relatively
low. To keep the lift high airplane designers try to increase the
wing area and change the airfoil shape by putting some moving
parts on the wings' leading and trailing edges.
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The part on the leading edge is called a slat, while the part on the trailing edge is called a
flap. The flaps and slats move along metal tracks built into the wings.
Moving the slats forward increases the wing area. Pivoting the leading edge of the slat
and the trailing edge of the flap downward increases the lift. In addition, the large
aft-projected area of the flap increases the drag of the aircraft which helps the airplane
slow down for landing.
Hydraulic lines in airplanes are essentially pathways made of metal tubing that carry
pressurized hydraulic fluid to various systems, enabling them to function. These lines are
critical for transmitting power to operate essential aircraft
components like flight controls, landing gear, and brakes,
ensuring safe and efficient flight. The hydraulic system is
based on Pascal’s Principle: “When there is an increase in
pressure at any point in a confined fluid, there is an equal
increase at every other point in the container.” Therefore
Hydraulic fluids are distinguished in part by their
resistance to being compressed. This resistance to
compression is also important because of the pressure changes aircraft experience while
in operation.
A pylon in the context of airplanes is a structure that attaches the engine
to the wing. Pylons also route fuel, hydraulic lines, and electrical wiring,
and provide mounting points for engine accessories.
Case Four: Lauda Air Flight 004
Background
Lauda Air Flight 004 was a scheduled international passenger flight that crashed on May
26, 1991, due to an uncommanded deployment of the thrust reverser on the left (No. 1)
engine while climbing at about Mach 0.78 and 24,700 feet altitude.
Cause
The aircraft crashed due to an uncommanded deployment of the
thrust reverser on one of the engines during the climb (when an
aircraft ascends the sky) phase, causing the aircraft to enter an
aerodynamic stall leading to an uncontrolled dive and in-flight
breakup.
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Mechanics
Thrust reversing is a system used on aircraft
to redirect engine thrust in the opposite
direction of forward travel, helping to
decelerate the aircraft after landing. This
mechanism is primarily used during the
landing roll to reduce the reliance on wheel
brakes and shorten the landing distance.
When deployed, they generate drag by
redirecting engine exhaust gases forward
after landing to help slow the aircraft down,
reducing reliance on wheel brakes and
enabling shorter landing distances. This is
achieved by deploying doors or vanes that
alter the direction of the airflow, essentially creating reverse thrust.
Conclusion
The examination of major aircraft disasters rooted in
mechanical failures highlights the vital importance of
engineering integrity, rigorous maintenance, and continual
oversight in aviation safety. High-profile catastrophes, such
as those resulting from structural fatigue, engine
malfunctions, and critical control system failures, highlight
the complex interplay between design, manufacturing,
operations, and maintenance.
Aircraft structures and systems are designed based on fundamental physics principles,
such as Newton’s laws of motion, conservation of energy and momentum, and the
mechanics of materials. Rudder actuators and other flight control components operate
using principles of hydraulics (pressure and flow), forces, and response time.
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References
https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/UEET/StudentSite/dynamicsofflight.html
https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/beginners-guide-to-aeronautics/four-forces-on-an-airplane/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UWPiLjfiLNQ
http://www.b737.org.uk/theruddersystem.htm
https://howthingsfly.si.edu/sites/default/files/2020-06/pitch-roll-yaw_0.gif
http://www.b737.org.uk/theruddersystem.htm#:~:text=exposed%20during%20maintenance-,Power%20Con
tro l%20Unit%20(PCU),source%20(A%20%26%20B).
https://www.thrustflight.com/airplane-rudder/
https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Airlines-Flight-191
https://skybrary.aero/articles/hydraulic-fluid-fire-source#:~:text=In%20larger%20aircraft%2C%20hydraulic%
20systems,as%20airstairs%20and%20cargo%20doors.
https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/VirtualAero/BottleRocket/airplane/elv.html
https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/alaska-airlines-flight-261#:~:text=On%20January%2031
%2C%202000%2C%20the,aircraft%2C%20killing%20everyone%20on%20board.
https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/VirtualAero/BottleRocket/airplane/pitch.html
https://engineering.purdue.edu/~propulsi/propulsion/jets/basics/reverse.html
https://pilotjohn.com/blog/everything-there-is-to-know-about-aircraft-hydraulic-fluid?srsltid=AfmBOoo93fw9
V1nkl7utlzcTN79Opt7mgqMQzQO9SBDXMq88S39c-Bo9
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