What Is Digestion
Process whereby the body breaks
down food into absorbable nutrients.
Digestive tract is a long tube
surrounded by muscles.
Digestion is a process involving the hydrolysis
of large and complex organic molecules of
foodstuffs into smaller and preferably watersoluble
molecules
which
can
be
easily
absorbed by the GIT for utilization by the
organism
Digestion of macromolecules also promotes
the absorption of fat soluble vitamins and
certain minerals
Mouth
Teeth grind food to reduce the size.
Saliva released to help moisten
food.
Some carbohydrate digestion
begins.
Tongue pushes food to the back of
the mouth to start swallowing reflex.
Food passes through the esophagus
Stomach
Distended pouch. Strong circular
muscles at each end control food
entering and leaving.
Mixes
food
by
muscular
contractions causing food to break
up further.
Small Intestine
Most digestion and absorption
occurs in small intestine.
Bile released to emulsify (break up)
fat.
Pancreatic enzymes released to
digest carbohydrates, proteins and
fats.
Final digestive enzymes in intestinal
lining break down carbohydrates,
Final Digestion Product
Final digestion products absorbed by
cells lining small intestine.
Carbohydrates:
Monosaccharides
Proteins:
Amino acids
Chains of 2 or 3 amino acids
Fats:
Fatty acids
Glycerol
Monoglycerides
Absorption
Water-soluble nutrients and short
fatty acids released directly into
the bloodstream.
Longer fatty acids, fat-soluble
vitamins, and fat-like compounds
such as cholesterol are not watersoluble.
Indigestible Matter
After digestion and absorption of
nutrients, indigestible matter, such
as fiber moves into the large
intestine.
Indigestible matter is compacted by
removing water.
Little nutrient absorption occurs in
large intestine.
Metabolism
Chemical reactions that occur in
the body:
Building and maintaining body tissues
Regulating body functions
Supplying energy
For metabolism to occur the body
needs:
Water
Energy
Oxygen
Biological Importance
Food
large
molecules
Digestion
small molecules
small molecules
Absorption
BLOOD
vitamins,
minerals,
monosaccharides
and
free amino acids
Digestion and absorption of
carbohydrates
Carbohydrates present in
the diet
Polysaccharid
es
Starch
Glycogen
Disaccharide
s
Monosaccharid
es
Lactose
Glucose
Maltos
Fructos
e
e
Sucros
Pentose
e
In GIT, all complex carbohydrates are
converted to simpler monosaccharide
form which is the absorbable form.
Complex carbohydrates into simple
Polysaccharide into monosaccharide
Details of digestion of
carbohydrates
2 Types of enzymes are important for the
digestion of carbohydrates
Amylases
convert polysaccharides to
disaccharides
Salivar
y
Amyla
se
Pancreat
ic
Amylase
Disaccharida
ses
Convert disaccharides
to monosaccharides
which are finally
absorbed
Maltas
e
SucraseIsomaltase
Lactase
Trehalase
Digestion in mouth
DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
Digestion of Carbohydrate starts in the
mouth, upon contact with saliva during
mastication.
Saliva contains a carbohydrate splitting
enzyme called salivary amylase , also
known
as
ptylin.
Action of ptylin (salivary
amylase)
Location: mouth
It is -amylase and requires Cl
ion for activation with an
optimum pH of 6.7 (Range 6.6 to
6.8).
However, ptylin action stops in
the stomach when the pH falls to
3.0.- acidic pH
Starch, Glycogen and dextrins
(Large polysaccharide molecules)
- Amylase
Glucose,Maltose, Dextrin, maltose
and Maltotriose.
(Smaller molecules)
Drawbacks of this
method
Shorter duration of food in
mouth.
Thus it is incomplete digestion of
starch or glycogen in the mouth
Digestion in the
Stomach
Stomach receives partially digested &
Partially indigested food from mouth
mixed with salivary enzyme
No CHO digesting enzymes, no digestion
However, HCl present in the stomach
causes hydrolysis of sucrose to fructose
and glucose.
Sucrose
Glucose
HCl
Fructose +
Complete digestion, SI, longer time -stay
Food bolus reaches the duodenum from
the stomach where it meets the pancreatic
juice.
Enzymes: pancreatic amylase & intestinal
amylase
Includes: maltase
Isomaltose
Limit dextrinase
Sucrase
lactase
Pancreatic juice contains a
carbohydrate splitting enzyme,
pancreatic amylase
(amylopsin) similar to salivary
amylase.
Action of pancreatic
amylase
It is an - Amylase
Optimum pH=7.1
Like ptylin, it requires Cl ion for its
activity.
It hydrolyses -1 4 glycosidic
linkages situated well inside
polysaccharide molecules.
Note: Pancreatic amylase, an isoenzyme of
salivary amylase, differs only in the optimum
pH of action. Both the enzymes require Chloride
ions for their actions (Ion activated enzymes).
Reaction catalyzed by pancreatic
amylase
Starch/Glyco
gen
Pancreatic
Amylase
Maltose/ Isomaltose
+
Dextrins and
oligosaccharides
Starch/glycoge
n
Isomaltose
Maltose
Limit dextrin
Pancreatic/intes
tinal amylase
Dextrin + limit + dextrin +
maltose +
Isomaltose
Isomaltase
2 glucose units
Maltase
2 glucose units
Limit dextrinase
2 glucose units
Sucrose
Sucrase
Glucose + fructose
Lactose
Lactase
Glucose + galactose
MOUTH
COMPLEX
CARBOHYDRATES
SMALL % OF
DIGESTION
STOMACH
NO DIGESTION
INTESTINE
DEXTRIN + LIMIT DEXTRIN + MALTOSE +
ISOMALTOSE
2 GLUCOSE UNITS
ABSORPTION
Occurs in small intestine
In blood stream, occurs in form of
simple
sugar-monosaccharideglucose, galactose, fructose
Simple sugar enter the portal
circulation via capillaries of villi & are
transported to liver
In the liver fructose and galactose
are converted to glycogen for
storage
The
glycogen
stored
gets
reconverted to glucose during fasting
3 mechanisms
Passive
diffusion
Facilitated
diffusion/Carrier
mediated
Active
transport
Glucose absorption
GluT4- Glucose transport in cells
Features
Passive
diffusion
Facilitated
diffusion
Active transport
Concentration
gradient
Down the
concentration
gradient from
high to low.
Down the
concentration
gradient from
high to low.
Against a
concentration
gradient from low
to high
Energy
expenditure
none
none
Energy
expenditure is in
the form of ATP
Carrier protein/
transporter
Not required
required
required
Speed
Slowest mode
Fast
Fastest mode
Absorption of Glucose
from the small intestinal lumen
by carrier mediated
mechanism
involving transporter
proteins
1) Na+-dependent transporter
by secondary active
transport
and to a
less extent by
2) Na+-independent
transporter
by passive transport
Monosaccharides, the end
products of carbohydrate
digestion, enter the capillaries of
the intestinal villi
Small
intestine
Monosaccharides
travel to the
liver via the
In the
liver,
galactose
&
fructose
are
converte
d to
glucose.
Diagram showing absorption of
monosaccharides
Factors affecting rate of absorption of
Monosaccharides
The absorption is faster through intact
mucosa. The absorption is decreased if there
is some inflammation or injury to the mucosa.
Thyroid hormones the rate of absorption of
glucose.
Mineralocorticoid, i.e Aldosterone the rate of
absorption.
Vitamin B6,B12, pantothenic acid, folic acid
are required for absorption of glucose.
With advancing age, rate of absorption
declines.
Uptake of glucose in
peripheral cells
Mechanism: facilitated diffusion.
There are 7 important glucose
transporter for uptake of glucose into
special cells.
They have been numbered from 1 to
7 (GLUT 1 to GLUT 7).
They are biologically important.
METABOLISM
Simple carbohydrates which reach
the liver through portal circulation is
now used up by the body
Energy production
Glucose obtained directly utilized
by the body cells to obtain energy
Glucose broken down to release
energy
Glycolysis
Glucose
2 pyruvate
Pyruvate enters TCA cycle
( tricarboxylic acid ) also known as kreb
cycle to produce energy in form of ATP
Pyruvate
2 acetyle CoA
Kreb cycle
Energy( 36 ATP Mol )
+Carbondioxide(6)+Water(6)
Storage products
Conversion into glycogen
Primarily glucose is used for energy
production
Extra glucose is converted into glycogen in
presence of insulin
And stored in liver & muscle
Glycogenesis
Insulin
Glucose glycogen
Conversion into fat
If glucose level exceeds beyond the
storage space available in liver &
mucle
Then rest of glucose is stored in form
of fat in adipose tissue
Lipogenesis
Maintenance of blood glucose
levels
After complete digestion glucose
enters blood stream helps normal
functioning all blood cells
FBS (Fasting Blood Glucose) : 80-110
mg/dl
HORMONES
EFFECT ON BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVEL
Insulin
Decreases
Glucogen
Increases
Epinephrine ( adrenaline)
Increases
Glucocorticoids
Increases
Thyroxine
Increases
Growth hormone
Increases
