Chapter 8 Internal Forced convection

8.1 Introduction
The laminar & turbulent flows in channels
The developing & fully developed regions
The heat transfer rate under two boundary conditions:
- Constant heat flux
- Constant surface temperature
Method to select a cooling fan

The laminar & turbulent in ducts

The critical Reynolds number

Similar to the case of external flow, the flow in a duct can be laminar or
turbulent. The critical Reynolds number is

Recr

uDh uDh

2,300

Dh is called hydraulic diameter which is defined as 4A/P, P is the wetted

perimeter & A is the cross-sectional area of the duct, and is the kinematic
viscosity of the coolant.
Re p 2300...Lanimar

2300 Re 10, 000...Transitional

10000 f Re...Turbulent
For a duct of rectangular cross-sectional area
A ab

2
D
4A
4ab
4A
4
Dh

,,,,, circular.channel Dh

D
P 2(a b)
P
D
4

The developing and fully developed regions

The flow in a duct can be divided into two regions
Near the inlet of the duct, the boundary layer starts developing from both
sides of the channel & increases along the flow direction. At the point x*
where the two boundaries meet at the center and they cannot increase
anymore. From the inlet to the meeting point is called developing region.
Down stream of the developing region is called developed or fully developed
region.
- For laminar flow, the thermal boundary layer developing length is

x 0.05 Re Pr Dh

and the velocity boundary developing length is

x 0.05 Re Dh

- For turbulent flow the developing length for both thermal and velocity
boundary layers is

x 10 Dh

h
x*

x
3

The Nussult number and heat transfer coefficient

At any location in the duct, the Nussult number & heat flux can be
expressed

Nu Dh

hDh

...........q& h(Tsx Tmx )

k

h = convection heat transfer coefficient

Tsx = Local surface temperature of the duct

x*

Tmx = local mean fluid temperature

It was found experimentally as well as theoretically that, for a given channel,

the convection heat transfer coefficient is constant in the developed region.
Near the inlet, where the boundary layer thickness increases from zero to
half height of the duct. Both the temperature gradient and the heat transfer
coefficient are very large at the leading edge and decrease along the flow
direction and then meet the constant values in the developed region, as
shown in figure above and values of heat transfer coefficients for various
forms of channels are shown in Table 8-3

The channel surface temperature is,

q&
Tsx Tmx
h

8-3 the Nusselt correlation equations

Nusselt number correlation equations for

laminar flow

Nu Dh

hDh
k

8-3 the Nusselt correlation equations

Nusselt number for turbulent flow and the transitional region

hDh
uDh 0.8 0.4(for Re is greater than 2300)

Nu Dh

) Pr

The average bulk mean temperature is used to get the properties of the
coolant.

Tave

0.023(

Tmi Tmo

The total heat transfer rate

& p (Tmo Tmi )

Q& mc

Tmi

Tmo
Tsi

T so

The distribution of the surface temperature of the duct depends on the

boundary conditions.

8-4 Internal forced convection with constant heat flux

The distribution of surface and bulk mean fluid temperatures

Tmi

dA

Tmx+ dTmx

Tmx

Ts

Tso

Tm

x+dx

Tmo

Tmi
x

& mc
& p [(Tmx dTmx ) Tm x ] mc
& p dTm x
qdA

The distribution of buck mean q&( pdx) mc

& p dTmx
fluid temperature is linear
x
x

& dx mc
& p dTmx mc
&p
qp
0

Tmx

Tmi

dTmx

& mc
& p (Tmx Tmi )
qpx
Tmx Tmi

&
qp
x
&p
mc
7

8-4 Internal forced convection with constant heat flux

The variation of Tsx is also linear in the fully developed region

q& h(Tsx Tmx ) Tsx Tmx

&
q&
qp
q&
Tsx Tmi
x
&p
h
mc
h

The rate of heat transfer is equal to the rate of heat absorbed by the
coolant
& (T T )
Q& mc
p

mo

mi

or
Q& hA(Tsx Tmx ) hA(Tso Tmo )

The maximum surface temperature

Q&
q&
Tso Tmo
Tmo
hA
h
Ts

Tso

Tm

Tmo

Tmi
x
8

8-5 Internal convection heat transfer--Constant surface temperature

The energy balance on a elemental control volume (Ts is larger than Tm)
dQ& h(T T )dA
s

Tmx

mx

dA

Tmx+dTmx

& p [(Tmx dTmxx) Tmx ) mc

& p dTmx h(Ts Tmx )dA mc
& p dTmx h(Ts Tmx ) pdx
dQ& mc

d (Ts Tmx )
hp
dTmx d (Ts Tmx )........

dx
& p
Ts Tmx
mC
Integrating from the entrance (x = 0), where the inlet fluid mean
temperature is Tmi, to any point x along the duct, where the mean fluid
temperature is equal to Tmx
hp

x
Ts Tmx
hp
&p
mc
ln

x, Ts Tmx (Ts Tmi )e

&p
Ts Tmi
mc

The fluid temperature at any point x is

Tmx Ts (Ts Tmi )e

hp
x
mc p

8-5 constant surface temperature

The maximum fluid temperature is at x = L or the outlet fluid temperature

Tmo Ts (Ts Tmi )e

hPL
&p
mc

hPL

Ts Tmo
&
mc
,
e p
Ts Tmi

Ts Tmo
hpL
hpL
&p
ln

mc
T T
&p
Ts Tmi
mc
ln s mo
Ts Tmi

Ts
Tmo

T
Tmi

The heat transfer rate

hPL(Tmo Tmi ) hAs (Tmi Tmo )

&
&
Q mc p (Tmo Tmi )

hAs Tln
Ts Tmo
Ts Tmo
ln
ln
Ts Tmi
Ts Tmi

logarithmic mean temperature difference

Tln

Tmo Tmi
Ts Tmi
ln
Ts Tmo

10

11

Cooling of a hollow PCB

Given : Hollow PCB 12cm x 18cm, total heat dissipation = 40W

Tmi = 20oC, air volume flow rate at inlet section = 0.72litre/s
channel cross-sectional area = 0.3cm x12cm
Find (a) Tmo, (b) Tsmax
Solution:
- Assumptions:
1, Pressure at 1 atm.
2. Smooth inner surface
3. Steady state operation
- the inlet condition

12cm
18cm

Tmi 20o C , 1.204kg / m3 , c p 1007 J / kgK , V& 0.72(litle / s )

3
3
m& iV&

1.294
x
0.72
x
10

0.86
x
10
kg / s
i
& (T T )
Q& mc
p

mo

mi

Q&
40
o
Tmo Tmi
20

66
C
3
&p
mc
0.86 x10 x1007

12

Cooling of a hollow PCB

Tmo Tmi 20 66

43o C
2
2
2, 1.12kg / m3 , c p 1007 J / kgK , k 0.0267W / mK , v 1.72 x10 5 m 2 / s, Pr 0.725

1, Tave

4 Ac
4 x3.6 x103
3, Re Ac 0.12 x0.003 3.6 x10 m , Dh

0.00585m
P
2(0.12 0.003)
m&
0.86 x103
u

2m / s
Tso
3
Ac 1.12 x3.6 x10
T
Tmo
uDh
Re
730 pp 2300
Tmi

x
0.12
4, Nu aspect.ratio
40 Nu 8.24
0.003
k
0.0267
5, h Nu
8.24
36W / m 2 K
Dh
0.00585
3

6, Tso Ts max
....Q& hAs (Tsx Tmx ) hAs (Ts max Tmo )
Q&
40
....Ts max Tmo
66
92o C
hAs
36 x 2(0.12 x0.18)

13

Cooling of a constant surface temperature hollow PCB

Given : Board 12cm x 20cm, flow rate = 0.72x10-3m3/s, channel

0.3cm x 12cm, Tmi= 20oC, Ts = 60oC

Find: Tmo , Heat dissipation rate

Solution :

Assumptions 1. Steady state operation

2. Air behaves as ideal gas
3. pressure is equal to 1 atm.
20 50
o
Tave
35 C
4. Assume Tmo to be 50oC
2
1.145kg / m3 , c p 1007 J / kgK , k 0.02625W / mK

1.655 x105 m 2 / s, Pr 0.7268

V& 0.72 x103
u

2m / s
Ac 0.003 x0.12
Dh 0.00585m
uD
Re h 727

20cm

12cm

14

a
k
0.02514
40 Nu 7.54 h Nu
7.54
32.4W / m 2 K
b
Dh
0.00585

As PL 2(0.003 0.12) x0.2 0.0432m 2

m& V& 1.145 x0.00072 0.0008244kg / s
Tmo Ts (Ts Tmi )e

hAs
&p
mc

60 (60 20)e

32.4 x 0.0432
0.0008244 x1007

53o C

T T
20 53
Q& hAs Tln mi mo 32.4 x 0.0432
T T
7
ln
ln s mo
40
Ts Tmi
32.4 x 0, 0432 x19.4 =26.5W
&
or
&c (T T ) =0.0008244x1007x(5320) =27.4W
Q&=m
p

mo

mi&

15

Method to select a cooling fan

Characteristic curves
- The static pressure developed by a given fan depends on its rpm and the
flow rate of the fluid which it propels. The fan curve is usually provided by
the manufacturers.
- The system curve is the total pressure loss verses flow rate or velocity of
a given flow system
- The intersection of the two curves is the operation point of the fan
4

rpm

P1

p2

m3/s
P1

p2

P1

p2

16

Installation considerations

Inlet or outlet of the duct

- Preferred position is at the inlet : positive pressure
inside the cabinet to prevent air infiltration into the
box from cracks or other openings and the air is
denser and cooler at the position of the fan.
- Heat generated by the motor is forced into the system. The inlet air
temperature is higher.
Do not used forced convection if nature convection is adequate
Critical electronics should be mounted near the inlet where the coolant
temperature is lower
Air velocity should be less than 7m/s, otherwise noise will be too large.
Arrange the system to use nature convection to help forced convection
Series operation helps to increase the pressure head and parallel
operation helps to increase the flow rate.
Arrange the openings on the side surfaces, not on the top surface
The maximum air temperature at the exit port should be less than 70oC
Make a good arrangement of the boards for small flow resistance
Consider the effect of air pressure change due to altitude effect
17

Parallel double the flow rate

P1

p2

Series double the pressure difference

P1 P2

p3

18

Heat transfer coefficient

h
x*

x*

The actual average heat transfer coefficient is larger than the following
developed value. For a given inlet coolant temperature, the surface
temperature is smaller. Then the device temperature mounted on the surface is
Smaller than that calculated by following developed h value.

19

The following pages will not be taught

20

8-5 Internal convection heat transfer--Constant surface temperature

The energy balance on a elemental control volume (Ts is larger than Tm)

dQ& h(Ts Tm )dA

dA

Tm

dQ&

Tm+dTm

&x dT
mc
p

mx

& p dTmx h(Ts Tmx ) pdx

h(Ts Tmx )dA mc

dTmx d(Ts Tmx )

d(Ts Tmx )
hp

dx
& p
Ts Tmx
mC

Integrating from the entrance (x = 0), where the inlet fluid mean
temperature is Tmi, to any point x along the duct, where the mean fluid
temperature is equal to Tmx
hp

x
Ts Tmx
hp
&p
mc
ln

x, Ts Tmx (Ts Tmi )e

&p
Ts Tmi
mc

The fluid temperature at any point x is

Tmx Ts (Ts Tmi )e

hp
x
mc p

21

Forced convection- internal flow

The mean film temperature, if one of the temperature is unknown, assume

one.
Properties of the coolant
Calculate the Reynolds number
- Re 2300, the flow is laminar
- Re > 2300, treat the flow as turbulent
Select the Nusselt correlation equation
- The boundary conditions ; constant surface or constant surface heat flux
- Flow conditions ; laminar or turbulent flow
Calculate the Nusselt number and heat transfer coefficient
Calculate the heat transfer rate or the unknown temperature or both or the
& mc
area Q
& (T T )
p

mo

mi

or
& p (Tmo Tmi )
q& const Q& hAs (Ts Tm ) mc
& p (Tmo Tmi )
Ts const Q& hAs Tln mc

Compare the assumed temperature and the calculated one. If the different
is large, re-assume a temperature and repeat the process.
22

The pressure loss in a flow system

The total pressure in a flow system is represented by

Pt pi

Pressure loss can be written in terms of loss of velocity head

u 2
k
, ( N / m2 )
pressure loss =
2
k is called loss factor and it is dimensionless. Its value depends on the type
of obstructions
Type of obstruction
Inlet loss
outlet loss
channel

k
0.5
1.0

L
Dh

L : length of the channel and Dh is the hydraulic diameter

f : friction factor: For fully developed flow is shown in Table 8 1

23

8-2 The velocity and temperature fields in a duct

The mass flow rate

&
m
um
A

um is the average velocity in the duct.

The bulk mean fluid temperature

The energy transport rate of the fluid in the duct

E&
&
& pTm Tm
E c pTdm& c pT udA mc
&p
mc
A
A

Tm is the average or mean temperature in the duct

24

Example: Hollow PCB- continue

Find the system or pressure loss curve of example .

1.120kg / m3 , 1.72 x10 5 m 2 / s, u 2m / s, Dh 0.005854m,

12
96

L 0.18m, Re 730, AR
40 f
96
0.3
Re
uDh

pt pi pinlet poutlet pch.

u 2
L u 2
u 2
L u 2
pt (0.5 1)
f
(0.5 1)
96
2
Dh 2
2
uDh Dh 2
pt 0.0485u 0.888u 2
u (m/s) pt
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0

0
0.246
0.94
2.07
3.65

4
pt
2

25

Example 15-13 continue

Plot the system curve

pt

pt

The characteristic of the fan

rpm

Superimpose the two curves

4
pt
For u = 2m/s, the rpm of the fan is selected

1 u
m/s

2
26