INSTRUMENTATION &
MEASUREMENTS
Briefing
Module Description
Module Objectives
Contribute to the achievement of the Learning Outcomes specified
for the students award at Level 1
Enable students to develop their knowledge and skills in relation to
Instrumentation and Measurement
Develop the ability of students to apply the knowledge they gain in
relation to the study of Instrumentation and Measurement
Introduce students to the knowledge, skills and techniques relevant
to the study of Instrumentation and measurement
Enable students to develop their ability to:
Critically Analyse
Solve complex problems
Innovate
Use ICT relevant to given situations
EE009-3-1-INM Instrumentation & Measurements
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Module Description
Learning Outcomes
On successful completion of this module, you should be able
to:
Appraise various types of instruments for engineering
measurements and applications PO1, PO3
Describe measurement processes for accurate and precise
measurement. - PO2
Describe the characteristics, operation and limitations of
various measurement sensors/transducers - PO2
Construct suitable signal conditioning circuits for appropriate
measurement performance. - PO1, PO2, PO3, PO5, PO10
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Module Description
Programme Outcomes
PO1- Ability to gain and apply basic principles of
Mathematics, Science and Engineering.
PO2-Ability to identify engineering problems and
apply basic engineering principles to solve them.
PO3-Ability to recognize and apply suitable tools
and techniques for engineering practical
applications.
PO5-Ability to design solutions for complex
engineering problems.
PO10-Ability to function effectively as an
individual or in a team.
EE009-3-1-INM Instrumentation & Measurements
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Module Description
Duration
16 weeks
Lectures (2.5 hours)
Tutorials/Labs (1 hour)
Assessment
Class test+ Lab report(20% + 20%)
Mode
Assignment: Written individual assessment
Lab : Group work with individual report
Evidence - Report
Exam (60%)
Problem solving
Discussion & Analysis
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What is expected of you
You should abide by all the rules & regulation of
UCTI
Proper attire
No speaking of dialects
Attendance is compulsory and valid medical
certificates or letters from parents /guardians must
support any absence from class.
Three lateness will be equal to one absence
Lateness = 20mins after class commencement
All mobile phones should be turned off or in silent
mode during lectures.
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What is expected of you
Students doing things not related to the current
lecture will be asked to leave the room and
disciplinary action will be taken in accordance with
the Universitys rules and regulations.
Students should not leave the room during a lecture
except with the agreement of the lecturer
Assignments should be submitted before 7.00p.m. on
due date to the receptionist.
Students have to submit the EC (Extenuating
Circumstances) form for late assignments
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Essential Reading
1. A.S. Morris (2001) Measurement and Instrumentation
Principles, Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann ISBN
0750650818
2. Barney, G.C., Intelligent Instrumentation: Microprocessor Applications in Measurement and Control,
Prentice Hall, 2nd Ed.
3. Bentley, J.P., Principles of Measurement Systems,
Longman Scientific and Technical, third edition, 1995.
4. Doebelin, E.O., Measurement Systems: Application
and Design, McGraw-Hill, fourth edition,
[Link],
5. D.H. (editor), Analog-Digital Conversion Handbook,
Prentice-Hall, third edition, 1986. 2nd edition
1988.
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EE009-3-1-INM Instrumentation & Measurements
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INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENTS
EE009-3-1
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1
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CHAPTER 1 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
determine and explain units and quantities common
in engineering measurement
discuss measurement processes and practices
Identify and calculate various types of error in
measurement
explain the meaning of some terms in used in the
instrumentation
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CHAPTER 1 OUTLINE
1.1 Principles of instrumentation and measurements
Static and dynamic characteristics
1.2 The error identification and calculation in measurement
Statistical analysis
1.3 Measurement standard
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND
MEASUREMENTS
If something exists, it exists in some amount. If it exists in
some
amount, then it is capable of being measured.
-Rene Descartes, Principles of Philosophy
Measurement is the first step that leads to control and
eventually to improvement. If you cant measure
something, you cant understand it. If you cant understand
it, you cant control it. If you cant control it, you cant
improve it.
-Dr. H. James Harrington
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND
MEASUREMENTS
MEASUREMENT
To monitor processes and operations
To control processes and operations
To analyze processes and operations
Input
Variable being
measured
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Output
Measurement
Instrument
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Measured value
of variable
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND
MEASUREMENTS
Monitoring
Measure and indicate
Thermometer, speedometer, voltmeter,
bellows
Controlling
Bimetal thermostat in an A/C unit
Analysis
Testing for validity
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND
MEASUREMENTS
INSTRUMENTS
A transducer
A signal conditioning circuit
A device to display/record
Display/recording
unit
Measured
physical
variable
Transducer
Analog
signal
processing
Analog to
digital
converter
Digital
signal
processing
Signal conditioning circuitry
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND
MEASUREMENTS
INSTRUMENTATION
- to indicate a measurement
measure a quantity using electrical and
electronic instrument and display the value
- to record a measurement
the measured quantity is recorded for
various purposes
- to control based on measurement
Recorded quantity is processed and for
control function
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENTS
Instrument selection
Before any attempt for measurement is to be made,
please make sure that you have sound knowledge on
the:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
type of instrument to be used; its characteristics such
as accuracy, limitation etc.
methods and procedures of measurement
characteristics of the quantity measured (input)
characteristics of the measured quantity (output)
quality of measurement in terms of time and cost factor
safety measure
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND
MEASUREMENTS
During the measurement activity ensure that:
you can interpret and analyze the result
measured value is error-free or if there is an error you
take action accordingly
you have the best quality of the result
measured data is well indicated and recorded (if
necessary)
you have proper procedure and enough sampling
When measurement is complete, perform:
the analysis of the data mathematically/statistically
preparation of result and provide a complete
documentation
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1.3 MEASUREMENT STANDARD
UNIT
What is a unit?
A quantity used as a standard of measurement.
Why measurement needs the unit?
So you can define and explain the meaning of the quantity
measured.
Why standard unit is necessary?
To achieve uniformity and universality of the measurement.
So people around the would will have common description
and explanation of a measured quantity.
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1.3 MEASUREMENT STANDARD
QUANTITY
What is quantity?
Description of an amount in numerical form.
Some units below
Quantity
Symbol
Unit
Unit Abbreviation
Time
Second
Mass
kilogram
kg
Electric Current
Ampere
Amp
Temperature
Kelvin
Length
meter
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1.3 MEASUREMENT STANDARD
SI BASE UNIT - modern metric system
There are seven SI units from which derived units
are obtained
i. Unit of length (meter)
ii. Unit of mass (kilogram)
iii. Unit of thermodynamic temperature
(kelvin)
iv. Unit of amount of substance (mole)
v. Unit of luminous intensity (candela)
vi. Unit of electric current (ampere)
vii. Unit of time (second)
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND
MEASUREMENTS
1.1.1 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS
The characteristics of an instrument which are constant or change very
slowly with time. Example, the resistance of a resistor at constant
temperature is a static measurement.
Static Characteristics
Desirable
Accuracy
Sensitivity
Precision
Resolution
Repeatability
Reproducibility
Undesirable
Drift
Static Error
Dead Zone
Threshold
Hysteresis
Creep
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND
MEASUREMENTS
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS
Accuracy
Accuracy is the correctness of a single measurement. It is the closeness
of the measured value to the true value. The closeness of an average to
a true value is referred to as "trueness".
Example 1:
Suppose a known voltage of 200 V is being measure by voltmeter and the
successive readings are 204, 205, 203, 203, 205. Find the accuracy of
each reading.
Error (%) = xt xm x 100
xt
Accuracy = 100% - Error
Where t = true value
m = measured value
x = measurand
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND
MEASUREMENTS
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS
Accuracy
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND
MEASUREMENTS
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS
Precision
Precision is reproducibility. Saying "These measurements are precise"
is the same as saying, "The same measurement was repeated several
times, and the measurements were all very close to one another". It is a
measure of the stability and reliability of the instrument and its capability
of resulting in the same measurement over and over again for the same
input signal.
Poor accuracy results from systematic errors, poor precision results
from random errors
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND
MEASUREMENTS
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS
Precision
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND
MEASUREMENTS
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS
Accuracy vs Precision
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND
MEASUREMENTS
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS
Resolution
It is the smallest increment of input signal change that
would produce a detectable change in the output,
often expressed as a percentage of the measured
range.
Measured range = xmax xmin
For a detectable output y, if the minimum change in x is x,
Resolution (%) =
xmin
x 100
Measured range
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND
MEASUREMENTS
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS
Example 1
Example 2
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENTS
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS
Sensitivity
Absolute ratio of the change of the output signal (response) to that of the input
signal (measurand).
S = y / x
or in normalized form,
Sn = y / x
y/x
where y = change of output signal
x = change of input signal
Example 2:
The mercury in a thermometer moves by 1cm when temperature changes by
10oC. The sensitivity of the device is 1cm/10oC.
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENTS
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS
Problem 1
A force sensor device is known to produce 10 V if the force is 100N.
However a successive reading provide the following data: 10.2V, 10.3V,
10.2 V, 10.4 V, and 10.2 V
Determine the following:
a) Absolute error considering mean of data
b) Accuracy in percentage considering mean of data
Problem 2
It is known that a flowrate sensor produces an output change of 10mV
when the flowrate increases by 20m3/s. What is the sensitivity of the
sensor?
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENTS
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS
Calibration errors
Inaccuracy permitted by the manufacturer during factory
calibration, systematic in nature
Span error, zero error, linearization error
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENTS
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENTS
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENTS
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENTS
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS
Linearity and Non-linearity
Most cases measurement is assumed to be linear but in
reality it is not. This deviation could be any of the following:
a) Oscillation from fixed amplitude
b) Oscillation with varying amplitude
c) Combined oscillation around the best fit straight line
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENTS
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS
a) Oscillation with fixed amplitude
The actual output of the instrument may oscillate with the
same amplitude around the best-fit straight line. The
nonlinearity therefore can be calculated using the
maximum deviation () from the full scale deflection
(FSD)
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENTS
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS
b) Oscillation from varying amplitude
The actual output of the instrument may oscillate around the
best-fit straight line, but its amplitude varies with input value.
The slopes of the lines connecting positive and negative are
determined and the highest deviation from the best-fit line
is used to express the percent nonlinearity with respect to
the input value.
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENTS
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS
c) Combined oscillation around the best fit straight
line
The actual output may oscillate with a fixed amplitude around
the best-fit straight line over a certain range and then the
amplitude may become a function of the input over the rest.
The nonlinearity can be determined by parts:
fixed amplitude and expressed as % of the FSD,
varying amplitude and expressed as % of the input
value.
Nonlinearity is expressed in terms of the higher
value.
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENTS
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENTS
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENTS
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS
Repeatability
The closeness of output readings when the same
input is applied repetitively over a short period of
time, with the same measurement conditions, same
instrument and observer, same location and same
conditions of use, maintained throughout
The degree of repeatability is an alternate way of
expressing precision
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENTS
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS
Reproducibility
Consistent measurement output from the same
physical quantity when the measurement
condition is changed. Example, dismantled and reassembled instruments or measurements taken with
long periods of rest in between.
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENTS
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS
Zero Drift
Defined as the drift from the null reading of the
instrument when the measurand is maintained at
steady for a long period of time.
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENTS
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS
Hysteresis If the input
measured quantity to the
instrument is steadily
increased from a negative
value, the output variation is
shown as curve A. Then
if the input is steadily
decreased, the output curve
is as depicted as in curve B
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENTS
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS
Threshold
If an input to a instrument is
gradually increased from zero, the
input will have to reach a certain
minimum level before the change
in the instrument output reading is
of a large enough magnitude to be
detectable. This minimum level of
input is defined as the threshold
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENTS
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS
Creep change of output with time following a step increase in the input
from one value to another. Its the maximum change of output over a
specified time after increasing the input from zero to the rated maximum
input. When the input is step changed from maximum to zero, then
theres a curve that represents the creep recovery.
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENTS
1.1.2 DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS
Static characteristics
the performance criteria for the measurement of
quantities that remain constant, or vary only quite slowly.
Dynamic characteristics
the relationship between the system input and output
when the measured quantity (measurand) is varying rapidly.
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENTS
1.1.2 DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS
System = Static x dynamic
One expresses the static behavior of the block,
that is, the value it has after all transient (time
varying) effects have settled to their final state.
The other part tells us how that value responds
when the block is in its dynamic state.
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1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENTS
1.1.2 DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS
Dynamic characteristics
First order system
Second order system
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First order system
System response
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First order system
Performance specifications:
Time constant, t
1/a, time taken for response to rise to 63% of its
final value
Rise time, Tr
time taken for response to go from 10% to 90% of
its final value
Settling time, Ts
time for response to reach and stay within 5% of
final value
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First order system
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Second order system
Performance specifications
damping ratio
% Overshoot = cmax
2 ln 2 %OS / 100
cfinal x 100
cfinal
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ln %OS / 100
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Second order system
2nd order underdamped response
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1.2 ERROR IDENTIFICATION IN MEASUREMENT
Error - the difference between the measured value and the
expected value (true value) of the measurand.
What is static error?
It is numerical difference between the true value of a quantity
and its value as obtained by measurement (i.e. repeated
measurement of the same quantity gives different
indications).
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1.2 ERROR IDENTIFICATION IN MEASUREMENT
Static Errors
Types of Static Errors
i) Absolute error
ii) Gross error
iii) Systematic error
iv) Random error
v) Limiting error
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1.2 ERROR IDENTIFICATION IN MEASUREMENT
Static Errors
Types of Static Errors
i) Absolute error
ii) Gross error
iii) Systematic error
iv) Random error
v) Limiting error
The difference between the
expected value of the variable
and the measured value of the
variable, or
e = |Yn Xn |
where:
e = absolute error
Yn = expected value
Xn = measured value
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1.2 ERROR IDENTIFICATION IN MEASUREMENT
Static Errors
Types of Static Errors
i) Absolute error
ii) Gross error
iii) Systematic error
iv) Random error
v) Limiting error
In percentage:
% error = (100)
Relative accuracy A:
Yn X n
A 1
Yna:
Percentage accuracy
a = A*100
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1.2 ERROR IDENTIFICATION IN MEASUREMENT
Static Errors
Types of Static Errors
i) Absolute error
ii) Gross error
iii) Systematic error
iv) Random error
v) Limiting error
The expected value of the voltage
across a resistor is 5.0 V. However,
measurement yields a value of 4.9 V.
Calculate:
a) absolute error
b) % error
c) relative accuracy
d) % accuracy
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1.2 ERROR IDENTIFICATION IN MEASUREMENT
Static Errors
Types of Static Errors
i) Absolute error
ii) Gross error
iii) Systematic error
iv) Random error
v) Limiting error
Due to human mistakes:
Example: incorrect reading,
incorrect recording,
improper use of
instruments, etc
To minimize:
- take at least 3 separate
reading
- take proper care in reading
& recording
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1.2 ERROR IDENTIFICATION IN MEASUREMENT
Static Errors
Types of Static Errors
i) Absolute error
ii) Gross error
iii) Systematic error
iv) Random error
v) Limiting error
Observational Error
Errors that introduced by the
observer. The two most common
observational errors are probably
the parallax error introduced in
reading a meter scale and the
error of estimation when obtaining
a reading from a meter scale
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1.2 ERROR IDENTIFICATION IN MEASUREMENT
Static Errors
Types of Static Errors
i) Absolute error
ii) Gross error
iii) Systematic error
iv) Random error
v) Limiting error
Error due to instruments problem
or environmental effects
Examples:
defective or worn parts
Ageing
drift
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1.2 ERROR IDENTIFICATION IN MEASUREMENT
Static Errors
Types of Static Errors
i) Absolute error
ii) Gross error
iii) Systematic error
iv) Random error
v) Limiting error
Instrumental Error
Error due to friction in the bearings
of the meter movement, incorrect
spring
tension,
improper
calibration, or faulty instruments.
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1.2 ERROR IDENTIFICATION IN MEASUREMENT
Static Errors
Types of Static Errors
i) Absolute error
ii) Gross error
iii) Systematic error
iv) Random error
v) Limiting error
Environmental Error
Due to external condition of the
measurement. Examples, effects
of
change
in
temperature,
humidity, barometric pressure,
electrostatic fields etc.
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1.2 ERROR IDENTIFICATION IN MEASUREMENT
Static Errors
Errors that remain after gross and systematic
errors have been substantially reduced
Are generally the accumulation of a large
number of small effects
May be of real concern only in
measurements requiring a high degree of
accuracy such errors can only be analyzed
statistically
Due to unknown causes
Types of Static Errors
i) Absolute error
ii) Gross error
iii) Systematic error
iv) Random error
v) Limiting error
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1.2 ERROR IDENTIFICATION IN MEASUREMENT
Static Errors
Types of Static Errors
i) Absolute error
ii) Gross error
iii) Systematic error
iv) Random error
v) Limiting error
Most manufacturers of instruments state that
an instrument is accurate within a certain
percentage of a full-scale reading Example,
a voltmeter is accurate within 3% at fullscale.
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1.2 ERROR IDENTIFICATION IN MEASUREMENT
Static Errors
Types of Static Errors
i) Absolute error
ii) Gross error
iii) Systematic error
iv) Random error
v) Limiting error
A 300-V voltmeter is specified to be accurate
within 2% at full scale. Calculate the limiting
error when the instrument is used to
measure a 120-V source?
Solution
The magnitude of the limiting error is:
2/100 x 300 = 6V
Therefore, the limiting error at 120 V is:
6/120 x 100 = 5%
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1.2 ERROR IDENTIFICATION IN MEASUREMENT
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF MEASUREMENT DATA
Importance:
Data has be checked for its validity and integrity
Data has to be error-free before it should be used
Instruments reliability must be checked before it should be used
Thus analysis of data allows an analytical determination of the uncertainty
of the final result especially in large number of measurements it is usually
required.
Methods:
Arithmetic mean / average
Deviation
average deviation
standard deviation
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STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF MEASUREMENT DATA
Importance:
Data has to be checked for its validity and integrity
Data has to be error-free before it should be used
Instruments reliability must be checked before it should be used
Thus analysis of data allows an analytical determination of the uncertainty
of the final result especially in large number of measurements it is usually
required.
Methods:
Arithmetic mean / average
Deviation
average deviation
standard deviation
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STATISTICS
Collection of methods for planning
experiments, obtaining data,
organizing, summarizing, presenting,
analysis, interpreting and drawing
conclusion.
Statistical steps:
Gather data
Organize data
Analyze data
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Population & sample
Population : collection of all elements of interest
Sample : subset of the population
population
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NUMERICAL MEASURES
Measurement of central tendency
Mean
Median
Mode
Measurement of variations
Range
Variance
Standard deviation
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The Mean
To find the mean, you need to add up all the data, and then divide
this total by the number of values in the data.
The Median
To find the median, you need to put the values in order, then find the
middle value. If there are two values in the middle then you find the mean of
these two values.
The Mode
The mode is the value which appears the most often in the data. It is
possible to have more than one mode if there is more than one value
which appears the most.
The Range
To find the range, you first need to find the lowest and highest values
in the data. The range is found by subtracting the lowest value from the highest
value.
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MEASUREMENT OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
MEAN
The mean is the average value.
x
Sample mean
Population mean
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MEDIAN
The middle value when the numbers are arranged in
ascending or descending order
1
2
Ex:
median
4
5
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MODE
The data value that occurs with greatest
frequency
Ex:
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1
1
3
5
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mode
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Central Tendency Example
Calculate the mean, median and mode for the list test scores below;
86,83, 98,96,88, 72,64,86,83,83,80,94,93,75,44,87
SOLUTION:
Mean,
Median
86 83 98 96 88 72 64 86 83 83 80 94 93 75 44
82
16
98,96, 94,93,88,87,86,86,83,83,83,80,75,72,64,44
86 83 84.5
2
Mode = 83 ( repeating 3 times)
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Exercise
Find the mode, median and mean for
2, 3, 1, 2, 6, 8, 9, 3, 2, 3.
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MEASUREMENT OF VARIATIONS
RANGE
Difference between the largest and smallest
value in the dataset
1
2
Ex:
Range = 5 1= 4
4
5
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Calculating the Mean, Median, Mode and Range
for a table of data
Example
A dice was rolled 20 times. On each roll the dice shows a value from 1 to 6.
The results have been recorded in the table below:
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Finding the mean from a table of data
68/20 = ?
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Finding the median from a table of data
1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 6, 6, 6
Should be on 10th and 11th
(3 + 4) / 2 = ?
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Title of Slides
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Finding the mode and range from a table of data
Mode
In this case we can see that the value with the highest
frequency is "2".
The mode of this set of data is therefore 2
Range
Look for the highest and lowest values in the values
column.
In this case the lowest value is "1" and the highest
value is "6", and 6 - 1 = 5.
The range of this set of data is therefore 5
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Exercise
Value
Frequency
10
Value
Find mean, mode, median and range.
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VARIANCE
Measurement of the dispersion of values from the
mean.
2
xi x
2
s
Sample variance
n 1
Population variance
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STANDARD DEVIATION
The positive square root of the variance
Sample standard deviation
s s
Population standard deviation
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variance
variance is basically a measure of the
general dispersion of data in a sample, it
gives you a sense of how far away data
points are from one another.
the larger the variance, the more variability
you have in your sample.
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Standard deviation
The Standard Deviation is a measure of how spread out
numbers are.
Its symbol is (the greek letter sigma)
Standard Deviation is the average distance of each point in the
sample from the sample mean in terms of the original units of
measurement.
for instance, say you want to estimate the average height of a
high school male basketball player. you take a sample of 10
varsity basketball players from your school and calculate their
height and standard deviation. say you find that the mean of the
sample is 70 in with a standard deviation of 2, you can say that
the average difference between any given high school varsity
basketball player is 2 inches from the mean of 70
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