Nondestructive Testing using Ultrasonic's

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Outline
Introduction to NDT Overview of Six Most Common NDT Methods Selected Applications

Definition of NDT
Nondestructive testing is a method of finding defects in an object without harming the object.
With NDT, defects may be found before they become dangerous.

i.e. Inspect or measure without doing harm.

Methods of NDT
Visual

What are Some Uses of NDE Methods?

Flaw Detection and Evaluation

Leak Detection
Location Determination Dimensional Measurements
Fluorescent penetrant indication

Structure and Microstructure Characterization

Estimation of Mechanical and Physical Properties Stress (Strain) and Dynamic Response Measurements Material Sorting and Chemical Composition Determination

When are NDE Methods Used?

There are NDE application at almost any stage in the production or life cycle of a component. To assist in product development To screen or sort incoming materials To monitor, improve or control manufacturing processes To verify proper processing such as heat treating To verify proper assembly To inspect for in-service damage

Six Most Common NDT Methods

Visual Liquid Penetrant Magnetic Ultrasonic Eddy Current X-ray

Visual Inspection
Most basic and common inspection method. Tools include fiberscopes, borescopes, magnifying glasses and mirrors. Portable video inspection unit with zoom allows inspection of large tanks and vessels, railroad tank cars, sewer lines. Robotic crawlers permit observation in hazardous or tight areas, such as air ducts, reactors, pipelines.

Liquid Penetrant Inspection

A liquid with high surface wetting characteristics is applied to the surface of the part and allowed time to seep into surface breaking defects. The excess liquid is removed from the surface of the part. A developer (powder) is applied to pull the trapped penetrant out the defect and spread it on the surface where it can be seen. Visual inspection is the final step in the process. The penetrant used is often loaded with a fluorescent dye and the inspection is done under UV light to increase test sensitivity.

Magnetic Particle Inspection

The part is magnetized. Finely milled iron particles coated with a dye pigment are then applied to the specimen. These particles are attracted to magnetic flux leakage fields and will cluster to form an indication directly over the discontinuity. This indication can be visually detected under proper lighting conditions.

Magnetic Particle Crack Indications

Radiography
The radiation used in radiography testing is a higher energy (shorter wavelength) version of the electromagnetic waves that we see as visible light. The radiation can come from an X-ray generator or a radioactive source.
High Electrical Potential Electrons + -

X-ray Generator or Radioactive Source Creates Radiation

Radiation Penetrate the Sample

Exposure Recording Device

Film Radiography
The part is placed between the radiation source and a piece of film. The part will stop some of the radiation. Thicker and more dense area will stop more of the radiation. The film darkness (density) will vary with the amount of radiation reaching the film through the test object. = less exposure

X-ray film

= more exposure
Top view of developed film

Radiographic Images

Eddy Current Testing

Coil's magnetic field

Coil

Eddy current's magnetic field

Eddy currents Conductive material

Eddy Current Testing

Eddy current testing is particularly well suited for detecting surface cracks but can also be used to make electrical conductivity and coating thickness measurements. Here a small surface probe is scanned over the part surface in an attempt to detect a crack.

Basic Principles of Sound

Sound is produced by a vibrating body and travels in the form of a wave. Sound waves travel through materials by vibrating the particles that make up the material. The pitch of the sound is determined by the frequency of the wave (vibrations or cycles completed in a certain period of time). Ultrasound is sound with a pitch too high to be detected by the human ear.

Basic Principles of Sound (cont.)

The measurement of sound waves from crest to crest determines its wavelength (). The time is takes a sound wave to travel a distance of one complete wavelength is the same amount of time it takes the source to execute one complete vibration. The sound wavelength is inversely proportional to its frequency. ( = 1/f) Several wave modes of vibration are used in ultrasonic inspection. The most common are longitudinal, shear, and Rayleigh (surface) waves. [email protected]
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Ultrasound Generation
Ultrasound is generated with a transducer.
A piezoelectric element in the transducer converts electrical energy into mechanical vibrations (sound), and vice versa.

The transducer is capable of both transmitting and receiving sound energy.

 Ultrasonic waves are introduced into a material where they travel in a straight line and at a constant speed until they encounter a surface. At surface interfaces some of the wave energy is reflected and some is transmitted. The amount of reflected or transmitted energy can be detected and provides information about the size of the reflector. The travel time of the sound can be measured and this provides information on the distance that the sound has traveled.

Principles of Ultrasonic Inspection

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Sound is transmitted in the material to be tested
The sound reflected back to the probe is displayed on
the Flaw Detector

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

The distance the sound traveled can be displayed on the Flaw Detector The screen can be calibrated to give accurate readings of the distance Signal from the backwall

Bottom / Backwall

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testings

The presence of a Defect in the material shows up on the screen of the flaw detector with a less distance than the bottom of the material The BWE signal Defect signal

Defect

10

20

30

40

50

60

60 mm

The depth of the defect can be read with reference to the marker on the screen

Thickness / depth measurement

The closer the reflector to the surface, the signal will be more to the left of the screen C B A

30

46

68

The thickness is read from the screen The THINNER the material the less distance the sound travel

C B A

Test Techniques
Ultrasonic testing is a very versatile inspection method, and inspections can be accomplished in a number of different ways. Ultrasonic inspection techniques are commonly divided into three primary classifications. Pulse-echo and Through Transmission
(Relates to whether reflected or transmitted energy is used)

Normal Beam and Angle Beam

(Relates to the angle that the sound energy enters the test article)

Contact and Immersion

(Relates to the method of coupling the transducer to the test article)
Each of these techniques will be discussed briefly in the following slides.

Test Techniques - Pulse-Echo

In pulse-echo testing, a transducer sends out a pulse of energy and the same or a second transducer listens for reflected energy (an echo). Reflections occur due to the presence of discontinuities and the surfaces of the test article. The amount of reflected sound energy is displayed versus time, f which provides the inspector information about the size and the location of features that reflect the sound.

initial pulse

back surface echo

crack echo

crack
0 2 4 6 8 10

plate

UT Instrument Screen

Test Techniques Pulse-Echo (cont.)

Digital display showing signal generated from sound reflecting off back surface. Digital display showing the presence of a reflector midway through material, with lower amplitude back surface reflector.
The pulse-echo technique allows testing when access to only one side of the material is possible, and it allows the location of reflectors to be precisely determined.

Test Techniques Through-Transmission

Two transducers located on opposing sides of the test specimen are used. One transducer acts as a transmitter, the other as a receiver. Discontinuities in the sound path will result in a partial or total loss of sound being transmitted and be indicated by a decrease in the received signal amplitude. Through transmission is useful in detecting discontinuities that are not good reflectors, and when signal strength is weak. It does not provide depth information.
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0
1 1
T R

1 1

10

Test Techniques Through-Transmission

Digital display showing received sound through material thickness.
Digital display showing loss of received signal due to presence of a discontinuity in the sound field.

Test Techniques Normal and Angle Beam

In normal beam testing, the sound beam is introduced into the test article at 90 degree to the surface. In angle beam testing, the sound beam is introduced into the test article at some angle other than 90. The choice between normal and angle beam inspection usually depends on two considerations: - The orientation of the feature of interest the sound should be directed to produce the largest reflection from the feature. - Obstructions on the surface of the part that must be worked around.

Test Techniques Contact Vs Immersion

To get useful levels of sound energy into a material, the air between the transducer and the test article must be removed. This is referred to as coupling. In contact testing (shown on the previous slides) a couplant such as water, oil or a gel is applied between the transducer and the part. In immersion testing, the part and the transducer are place in a water bath. This arrangement allows better movement of the transducer while maintaining consistent coupling. With immersion testing, an echo from the front surface of the part is seen in the signal but otherwise signal interpretation is the same for the two techniques.
1 2 IP FWE

1
BWE

IP

FWE

2
BWE DE

IP = Initial Pulse FWE = Front Wall Echo DE = Defect Echo BWE = Back Wall Echo

Defect

0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 [email protected] 4 om

8 10

Transducers
Transducers are manufactured in a variety of forms, shapes and sizes for varying applications. Transducers are categorized in a number of ways which include: - Contact or immersion - Single or dual element - Normal or angle beam In selecting a transducer for a given application, it is important to choose the desired frequency, bandwidth, size, and in some cases focusing which optimizes the inspection capabilities.

Contact Transducers
Contact transducers are designed to withstand rigorous use, and usually have a wear plate on the bottom surface to protect the piezoelectric element from contact with the surface of the test article. Many incorporate ergonomic designs for ease of grip while scanning along the surface.

Contact Transducers (cont.)

Contact transducers are available with two piezoelectric crystals in one housing. These transducers are called dual element transducers. One crystal acts as a transmitter, the other as a receiver. This arrangement improves near surface resolution because the second transducer does not need to complete a transmit function before listening for echoes. Dual elements are commonly employed in thickness gauging of thin materials.

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Contact Transducers (cont.)

A way to improve near surface resolution with a single element transducer is through the use of a delay line. Delay line transducers have a plastic piece that is a sound path that provides a time delay between the sound generation and reception of reflected energy. Interchangeable pieces make it possible to configure the transducer with insulating wear caps or flexible membranes that conform to rough surfaces. Common applications include thickness gauging and high temperature measurements.

Transducers (cont.)
Angle beam transducers incorporate wedges to introduce a refracted shear wave into a material.

The incident wedge angle is used with the material velocity to determine the desired refracted shear wave according to Snells Law)
Transducers can use fixed or variable wedge angles.

Common application is in weld examination.

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Transducers (cont.)
Immersion transducers are designed to transmit sound whereby the transducer and test specimen are immersed in a liquid coupling medium (usually water). Immersion transducers are manufactured with planar, cylindrical or spherical acoustic lenses (focusing lens).

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Inspection Applications
Some of the applications for which ultrasonic testing may be employed include:

Flaw detection (cracks, inclusions, porosity, etc.) Erosion & corrosion thickness gauging Assessment of bond integrity in adhesively joined and brazed components Estimation of void content in composites and plastics Measurement of case hardening depth in steels Estimation of grain size in metals

Ultrasonic Imaging
High resolution images can be produced by plotting signal strength or time-of-flight using a computercontrolled scanning system.

Gray scale image produced using the sound reflected from the front surface of the coin

Gray scale image produced using the sound reflected from the back surface of the coin (inspected from heads side)

Images of a Quarter Produced With an Ultrasonic Immersion Scanning System

Gray scale image produced using the sound reflected from the front surface of the coin

Gray scale image produced using the sound reflected from the back surface of the coin (inspected from
heads side)

Calibration Standards (cont.)

Thickness calibration standards may be flat or curved for pipe and tubing applications, consisting of simple variations in material thickness. Distance/Area Amplitude standards utilize flat bottom holes or side drilled holes to establish known reflector size with changes in sound path form the entry surface.

ASTM Distance/Area Amplitude

NAVSHIPS

Calibration Standards (cont.)

There are also calibration standards for use in angle beam inspections when flaws are not parallel to entry surface. These standards utilized side drilled holes, notches, and geometric configuration to establish time distance and amplitude relationships.
IIW

DSC Rhompas

DC

SC

ASME Pipe Sec. XI

Qualification Standards
Qualification standards differ from calibration standards in that their use is for purposes of varying proper equipment operation and qualification of equipment use for specific codes and standards.
AWS Resolution DC-dB Accuracy

IOW Beam Profile

Data Presentation
Information from ultrasonic testing can be presented in a number of differing formats. Three of the more common formats include:

A-scan
B-scan C-scan These three formats will be discussed in the next few slides.

Data Presentation - A-scan

A-scan presentation displays the amount of received ultrasonic energy as a function of time. Relative discontinuity size can be estimated by comparing the signal amplitude to that from a known reflector. Reflector depth can be determined by the position of the signal on the horizontal sweep.
Signal Amplitude

Time

Signal Amplitude

Time

Data Presentation - B-scan

B-scan presentations display a profile view (cross-sectional) of a test specimen. Only the reflector depth in the cross-section and the linear dimensions can be determined. A limitation to this display technique is that reflectors may be masked by larger reflectors near the surface.

Data Presentation - C-scan

The C-scan presentation displays a plan type view of the test specimen and discontinuities. C-scan presentations are produced with an automated data acquisition system, such as in immersion scanning. Use of A-scan in conjunction with C-scan is necessary when depth determination is desired.

Photo of a Composite Component

C-Scan Image of Internal Features

Advantage of Ultrasonic Testing

Sensitive to small discontinuities both surface and subsurface. Depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is superior to other methods. Only single-sided access is needed when pulse-echo technique is used. High accuracy in determining reflector position and estimating size and shape.

Minimal part preparation required.

Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results. Detailed images can be produced with automated systems. Has other uses such as thickness measurements, in addition to flaw detection.

Limitations of Ultrasonic Testing

Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound. Skill and training is more extensive than with some other methods. Normally requires a coupling medium to promote transfer of sound energy into test specimen. Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small, exceptionally thin or not homogeneous are difficult to inspect. Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to inspect due to low sound transmission and high signal noise. Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go undetected. Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration, and characterization of flaws.

Common Application of NDT

Inspection of Raw Products Inspection Following Secondary Processing In-Services Damage Inspection

Inspection of Raw Products

Forgings, Castings, Extrusions, etc.

Inspection Following Secondary Processing

Machining Welding Grinding Heat treating Plating etc.

Inspection For In-Service Damage

Cracking Corrosion Erosion/Wear Heat Damage etc.

Power Plant Inspection

Periodically, power plants are shutdown for inspection. Inspectors feed eddy current probes into heat exchanger tubes to check for corrosion damage.

Pipe with damage

Probe
Signals produced by various amounts of corrosion thinning.

Wire Rope Inspection

Electromagnetic devices and visual inspections are used to find broken wires and other damage to the wire rope that is used in chairlifts, cranes and other lifting devices.

Storage Tank Inspection

Robotic crawlers use ultrasound to inspect the walls of large above ground tanks for signs of thinning due to corrosion. Cameras on long articulating arms are used to inspect underground storage tanks for damage.

Aircraft Inspection
Nondestructive testing is used extensively during the manufacturing of aircraft. NDT is also used to find cracks and corrosion damage during operation of the aircraft. A fatigue crack that started at the site of a lightning strike is shown below.

Jet Engine Inspection

Aircraft engines are overhauled after being in service for a period of time. They are completely disassembled, cleaned, inspected and then reassembled. Fluorescent penetrant inspection is used to check many of the parts for cracking.

Crash of United Flight 232 Sioux City, Iowa, July 19, 1989
A defect that went undetected in an engine disk was responsible for the crash of United Flight 232.

Pressure Vessel Inspection

The failure of a pressure vessel can result in the rapid release of a large amount of energy. To protect against this dangerous event, the tanks are inspected using radiography and ultrasonic testing.

Rail Inspection
Special cars are used to inspect thousands of miles of rail to find cracks that could lead to a derailment.

Bridge Inspection
The India has 2,78,000 highway bridges. Corrosion, cracking and other damage can all affect a bridges performance. The collapse of the Silver Bridge in 1967 resulted in loss of 47 lives. Bridges get a visual inspection about every 2 years.

Some bridges are fitted with acoustic emission sensors that listen for sounds of cracks growing.

Pipeline Inspection
NDT is used to inspect pipelines to prevent leaks that could damage the environment. Visual inspection, radiography and electromagnetic testing are some of the NDT methods used.

Remote visual inspection using a robotic crawler.

Magnetic flux leakage inspection. This device, known as a pig, is placed in the pipeline and collects data on the condition of the pipe as it is pushed along by whatever is being transported.

Radiography of weld joints.

Thank Questions? You All the Best For your Exams