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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

SUBJECT CODE : MVJ20EC35
SUBJECT NAME: ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
LECTURE PRESENTATION MODULE – 2

FACULTY : Dr. Utsab Banerjee , Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

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 Module Structure
MODULE-2
Gauss’ Law, Divergence, Poisson’s and Laplace’s equations
Gauss Law, Applications of Gauss’ Law, Maxwell’s First equation (Electrostatics), Divergence
theorem, Current, Current density, The Continuity equation, Boundary Conditions (dielectric –
dielectric, conductor – dielectric, conductor – free space), Poisson’s and Laplace’s Equations,
Uniqueness theorem.
Text Book:
• 1. Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Elements of Electromagnetics”, Oxford University Press, Edition VII,
2018.
Reference Books:
• 1. David M Pozar, “Microwave Engineering”, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 4th edition, 2014.
• 2. W.H. Hayt. J.A. Buck & M Jaleel Akhtar, “Engineering Electromagnetics”, Tata McGraw – Hill,
Edition VIII, 2014. 2

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 Course Outcomes
At the end of the course, the students will be able to:
• CO1: Evaluate problems on electrostatic force, electric field due to point, linear, surface charge
and volume charges.
• CO2: Apply Gauss law to evaluate Electric fields due to different charge distributions by using
Divergence Theorem. Determine potential and capacitance using Laplace equation and Poisson
equation.
• CO3: Apply Biot-Savart’s and Ampere’s laws for evaluating Magnetic field for different current
configurations.
• CO4: Apply Maxwell’s equations for time varying fields and evaluate power associated with EM
waves using Poynting theorem.
• CO5: Determine the parameters of transmission lines for determining the impedance and
admittance.

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 Gauss’s law in Electromagnetism

In the Electric field, Gauss’s law relates the charges to the electric flux
density, and is governed by the famous Maxwell’s law in theory, which
states that:
“The total electric flux coming out of a closed surface is equal to the net
charge enclosed by the surface.”
Let us have a closed surface, enclosing certain amount of charge,
having a volume charge density of 𝜌𝑉 . Let the electric flux density
coming out of the closed surface be 𝐷. We further consider that an
incremental surface area ‘dS’ encloses an incremental volume ‘dV’.

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 Gauss’s law in terms of Maxwell’s equation
The total electric charge enclosed by the surface is given by ‫ 𝑉𝜌 ׮‬. 𝑑𝑉. The total flux coming out of the closed surface is given by ‫𝐷 װ‬. 𝑑𝑆
According to Gauss’s law,

‫𝐷 װ‬. 𝑑𝑆 = ‫ 𝑉𝜌 ׮‬. 𝑑𝑉 →→ Integral form

Applying divergence theorem to the L.H.S, we get

඾ 𝐷. 𝑑𝑆 = ම ∇. 𝐷 𝑑𝑉

Using this in the integral form,

ම ∇. 𝐷 . 𝑑𝑉 = ම 𝜌𝑉 . 𝑑𝑉

‫∇ ׮‬. 𝐷 − 𝜌𝑉 . 𝑑𝑉 = 0.

∇. 𝐷 − 𝜌𝑉 = 0
5

∇. 𝐷 = 𝜌𝑉 →→ Differential form

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 Observations

i. It follows that if the closed surface does not enclose any charge,
then the net flux coming out of the surface is ‘0’
ii. Gauss’s law can be expressed in two forms, the integral form and
the differential form, both forms having identical implications.
iii. Gauss’s law and Coulomb’s law are basically identical. Infact, we
can arrive at Gauss’s law by proper application of the divergence
theorem in Coulomb’s law.

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Gauss’s law is a suitable means of finding the electric field and the electric
flux density of a symmetric charge distribution.
But, it does not mean that if the charge distribution is asymmetric, then
Gauss’s law cannot be applied.
Consider the following example:
Thus, even though the charge
distribution is asymmetric, Gauss’s
law holds. Its just that it cannot be
used to evaluate the electric field
or the electric flux density. In those cases, we have to resort to Coulomb’s
law, which makes it more versatile of the two.
But in some cases, Gauss’s law can prove to be very simple in terms of
analytical point of view.
7

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 Applications of Gauss’ Law
As already mentioned, Gauss’s law can be very conveniently used to evaluate the electric
field, or the electric flux density for a symmetric distribution.

A continuous charge distribution is rectangular symmetric if it depends only upon x (or y, or

z), cylindrical symmetric if it depends only upon ‘ρ’ and spherically symmetric if it only
depends upon ‘r’.

Given a charge distribution, our first job is to find out whether the charge distribution is
symmetric or not.

If symmetry exists, then we construct an imaginary, mathematical closed surface, satisfying

the symmetry of the charge distribution. This mathematical closed surface is known as the
Gaussian surface.

The surface should be so chosen that 𝐷 will either be tangential or normal to the surface.
8

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When 𝐷 is normal to the Gaussian surface, ‫𝐷 װ‬. 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐷. 𝑑𝑆 as dS, also
being normal to the surface, is aligned with 𝐷

When 𝐷 is tangential to the surface, then ‫𝐷 װ‬. 𝑑𝑆 = 0, as 𝐷 and dS are

orthogonal to each other.

Now we will evaluate the electric flux density due to a point charge, a
line charge, a surface charge and a volume charge distribution.
9

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 Electric flux density due to a point charge
Let us consider a point charge ‘Q’ located in
space. We want to find out the electric flux
density at a point ‘P’.
It is quite obvious from the situation that a
spherical surface, having the point charge at
its center and passing through ‘P’ may be
considered to be a Gaussian surface in this case. Since 𝐷 is everywhere
normal to the surface, we have,
𝑄 = ඾ 𝐷𝑟 . 𝑑𝑆

10

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 2𝜋 𝜋
𝑄 = 𝐷𝑟 න න 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝑑𝜃. 𝑑𝜑
𝜑=0 𝜃=0

𝑄 = 𝐷𝑟 . 4𝜋𝑟 2

𝑄
𝐷𝑟 = 2
.𝑎
ෞ𝑟
4𝜋𝑟

This is the electric flux density of a point charge.

11

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 Electric flux density due to a line charge
Let us consider a line charge distribution, having a
charge density of 𝜌𝐿 , oriented along the z-axis.
We can consider a finite length cylinder of length ‘l’
radius ‘r’ and axis along the z-axis as the Gaussian
surface. The 𝐷 is normal to the lateral surface of
the cylinder. The total charge enclosed within the
finite cylindrical length is given by 𝑄 = 𝜌𝐿 . 𝑙.
The total flux coming out of the closed surface is given by 𝐷 =
‫ 𝜌𝐷 װ‬. 𝑑𝑆
12

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 𝐷 = 𝐷𝜌 ඾ 𝑑𝑆

𝐷 = 𝐷𝜌 . 2𝜋𝑟𝑙
According to Gauss’s law,
𝜌𝐿 . 𝑙 = 𝐷𝜌 . 2𝜋𝑟𝑙

𝜌𝐿
𝐷= .𝑎
ෞ𝜌
2𝜋𝑟

It is also to be noted that as the electric flux density at the top and bottom of
the cylindrical Gaussian surface is tangential to the surface, 𝐷. 𝑑𝑆 = 0 in 13
these two surfaces, as 𝐷 and dS are orthogonal to each other.
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 Electric flux density due to a surface charge

Let us consider a infinite surface of charge density

𝜌𝑆 oriented along the xy-plane. The Gaussian
surface is a block on the xy-plane as shown,
containing the sheet of charge, and having the top
and bottom faces parallel to the xy-plane.
The top and bottom surfaces are of area ‘A’.
The total charge enclosed by the block is given by 𝑄 = 𝜌𝑆 . 𝐴

14

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The total electric flux coming out of the Gaussian surface is given by
඾ 𝐷 . 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐷𝑧 𝐴 + 𝐴 = 2𝐴. 𝐷𝑧

According to Gauss’s law,

𝜌𝑆 . 𝐴 = 2𝐴. 𝐷𝑧

𝜌𝑆
𝐷 = .𝑎ෞ𝑧
2

15

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 Electric flux density due to a volume charge
Let us consider a uniformly charged sphere of radius ‘a’ with a charge
density of 𝜌𝑉 . Since the charge has a spherical symmetry, its obvious
that a spherical surface will be a Gaussian surface.
Now, this Gaussian surface can be within the charged sphere or outside
it. Accordingly, we have two analytical cases.
Case 1: Gaussian surface inside the charged sphere i.e. r < a
Total charge enclosed within the spherical
surface of radius ‘r’ is given by
𝑄 = ම 𝜌𝑉 . 𝑑𝑉
16

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 𝑄 = 𝜌𝑉 ම 𝑑𝑉
𝑟 𝜋 2𝜋
𝑄 = 𝜌𝑉 න න න 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝑑𝑟. 𝑑𝜃. 𝑑𝜑
𝑟=0 𝜃=0 𝜑=0
4 3
= 𝜌𝑉 . 𝜋𝑟
3
The net electric flux coming out of the Gaussian surface is given by
𝜋 2𝜋
඾ 𝐷. 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐷𝑟 න න 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝑑𝜃. 𝑑𝜑 = 𝐷𝑟 . 4𝜋𝑟 2
𝜃=0 𝜑=0

According to Gauss’s law

4 3
2
𝐷𝑟 . 4𝜋𝑟 = 𝜌𝑉 𝜋𝑟
3
𝜌𝑉 𝑟
𝐷= .𝑎
ෞ𝑟 →→ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑎
3 17

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Case 2: The Gaussian surface is outside the charged sphere i.e. 𝑟 > 𝑎
It must be remembered that the charge is limited to the charged sphere (of radius ‘a’) only.
The net charge enclosed within the sphere is given by
𝑎 𝜋 2𝜋
4 3 2
𝑄 = 𝜌𝑉 න න න 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝑑𝑟. 𝑑𝜃. 𝑑𝜑 = 𝜌𝑉 𝜋𝑎
𝑟=0 𝜃=0 𝜑=0 3
The total electric flux density coming out of the Gaussian surface is given by
𝜋 2𝜋
𝐷𝑟 න න 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝑑𝜃. 𝑑𝜑 = 𝐷𝑟 . 4𝜋𝑟 2
𝜃=0 𝜑=0
According to Gauss’s law
4 3
2
𝐷𝑟 . 4𝜋𝑟 = 𝜌𝑉 𝜋𝑎
3

𝜌𝑉 . 𝑎 3
𝐷= .𝑎
ෞ𝑟 →→ 𝑟 > 𝑎 18
3𝑟 2

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It has to be noted that the process of evaluating the electric flux
density is to take 𝐷 out of the integral. This means 𝐷 must be constant
on the Gaussian surface. This gives us another parameter for choosing
the proper Gaussian surface.
So the properties for choosing the Gaussian surface are:
i. The charge distribution must be symmetric on the Gaussian
surface.
ii. D must be either tangential or normal to the Gaussian surface.
iii. D must be constant on the Gaussian surface.
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 Divergence Theorem
In vector calculus, the divergence theorem is a very powerful too for inter-conversion between
surface integral and volume integrals.
For an incremental surface area (da) enclosing an incremental volume (dv), the Divergence theorem
is stated as:-
The closed surface integral of an area ‘A’ with respect to an incremental area ‘da’ is equal to the
volume integral of the divergence of the vector ‘A’ with respect to the incremental volume ‘dV’.
Mathematically,

Ԧ 𝑑𝑎 = ම ∇. 𝐴Ԧ . 𝑑𝑉
඾ 𝐴.

20

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 Maxwell’s equation for Gauss’ Law in Electric field

Gauss’ Law in Electric Field states that,

“ The net electric displacement coming out of a closed surface is equal
to the net charge enclosed by the surface.”

Let us consider a closed surface having a uniform volume charge

density, ρ coulombs/cc.
If ‘da’ be an incremental area on the closed surface and ‘dv’ be an
infinitesimal volume, then…

21

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According to the law,
඾ 𝐷. 𝑑𝑎 = ම 𝜌. 𝑑𝑉 →→→ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚

Applying the Divergence theorem,

඾ 𝐷. 𝑑𝑎 = ම ∇. 𝐷 . 𝑑𝑉

∴ ම ∇. 𝐷 . 𝑑𝑉 = ම 𝜌. 𝑑𝑉

∴ ම ∇. 𝐷 − 𝜌 . 𝑑𝑉 = 0

∴ ∇. 𝐷 − 𝜌 = 0
∴ ∇. 𝐷 = 𝜌 →→→ 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚
We know that, 𝐷 = 𝜀𝐸
∴ ∇. 𝜀. 𝐸 = 𝜌 22
𝜌
∴ ∇. 𝐸 = ൗ𝜀
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 Differential & Integral Forms of Maxwell’s equations
It is to be noted that the differential forms of all the laws that has been or
would be discussed here are valid only if the medium is continuous and the
medium properties are constant throughout.

If the medium has interfaces, or discontinuities, then the Integral forms of

the laws will be valid.

So, the Integral forms of the laws are more fundamental in terms of
applications.

In fact, when the integral forms of Maxwell’s equations are applied to any
medium interface, we get the boundary conditions across that interface.
23

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 Conductors and Insulators
In a specific sense, materials may be classified based on their conductivity σ, in mhos per meter
(Ʊ/m) or Siemens per meter (S/m), as conductors and non-conductors, or technically as metals and
insulators (or dielectrics).

The conductivity of a material generally depends on temperature and frequency. A material with
high conductivity ( σ >> 1) is referred to as a metal, eg. Silver, Copper, whereas, one with low
conductivity (σ << 1) is referred to as an insulator, eg, wood, rubber.

A material whose conductivity lies somewhere between those of metals and insulators is called a
semiconductor, eg, Germanium, Silicon.

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 Conductivity of materials
The conductivity of metals generally increases with decrease in temperature. At temperatures near
absolute zero (T = 0 K), some conductors exhibit infinite conductivity and are called
superconductors. Lead and Aluminium are typical examples of such metals. The conductivity of lead
at 4 K is of the order of 1020 mhos/m.

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 Electric currents
Electric currents are generally caused by the motion of electric charges.
The current (in Amperes) through a given area is defined as the amount of electric charge passing
through that area per unit time.
Mathematically,
𝑑𝑄
𝐼=
𝑑𝑡
Thus, if one Coulomb of electric charge passes through an area in one second, then the current
flowing through that area in said to be one Ampere.

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 Conduction & Convection currents
Conduction current: Conduction current consists of charged particles moving in response to the
electric field and not merely being carried by motion of the surrounding material. In some
materials, the electric field is also able to dislodge weakly-bound electrons from atoms, which then
subsequently travel some distance before reassociating with other atoms. For this reason, the
individual electrons in a conduction current do not necessarily travel the full distance over which
the current is perceived to exist

Convection current: Convection current consists of charged particles moving in response to

mechanical forces, as opposed to being guided by the electric field. An example of a convection
current is a cloud bearing free electrons that moves through the atmosphere driven by wind.

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 Current density
If an incremental current ΔI flows through an area ΔS, then the conduction current density is given
∆𝐼
by, 𝐽𝑛 = ∆𝑆 . 𝑎ෞ𝑛 , assuming the current density is normal to the surface.
Thus, if ∆𝐼 = 𝐽.Ԧ ∆𝑆
It implies that 𝐼Ԧ = ‫𝐽 ׭‬.Ԧ 𝑑𝑆
Depending on how 𝐼Ԧ is produced, there are different kinds of current densities: convection current
density, conduction current density, and displacement current density.
Convection current, as distinct from conduction current, does not involve conductors and
consequently does not satisfy Ohm's law.
It occurs when current flows through an insulating medium such as liquid, rarefied gas, or a vacuum.
A beam of electrons in a vacuum tube, for example, is a convection current.

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 Convection current density
Let us consider current flowing through a filament, having a volume charge density of 𝜌𝑉 , and a
velocity of 𝑢𝑦 , in the y-direction.
The current through the filament is given by:
∆𝑄 ∆𝑙
∆𝐼 = = 𝜌𝑉 . ∆𝑆. = 𝜌𝑉 . ∆𝑆. 𝑢𝑦
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
The y-directed current density is given by,
∆𝐼
𝐽𝑦 = = 𝜌𝑉 . 𝑢𝑦
∆𝑆
Or, in general,
𝐽Ԧ = 𝜌𝑉 . 𝑢
If I is the convection current, then J here is the convection current density.

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 Conduction current density
A conductor is characterized by a large amount of free electrons that provide conduction current due an
existing electric field. When an electric field 𝐸 is applied, the force on an electron with charge —e is given
by
𝐹Ԧ = −𝑒. 𝐸
The electron suffers constant collision with the atomic lattice and drifts from one atom to another. If the
electron with mass ‘m’ is moving in an electric field 𝐸 with an average drift velocity ‘u’, according to
Newton's law, the average change in momentum of the free electron must satisfy the applied force. Thus,
𝑚𝑢 𝑒𝜏
= −𝑒. 𝐸 → 𝑢 = − . 𝐸
𝜏 𝑚
Where, τ is the average time between two successive collisions.
This indicates that the drift velocity of the electrons (𝒖) is directly proportional to the applied field.
If there are n electrons per unit volume, the electronic charge density is given by 𝜌𝑉 = −𝑛𝑒
𝑛𝑒 𝜏 2
The conduction current density is given by 𝐽Ԧ = 𝜌𝑉 . 𝑢 = . 𝐸 = 𝜎. 𝐸
𝑚
This equation, 𝐽Ԧ = 𝜎. 𝐸 is known as the point form of Ohm’s law.
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 The Continuity equation
Whenever there is a current flowing out of a closed conductor, then there must be a time rate of
decrease of the charge enclosed by the conductor. This brings us to the onset of the Continuity equation.
Accordingly,
𝜕
඾ 𝐽.Ԧ 𝑑𝑎 = − ම 𝜌𝑉 . 𝑑𝑉
𝜕𝑡

Using divergence theorem, ‫𝐽 װ‬.Ԧ 𝑑𝑎 = ‫∇ ׮‬. 𝐽Ԧ . 𝑑𝑉

𝜕
∴ ම ∇. 𝐽Ԧ . 𝑑𝑉 = − ම 𝜌𝑉 . 𝑑𝑉
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝜌𝑉
∴ ම ∇. 𝐽Ԧ + . 𝑑𝑉 = 0
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝜌
∴ ∇. 𝐽Ԧ = −
→→→ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜕𝑡
Thus whenever there is a time rate of change of charge, the divergence of the conduction current density
31
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 Boundary Conditions
As previously mentioned, the differential forms of Maxwell’s Equation are basically point relations.
The integral forms when applied across media interfaces, gives the Boundary Conditions.
Boundary Conditions give an insight over the propagation of wave phenomena across media
junctions.
The wave parameters involved in the boundary conditions are:-
Normal component of Electric Displacement Vector, 𝐷𝑛 .
Normal component of Magnetic Flux Density Vector, 𝐵𝑛 .
Tangential Component of Electric Field Intensity Vector, 𝐸𝑡 .
Tangential Component of Magnetic Field Intensity Vector, 𝐻𝑡 .

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 Pre-requisites for formulating boundary conditions
In order to formulate the mathematical foundation of the Boundary Conditions, we consider a
media junction having two different materials on either side.
We further imagine a block of space across the interface, with equal extension on either side of the
junction.

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 Material interfaces
The Boundary conditions will be governed by the types of material the media are comprised of. We shall consider the
boundary conditions at an interface separating:
• dielectric (𝜀𝑟1) and dielectric (𝜀𝑟2)
• conductor and dielectric
• conductor and free space
To determine the boundary conditions, we have to use the following Maxwell’s equations:
ර 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 = 0

And
඾ 𝐷. 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐

We will have to split the Electric field intensity and the Electric flux density vectors into two orthogonal components,
the tangential and the normal components. Thus,

𝐸 = 𝐸𝑡 + 𝐸𝑛
𝐷 = 𝐷𝑡 + 𝐷𝑛 34

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Dielectric – dielectric boundary conditions

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The electric field intensities 𝐸1 and 𝐸2 existing in media (1) and (2) can be resolved as:
𝐸1 = 𝐸1𝑡 + 𝐸1𝑛

𝐸2 = 𝐸2𝑡 + 𝐸2𝑛
We apply ‫𝐸 ׯ‬. 𝑑𝑙 = 0 to the closed path abcda, assuming that the path is very small with respect to
the variation in 𝐸.
∆ℎ ∆ℎ ∆ℎ ∆ℎ
𝐸1𝑡 . ∆𝑤 − 𝐸1𝑛 . − 𝐸2𝑛 . − 𝐸2𝑡 . ∆𝑤 + 𝐸2𝑛 . + 𝐸1𝑛 . =0
2 2 2 2
As ∆ℎ → 0, we get
𝐸1𝑡 = 𝐸2𝑡 …(1)
Thus the tangential components of 𝐸 are the same on the two sides of the boundary. In other
words, 𝐸𝑡 undergoes no change on the boundary and it is said to be continuous across the
boundary.
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Also, we know that, 𝐷 = 𝜀𝐸
So, from the first boundary condition, we get
𝐷1𝑡 𝐷2𝑡
=
𝜀1 𝜀2
As, 𝜀1 ≠ 𝜀2 , it implies that 𝐷1𝑡 ≠ 𝐷2𝑡
This means that 𝑫𝒕 is not continuous across the boundary.
Similarly, applying ‫𝐷 װ‬. 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 to the imaginary box across the interface, and letting ∆ℎ → 0, we get,
∆𝑄 = 𝜌𝑆 . ∆𝑆 = 𝐷1𝑛 . ∆𝑆 − 𝐷2𝑛 . ∆𝑆

𝐷1𝑛 − 𝐷2𝑛 = 𝜌𝑆 …(2)

Or, in absence of surface charge,
𝐷1𝑛 − 𝐷2𝑛 = 0 …(3)

37
Thus the normal component of D is continuous across the interface only in absence of any surface charge.

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Again, we know that, 𝐷 = 𝜀𝐸
Thus from equation (3), we get,
𝜀1 . 𝐸1𝑛 − 𝜀2 . 𝐸2𝑛 = 0
As, 𝜀1 ≠ 𝜀2 , So, 𝐸1𝑛 ≠ 𝐸2𝑛
This means 𝐸𝑛 is not continuous across the boundary.
The equations (1), (2) and (3) are collectively known as the boundary conditions and they must be
satisfied by an electric field at the boundary separating two different dielectrics.

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 Boundary conditions and Refraction of Electric fields
Boundary conditions can also be used to determine the refraction of electric fields across an
interface.
Let us consider that the field components 𝐷1 𝑜𝑟 𝐸1 ; 𝐷2 𝑜𝑟 𝐸2 make angles 𝜃1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃2 with the
normal to the interface as depicted:

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 𝐸1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 𝐸1𝑡 = 𝐸2𝑡 = 𝐸2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2
𝐸1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 𝐸2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 …(4)
Similarly, by applying equations (2) or (3), we get,
𝜀1 𝐸1 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 = 𝐷1𝑛 = 𝐷2𝑛 = 𝜀2 𝐸2 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2

𝜀1 𝐸1 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 = 𝜀2 𝐸2 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 …(5)

Dividing (4) by (5), we get
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃1 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃2
= …(6)
𝜀1 𝜀2
Since, 𝜀1 = 𝜀0 . 𝜀𝑟1 and 𝜀2 = 𝜀0 . 𝜀𝑟2 , equation (6) becomes
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃1 𝜀𝑟1
=
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃2 𝜀𝑟2
This is the law of refraction of the electric field at a boundary free of charge (since 𝜌𝑆 = 0 is assumed at
the interface). Thus, in general, an interface between two dielectrics produces bending of the flux lines as
a result of unequal polarization charges that accumulate on the sides of the interface.
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Conductor – Dielectric boundary conditions

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 Boundary Analysis
We assume the conductor to be ideal in our analysis, i.e. σ = ∞; ρ → 0. Such a conductor is only
realizable in theory. But for practical applications, we can consider Silver and Copper to be close
approximations.
To determine the boundary conditions for a conductor-dielectric interface, we follow the same
procedure used for dielectric-dielectric interface except that we incorporate the fact that 𝐸 = 0
inside the conductor.
We apply ‫𝐸 ׯ‬. 𝑑𝑙 = 0 to the closed path abcda, assuming that the path is very small with respect to
the variation in 𝐸.
∆ℎ ∆ℎ ∆ℎ ∆ℎ
0 = 0. ∆𝑤 + 0. + 𝐸𝑛 . − 𝐸𝑡 . ∆𝑤 − 𝐸𝑛 . − 0.
2 2 2 2
As ∆ℎ → 0, we get
𝐸𝑡 = 0

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Similarly, applying ‫𝐷 װ‬. 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 to the imaginary box across the interface, and letting ∆ℎ → 0, we get,
∆𝑄 = 𝐷𝑛 . ∆𝑆 − 0. ∆𝑆
Because 𝐷 = 𝜀𝐸, we get
∆𝑄 𝜌𝑆 . ∆𝑆
𝐷𝑛 = =
∆𝑆 ∆𝑆

∴ 𝐷𝑛 = 𝜌𝑆
These equations have been derived considering a static charge distribution in an ideal conductor.

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 Observations
Under static conditions, the following conclusions can be made about an ideal conductor:
i. No electric field exist within an ideal conductor. i.e.

𝜌𝑉 = 0; 𝐸 = 0
ii. Since 𝐸 = −∇𝑉 = 0, there can be no potential difference between any two points in the
conductor; that is, a conductor is an equipotential body.
iii. The electric field 𝐸 can be external to the conductor and normal to its surface. i.e.

𝐷𝑡 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 . 𝐸𝑡 = 0; 𝐷𝑛 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 . 𝐸𝑛 = 𝜌𝑆

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 Application…Electrostatic screening
An important application of the fact that 𝐸 = 0 inside a conductor is in electrostatic screening or
shielding.
If conductor A kept at zero potential surrounds conductor B as shown in the figure, B is said to be
electrically screened by A from other electric systems, such as conductor C, outside A. Similarly,
conductor C outside A is screened by A from B.
Thus conductor A acts like a screen or shield and the electrical conditions inside and outside the
screen are completely independent of each other.

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 Conductor – Free space boundary conditions
This is a particular case of the conductor-dielectric conditions and is illustrated in the following
figure. The boundary conditions at the interface between a conductor and free space can be
obtained from the corresponding equations of a conductor – dielectric interface, by replacing 𝜀𝑟 by
1 (because free space may be regarded as a special dielectric for which 𝜀𝑟 = 1). We consider the
electric field 𝐸 to be external to the conductor and normal to its surface. Thus the boundary
conditions are:
𝐷𝑡 = 𝜀0 . 𝐸𝑡 = 0; 𝐷𝑛 = 𝜀0 . 𝐸𝑛 = 𝜌𝑆

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 Practical applications of the boundary conditions
We can consider practical electrostatic problems where only electrostatic parameters (charge and
potential) at some boundaries are provided and it is required to find 𝐸 and V throughout the region.
Such problems are usually tackled using Poisson's or Laplace's equation or the method of images,
and they are usually referred to as boundary value problems.

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 Poisson’s equation
Poisson’s equation can be conveniently derived from Gauss’s law for a linear material medium

∇. 𝐷 = ∇. 𝜀. 𝐸 = 𝜌𝑉
Also, 𝐸 = −∇𝑉
∴ ∇. −𝜀∇𝑉 = 𝜌𝑉 →→ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
But for a homogeneous medium,

2
𝜌𝑉
∇ 𝑉=−
𝜀
This is known as Poisson’s equation.

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 Laplace’s equation
A special case occurs in the Poisson’s equation in absence of a volume charge i.e. when 𝜌𝑉 = 0
From the Poisson’s equation, we have
𝜌𝑉
∇2 𝑉 = −
𝜀
If 𝜌𝑉 = 0, we have
∇2 𝑉 = 0
This is known as the Laplace’s equation.
Laplace's equation in Cartesian, cylindrical, or spherical coordinates respectively is given by

𝜕 2𝑉 𝜕 2𝑉 𝜕 2𝑉
+ + = 0 →→ 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑚 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

1 𝜕 𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕 2𝑉 𝜕 2𝑉
. 𝜌. + 2 + = 0 →→ 𝐶𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜌 𝜕𝜑 2 𝜕𝑧 2

1 𝜕 2
𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕 2𝑉
𝑟 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + = 0 →→ 𝑆𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝜕𝜑 2

depending on whether the potential is V(x, y, z), V(p, ϕ, z), or V(r, θ, ϕ).
Poisson's equation in those coordinate systems may be obtained by simply replacing zero on the right-hand
𝜌𝑉 49
side of the equations with −
𝜀

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 Practical applications of Poisson’s & Laplace’s equation
Laplace's equation is of primary importance in solving electrostatic problems involving a set of
conductors maintained at different potentials.

Examples of such problems include capacitors and vacuum tube diodes.

Laplace's and Poisson's equations are not only useful in solving electrostatic field problem; they are
used in various other field problems.

For example, V would be interpreted as magnetic potential in magnetostatics, as temperature in

heat conduction, as stress function in fluid flow, and as pressure head in seepage.

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 The Uniqueness theorem
If a solution of Laplace's equation satisfies a given set of boundary conditions, then this is the only
possible solution. We can say that the solution is unique.
Thus any solution of Laplace's equation which satisfies the same boundary conditions must be the
only solution regardless of the method used (analytical, graphical, numerical, experimental etc.).
This is known as the uniqueness theorem.
The theorem applies to any solution of Poisson's or Laplace's equation in a given region or closed
surface.

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 Proving the Uniqueness theorem
Let us consider, if possible, that there are two distinct solutions, 𝑉1 & 𝑉2 of Laplace’s equation that satisfy the
specified boundary condition. Thus,

∇2𝑉1 = 0; ∇2𝑉2 = 0

𝑉1 = 𝑉2 →→ 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦
We consider their difference, 𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉2 − 𝑉1, which obeys

∇2𝑉𝑑 = ∇2𝑉2 − ∇2𝑉1 = 0

Or, 𝑉𝑑 = 0 →→ 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦
From the divergence theorem,
Ԧ 𝑑𝑉 = ‫𝐴 װ‬Ԧ . 𝑑𝑆
‫∇ ׮‬. 𝐴. …(7)
We consider 𝐴Ԧ = 𝑉𝑑 . ∇𝑉𝑑 , and take the divergence of 𝐴Ԧ

∇. 𝐴Ԧ = ∇. 𝑉𝑑 . ∇𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉𝑑 . ∇2𝑉𝑑 + ∇𝑉𝑑 . ∇𝑉𝑑

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But, ∇2 𝑉𝑑 = 0
So, ∇. 𝐴Ԧ = ∇𝑉𝑑 . ∇𝑉𝑑
Substituting this and the expression for 𝐴Ԧ in equation (7), we get,
ම ∇𝑉𝑑 . ∇𝑉𝑑 . 𝑑𝑉 = ඾ 𝑉𝑑 . ∇𝑉𝑑 . 𝑑𝑆

As, 𝑉𝑑 = 0, the R.H.S of the equation vanishes.

Thus,
2
ම 𝑉𝑑 . 𝑑𝑉 = 0

∴ 𝑉𝑑 = 0
∴ 𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 →→ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑉
But this equation must be consistent with 𝑉2 = 𝑉1 on the boundary
This shows that 𝑉2 and 𝑉1 cannot be different solutions of the same problem, and thereby validates the
Uniqueness theorem.
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 Solving Poisson’s or Laplace’s equation
The general procedure for solving Poisson’s or Laplace’s equation involves the following steps:
i. Solve Poisson’s (if 𝜌𝑉 ≠ 0) or Laplace’s (if 𝜌𝑉 = 0) equation by using (a) direct integration,
when ‘V’ is a function of a single variable and (b) separation of variables, if ‘V’ is a function of
more than one variable. The solution at this stage is not unique as it is expressed in terms of
unknown integration constants which are to be determined.
ii. Apply an appropriate boundary conditions to determine a unique solution for V. Imposing the
specific boundary conditions makes the solution unique.
iii. Once ‘V’ is obtained, we can evaluate 𝐸 by using 𝐸 = −∇𝑉 and hence 𝐷 using 𝐷 = 𝜀𝐸
iv. If desired, we can find the charge ‘Q’ induced on a conductor using 𝑄 = ‫ 𝑆𝜌 ׭‬. 𝑑𝑆, where 𝜌𝑆 =
𝐷𝑛 and 𝐷𝑛 is the component of 𝐷 normal to the conductor. If necessary, the capacitance
between two conductors can be found using C = Q/V.

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 Video links related to the module

• 1. https://youtu.be/N_jUbFnlqEg
• 2. https://youtu.be/XtH2WAhvYIM
• 3. https://youtu.be/gu934FBac6g
• 4. https://youtu.be/hp9Jito4vPE

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 56

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