.

- ,

Program as recipe
A program is a description of a computation
Its like a recipe
Tells out to make an output (food) From inputs (ingredients) Through a series of operations (Some of which may be other recipes)

Okay, so what are computations like?

Computation
input output

Computations have inputs and outputs

Inputs are also known as arguments or parameters Outputs are also known as results or return values

Computation as call and response

input output

Procedures are called with their inputs And respond with their return values

Computation as transformation
input output

Its often useful to think of the computation as transforming

the input into the output

Photoshop turns images into brighter/darker/funkier images

WinAmp turns the CD representation of sound (sound amplitudes)

into the MP3 representation of sound (sound spectra)

Computation as transformation

Many computations are cascaded transforms Netscape turns

A mouse click into A link to follow, into An HTML file, into Colors for the pixels on the screen

Objects
We said a computers memory is ultimately implemented as binary text
In practice, that text is really a bunch of separate

representations of different pieces of data

Each of those representations of a piece of data is known as an object

Everything is an object
So from now on, everything in your computers memory is an object
Primitive (indivisible) data objects Numbers (1, 7 -3.5) Text strings (bla bla bla) Procedures Compound data objects Tables of data Lists of objects Bitmaps (contain many little color objects, one per pixel) Sounds (contain 1 number per sound sample)

Objects and computation

When we do computation, we traffic in objects
Objects are the inputs to procedures Objects are the outputs of procedures

Data types
Object

Procedure

Number Boolean String Exception Picture Color Point

ArgumentCountException ArgumentTypeException

Integer

Float

Computers have a taxonomy of types of data objects Every object has a type
The objects type determines what procedures it can be used with Can add numbers, but not pictures or procedures

Procedure calls
When we run a procedure/program, we
Specify one data object for each of its inputs Receive one data object as its output What if the procedure needs to output several data objects?

This is so common, there are a lot of synonyms for it

Run: execute, call, apply, invoke Input: argument, parameter Or: pass (as in pass the procedure 2 as an argument) Output: result, return value

Data flow diagrams

Most programming languages use textual

notations to describe what procedures to call with what arguments notation called a data flow diagram

1 + 3

We will start out by using a graphical

Easy to understand what is an input to what

and whats happening to its output Doesnt scale well to complicated programs, though this is
concat

this is a test

a test

Were using this as an informal learning tool:

dont get hung up on trying to memorize the details of it

Changing the inputs changes the output

woof woof
prefix

woof

4 woof woof
prefix

woo

Chaining calls
1 + 2 4 3 this
concat

this is a
concat

is a string

this is a string

In functional programming, programs/procedures are built

up by chaining together calls of existing procedures

The output of one becomes the input of another

Data flows through the chain, from left to right

Hence the name data flow diagram

Chaining chains
this
concat

this is a
concat

is a tedious

this is a tedious
concat

this is a tedious example of chaining

example of
concat

example of chaining

chaining

A single object can be used as input to many procedures

to be
concat

to be or not
concat

to be or not to be

or not

Order of inputs (usually) matters

this is
concat

this is a test

a test

a test
concat

a testthis is

this is

Different diagrams can produce the same result

this
concat

this is a
concat

is a string

this is a string

this is a
concat concat

this is a string

is a string

string

What about this one?

Gives the first however many characters of the input string woof woof
prefix

woof

woof woof
length prefix

woof

??? 5

How about this one?

woof woof
length prefix

Exceptions
woof woof
length prefix

ArgumentCountException

5
Procedures fail if theres something wrong with their inputs They signal an exceptional condition
Or more commonly: throw an exception

This typically stops the program

And places you in a debugger program to let you find out whats happening

In this case, the problem is that there are too few arguments (inputs), so we get an argument count exception

What about this one?

4
concat

What about this one?

4
concat

ArgumentTypeException

The most common kind of problem with a procedure call is sending the wrong type (kind) of input to a procedure Each input needs to have the right type of data Sending something the wrong kind of input will produce an argument type exception

What about this one?

length

4 woof woof
prefix

What about this one?

length

4 woof woof
prefix

ArgumentTypeException

One of the reasons type errors are so common is that its

easy for other kinds of mistakes to trigger them In this case, we switched the order of the inputs to prefix
Prefix really wants the first argument to be a string, not a number And it isnt smart enough to realize it just needs to swap the two

arguments

The call procedure

1 + 3 1 +
call

Static checkers are too complicated to use as an example,

though So lets use a simpler example: a procedure that calls other procedures
Inputs: the procedure and its arguments Output: the output of the call to the input procedure

Big ideas
Data consists of objects Objects come in different types
Determines what operations can be performed on it

Inputs and outputs of procedures are objects Most computation is done by chaining procedure calls Procedures need

The right number of inputs With the right types In the right order Otherwise, it generates an error called an exception

Procedures are also data objects

They can be passed as inputs or returned as outputs

Skills to build
Look at a data flow diagram and: Understand what the type of each object is Recognize when a procedure has
An input is of the wrong type

The wrong number of inputs

Inputs in the wrong order

Which of these has problems?

1 + 2 4 + 1 2 +
call

+
+ 1 1 1 2
call +

Which of these has problems?

1 + 2 4 + 1 2 +
call

+
+ 1 1 BadProcedureException (1 isnt a procedure) 1 2
call +

Which of these has problems?

woof woof
+ 1 2 5
call call
length prefix

+ 1
call

+
call

1 +
call

Which of these has problems?

IndexOutOfRangeException

woof woof
+ 1 2
call

(string doesnt have 14 characters)

length

3
call

9 +

prefix

BadProcedureException (3 isnt a procedure)

14

+ 1
call

+
call

1 +
call

Where do they fit in?

Life Cycle Phases
Planning Feasibility Study

Analysis (What do we do?) Fact finding

Analysis
Design Code and Unit test

investigate business process and the current system

modelling the current

and required systems deliverables

requirements specification logical models of the required system

Data Flow Diagrams (DFD)

DFDs describe the flow of data or information into

and out of a system

what does the system do to the data?

A DFD is a graphic representation of the flow of data

or information through a system

4 Main Elements
external entity - people or organisations that send data into the system or receive data from the system
process - models what happens to the data i.e. transforms incoming data into outgoing data data store - represents permanent data that is used by the system data flow - models the actual flow of the data between the other elements

Notation
Data Flow
Process External Entity
Data Flow
Process box

External Entity D Data Store

Data Store

Levelled DFDs
Even a small system could have many processes and

data flows and DFD could be large and messy

use levelled DFDs - view system at different levels of

detail one overview and many progressively greater detailed views

Level 0 - Context Diagram

models system as one process box which represents

scope of the system identifies external entities and related inputs and outputs Additional notation - system box

External entity

Data flow out Data flow in

System box

Level 1 - overview diagram

gives overview of full system
identifies major processes and data flows between

them identifies data stores that are used by the major processes boundary of level 1 is the context diagram

Level 2 - detailed diagram

level 1 process is expanded into more detail
each process in level 1 is decomposed to show its

constituent processes boundary of level 2 is the level 1 process

Figure 8-4 Context diagram of Hoosier Burgers Food ordering system

8.41

Level-0 DFD of Hoosier Burgers food ordering system

8.42

Joes Yard
Joes builders suppliers has a shop and a yard. His system is entirely manual. He has a stock list on the wall of his shop, complete with prices. When a builder wants to buy supplies, he goes into the shop and picks the stock items from the list. He writes his order on a duplicate docket and pays Joe, who stamps the docket as paid. The builder takes the duplicate docket and he goes to the yard and hands it to the yard foreman. The yard foreman gets the ordered items from the yard and gives them to the builder. The builder signs the duplicate docket and leaves one copy with the foreman and takes one copy as a receipt. Every week, Joe looks around the yard to see if any of his stock is running low. He rings up the relevant suppliers and reorders stock. He records the order in his order book, which is kept in the yard. The yard foreman takes delivery of the new stock and checks it against what has been ordered. He pays for it on delivery and staples the receipt into the order book. At the end of every month, Joe goes through all the dockets and the order book and produces a financial report for the shareholders. Draw a context level DFD and a level-1 DFD for this system.

Context Diagram
Find the people who send data into the system
Often data is part of a PHYSICAL transaction When handing a bar of chocolate to a shopkeeper, you ar

e handing him/her a barcode.

Find the people who get data out of the system.

The only data you need is data that is transformed or sen

t completely out of the system not data that is handled by an operator within the system.

Joes Yard
Joes builders suppliers has a shop and a yard. His system is entirely manual. He has a stock list on the wall of his shop, complete with prices. When a builder wants to buy supplies, he goes into the shop and picks the stock items from the list. He writes his order on a duplicate docket and pays Joe, who stamps the docket as paid. The builder takes the duplicate docket and he goes to the yard and hands it to the yard foreman. The yard foreman gets the ordered items from the yard and gives them to the builder. The builder signs the duplicate docket and leaves one copy with the foreman and takes one copy as a receipt. Every week, Joe looks around the yard to see if any of his stock is running low. He rings up the relevant suppliers and reorders stock. He records the order in his order book, which is kept in the yard. The yard foreman takes delivery of the new stock and checks it against what has been ordered. He pays for it on delivery and staples the receipt into the order book. At the end of every month, Joe goes through all the dockets and the order book and produces a financial report for the shareholders. Draw a context level DFD and a level-1 DFD for this system.

Context diagram
Shareholders financial report

Docket & Payment

Supply needs Joe

Joe's Yard Customer Signed docket

Supply order & payment

Supply invoice

Supplier

Level-1 DFD processes

Joes builders suppliers has a shop and a yard. His system is entirely manual. He has a stock list on the wall of his shop, complete with prices. When a builder wants to buy supplies, he goes into the shop and picks the stock items from the list. He writes his order on a duplicate docket and pays Joe, who stamps the docket as paid. The builder takes the duplicate docket and he goes to the yard and hands it to the yard foreman. The yard foreman gets the ordered items from the yard and gives them to the builder. The builder signs the duplicate docket and leaves one copy with the foreman and takes one copy as a receipt. Every week, Joe looks around the yard to see if any of his stock is running low. He rings up the relevant suppliers and reorders stock. He records the order in his order book, which is kept in the yard. The yard foreman takes delivery of the new stock and checks it against what has been ordered. He pays for it on delivery and staples the receipt into the order book. At the end of every month, Joe goes through all the dockets and the order book and produces a financial report for the shareholders.

Verbs from script

Has (passive) Buy supplies Picks stock items Writes order Pays joe Stamps docket Takes docket to yard Hands it to foreman Gets items Gives them to builder

Builder signs docket Takes copy as receipt Looks around yard and reorders Records order in order book Foreman takes delivery checks Foreman pays supplier Staples receipt to order book Produces financial report

Remove passive verbs and queries

Passive: has stock list Buy supplies
Picks stock items (views list) Writes orders Pays joe Stamps docket

Joe then
Looks around yard and reorders Records order in order book

Foreman
takes delivery checks Foreman pays supplier Staples receipt to order book

Customer then
Takes docket to yard Hands it to foreman

Joe
Produces financial report

Gets items
Gives them to builder Builder signs docket Takes copy as receipt

Level 1 current physical

20 Buy supplies Docket & Payment Customer Money Payment Payment Restock Docket M1 Docket supplies Supply order M3 stock 12 builder signature 11 Take to yard Supply order get items required stock completed docket copy Supplier receipt Joe 21 Reorder supplies Signed docket 5 Joe's Office Produce financial report Foreman financial report * Shareholders Supply needs Order book 22 Supplier receipt Payment supplies Supplier completed docket copy required stock Signed docket

completed docket copy

Signed docket

Buy Supplies
20 Buy supplies Customer Docket 20.1 Docket Writes Order * Docket 20.3 Stamp Docket(signature) 20.2 Pays Joe * Payment Payment

M1

Docket

* Money

Get Items
12 get items 12.2 Foreman Signed docket 12.1 Give items to customer * required stock stock 12.3 Give copy as receipt completed docket copy Get builder signature * Signed docket builder signature Customer completed docket copy

Reorder supplies
21 Reorder supplies 21.1 Joe Supply needs Reorder from yard *

Supply needs 21.2 Record order * Supply order M3 Order book

Restock
22 Restock M3 Order book Supply order 22.1 supplies Take delivery * Supply order Money Payment 22.2 Pay supplier * Supplier receipt Payment Supplier supplies stock