IT204

Proposals An offer or bid to do a certain project for someone. Proposals may contain other elementstechnical background, recommendations, results of surveys, information about feasibility, and so on. It asks the audience to approve, fund, or grant permission to do the proposed project. Internal, external

Categories of a proposal

If you write a proposal to someone within your organization (a business, a government agency, etc.), it is an internal proposal. With internal proposals, you may not have to include certain sections (such as qualifications), or you may not have to include as much information in them. An external proposal is one written from one separate, independent organization or individual to another such entity. The typical example is the independent consultant proposing to do a project for another firm.

Solicited, unsolicited

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If a proposal is solicited, the recipient of the proposal in some way requested the proposal. Typically, a company will send out requests for proposals (RFPs) through the mail or publish them in some news source. Unsolicited proposals are those in which the recipient has not requested proposals. With unsolicited proposals, you sometimes must convince the recipient that a problem or need exists before you can begin the main part of the proposal.

Typical Scenarios for the Proposal Imagine that a company has some sort of problem or wants to make some sort of improvement. It sends out a request for proposals; you receive one and respond with a proposal. You offer to come in, investigate, interview, make recommendationsand present it all in the form of a report. Some organization wants a seminar in your expertise. You write a proposal to give the seminarincluded in the package deal is a guide or handbook that the people attending the seminar will receive. You want to write a business prospectus for the kind of business you intend to start up. Imagine that you want a top-quality prospectus and don't have the time or expertise to prepare one; therefore, you send out request for proposals to professional consultants. You change hats and pretend you are Business Startup Consultants, Inc., and send your other self a proposal to do the job. Your proposal accepted, you (as Business Startup Consultants, Inc.) write the prospectus. Some agency has just started using a fancy desktop-publishing system, but the documentation is giving people fits. You receive a request for proposals from this agency to write some sort of simplified guide or startup guide.

Common Sections in Proposals

Introduction. Plan the introduction to your proposal carefully. Make sure it does all of the following things (but not necessarily in this order) that apply to your particular proposal: Indicate that the document to follow is a proposal. Refer to some previous contact with the recipient of the proposal or to your source of information about the project. Find one brief motivating statement that will encourage the recipient to read on and to consider doing the project. Give an overview of the contents of the proposal.

Background on the problem, opportunity, or situation. Often occurring just after the introduction, the background section discusses what has brought about the need for the projectwhat problem, what opportunity there is for improving things, what the basic situation is. Benefits and feasibility of the proposed project. Most proposals discuss the advantages or benefits of doing the proposed project. In the unsolicited proposal, this section is particularly importantyou are trying to "sell" the audience on the project. Description of the proposed work (results of the project). Most proposals must describe the finished product of the proposed project.

 Method, procedure, theory. In most proposals, you'll want to explain how you'll go about doing the proposed work, if approved to do it. However, in this section, you discuss the technical background relating to the procedures or technology you plan to use in the proposed work. Schedule. Most proposals contain a section that shows not only the projected completion date but also key milestones for the project. Qualifications. Most proposals contain a summary of the proposing individual's or organization's qualifications to do the proposed work. It's like a mini-resume contained in the proposal. The proposal audience uses it to decide whether you are suited for the project. Therefore, this section lists work experience, similar projects, references, training, and education that shows familiarity with the project. Costs, resources required. Most proposals also contain a section detailing the costs of the project, whether internal or external. With external projects, you may need to list your hourly rates, projected hours, costs of equipment and supplies, and so forth, and then calculate the total cost of the complete project. With internal projects, there probably won't be a fee, but you should still list the project costs. Conclusions. The final paragraph or section of the proposal should bring readers back to a focus on the positive aspects of the project. Organization of Proposals 1. You introduce the proposal, telling the readers its purpose and contents. 2. You present the backgroundthe problem, opportunity, or situation that brings about the proposed project. Get the reader concerned about the problem, excited about the opportunity, or interested in the situation in some way. 3. State what you propose to do about the problem, how you plan to help the readers take advantage of the opportunity, how you intend to help them with the situation. 4. Discuss the benefits of doing the proposed project, the advantages that come from approving it. 5. Describe exactly what the completed project would consist of, what it would look like, how it would workdescribe the results of the project. 6. Discuss the method and theory or approach behind that methodenable readers to understand how you'll go about the proposed work. 7. Provide a schedule, including major milestones or checkpoints in the project. 8. Briefly list your qualifications for the project; provide a mini-resume of the background you have that makes you right for the project. 9. Now (and only now), list the costs of the project, the resources you'll need to do the project. 10. Conclude with a review of the benefits of doing the project (in case the shock from the costs section was too much), and urge the audience to get in touch or to accept the proposal. Format of Proposals Cover letter with separate proposal: In this format, you write a brief "cover" letter and attach the proposal proper after it. The cover letter briefly announces that a proposal follows and outlines the contents of it. In fact, the contents of the cover letter are pretty much the same as the introduction. Cover memo with separate proposal: In this format, you write a brief "cover" memo and attach the proposal proper after it. The cover memo briefly announces that a proposal follows and outlines the contents of it. In fact, the contents of the cover memo are pretty much the same as the introduction. Headings Headings are the titles and subtitles you see within the actual text of much professional scientific, technical, and business writing. Headings are like the parts of an outline that have been pasted into the actual pages of a report or other document. Headings are an important feature of professional technical writing: they alert readers to upcoming topics and subtopics, help readers find their way around in long reports and skip what they are not interested in, and break up long stretches of straight text. General Guidelines for Headings Use headings to mark off the boundaries of the major sections and subsections of a report. Use the same spacing (vertical and horizontal location), capitalization, punctuation, and underlining. (You can, however, do a one-for-one substitution of bold for underlining.)

Try for 2 to 3 headings per regular page of text. Don't overdo headings: for example, a heading for each of a series of oneor two-sentence paragraphs. For short documents, begin with the second-level heading; skip the first-level. Make the phrasing of headings parallel. Make the phrasing of headings self-explanatory: instead of "Background" or "Technical Information," make it more specific, such as "Physics of Fiber Optics." Make headings indicate the range of topic coverage in the section. For example, if the section covers the design and operation of a pressurized water reactor, the heading "Pressurized Water Reactor Design" would be incomplete and misleading. Avoid "lone" headings-any heading by itself within a section without another like it in that same section. For example, avoid having a second-level heading followed by only one third-level and then by another second-level. (The third-level heading would be the lone heading.) Avoid "stacked" headings-any two consecutive headings without intervening text. Avoid pronoun reference to headings. For example, if you have a third-level heading "Torque," don't begin the sentence following it with something like this: "This is a physics principle....." When possible, omit articles from the beginning of headings. For example, "The Pressurized Water Reactor" can easily be changed to "Pressurized Water Reactor" or, better yet, "Pressurized Water Reactors." Don't use headings as lead-ins to lists or as figure titles. Avoid "widowed" headings: that's where a heading occurs at the bottom of a page and the text it introduces start at the top of the next page. Keep at least two lines of body text with the heading, or force it to start the new page.

First-Level Headings Guidelines Follow these guidelines for first-level headings: Make first-levels all-caps. Use Roman numerals with first-levels. Either underline the words but not the Roman numeral, or bold the entire heading including the Roman numeral. Make first-levels centered on the page. Start a new page whenever you have a first-level heading. Begin first-levels on the standard first text line of a page. Leave 3 blank lines between first-levels and the first line of text.

Second-Level Headings Guidelines Follow these guidelines for second-level headings: Make second-levels headline-style caps. Underline or use bold on second-levels. Do not include outlining apparatus such as "A." or "B." or "1." or "2." with second-levels. Make second-levels flush left. Leave 2 blank lines between previous text and second-levels. Leave 1 blank line between second-levels and the following text.

Third-Level Headings Guidelines Follow these guidelines for third-level headings: Make third-levels sentence-style caps. Underline or use bold for third-levels (but don't underline the period). End third-levels with a period. Do not include outlining apparatus such as "A." or "B." or "1." or "2." with third-levels. Indent third-levels 5 spaces (or the standard paragraph indentation).

Do not make third-levels a grammatical part of sentences that follow. Use the standard spacing between paragraphs for paragraphs that contain third-levels.

Types of system Transaction Processing Systems o Computerized information system that were developed to process large amounts of data for routine business transaction. OAS. Support data workers who do not usually create new knowledge but rather analyze information so as to transform data or manipulate it in some way before sharing it with, or formally disseminating it, throughout the organization and sometimes beyond. KWS. Support professional workers such as scientists, engineers, and doctors by aiding them in their efforts to create new knowledge and by allowing them contribute it to their organization or to society at large. Computerized information system that work because of the porpuseful interaction between people and computers.

Office Automation Systems and Knowledge Work Systems

Management Information Systems o

Decision Support System

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Computerized information system that support decision-making activities. DSS are interactive computer-based systems and subsystems intended to help decision makers use communications technologies, data, documents, knowledge and/or models to complete decision process tasks. ES. Computer program that simulates the judgment and behavior of a human or an organization that has expert knowledge and experience in a particular field. AI. Simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems.

Expert Systems and Artificial Intelligence

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Group Decision Support Systems and Computer-supported Collaborative Work Systems

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GDSS. Used in special rooms equipped in a number of different configurations, permit group members to interact with electronic support. CSCWS. Might include software support called groupware for team collaboration by networked computers.

Executive Support Systems

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Is a reporting tool (software) that allows you to turn your organization's data into useful summarized reports. These reports are generally used by executive level managers for quick access to reports coming from all company levels and departments such as billing, cost accounting, staffing, scheduling, and more.

Benefits of mounting or improving application on the web Increasing user awareness of the availability of a service, product, industry, person or group The possibility of 24 hour access to users. Improving the usefulness and usability of the interface design. Creating a system that can extend globally rather than remain local, thus reaching people in remote locations without worry of the time zone in which they are located. Used to analyze, design and implement improvements in the support of users and the functioning of businesses that can be accomplish through the use of computerized information system. Systems Analyst as Consultant Systems Analyst as Supporting Expert

Why is the a need for systems analysis and design

Roles of systems analyst

Systems Analyst as Agent of Change

Qualities of Systems Analyst Problem Solver Communicator Strong Personal and Professional Ethics Self-disciplined Self-motivated

The systems development life cycle Identifying Problems, Opportunities, and Objectives Determining Human Information Requirements Analyzing System Needs Designing the Recommended System Developing and Documenting Software Testing and Maintaining the System Implementing and Evaluating the System

Case (Computer Aided Software Engineering) Tools A method-driven software development process supported by hardware and software tools. Professional software development - driven by the never-ending necessity to keep the software production and maintenance process as short, but reliable as possible.