Wireless Communications

Wireless Communications
Module 3
The Modern Wireless

Communication Systems
1

Wireless Communications

Outline of Lecture 3

Introduction
Multiple access
Evolution of Cellular Networks
Various Definitions and Terminologies

Wireless Communications

World Cellular Subscriber Growth

1 billion
2
in 2006
2002

Wireless Communications

Basic Concepts : Multiple Access

Multiple Access schemes are used to
allow many mobile users to share a
finite amount of radio spectrum.
The sharing of spectrum is required to
achieve high capacity by
simultaneously allocating the
bandwidth.
Constraint: There should not be
severe performance degradation.
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Wireless Communications

Frequency Division Multiple Access

(FDMA)
Frequency

User n

User 2

Total bandwidth

User 1

User n

User 2
User 1

Mobile
Stations

Frequency 1
Frequency 2

Frequency n

Base Station

Time

Channel Allocation

Bandwidth structure

Wireless Communications

Time Division Multiple Access

(TDMA)
Frequency
User 1

Time
1

Time
2

User n

User 1
User 2

User 2
User n

Time
n

Mobile
Stations

Base Station

Time

Frame structure

Slot allocation

Wireless Communications

Code Division Multiple Access

CDMA (1)

Code
7

User 1

...

User 2

User n

Frequency

Time

Wireless Communications

CDMA (2)
Information bits
Code at
transmitting end
Transmitted signal

Received signal
Code at
receiving end
Decoded signal
at the receiver

Wireless Communications

Cellular Networks : Evolution (1)

First Generation

Launched in the mid-1980s.

Analog Systems
Analog Modulation, mostly FM
Voice Traffic only
FDMA/FDD multiple access
Confined to national boundaries
Example: AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone
Services)
9

Wireless Communications

Cellular Networks : Evolution (2)

Second Generation (2G)
Developed for Voice Communications
Digital Systems, Digital Modulation
TDMA/FDD and CDMA/FDD multiple
access
Provides data rates of the order of ~ 9.6
Kbps

10

Wireless Communications

Cellular Networks : Evolution (2)

Examples of Second Generation (2G)
Global System for Mobile
Communications (GSM)
TDMA/FDMA
900 MHz and 1800 MHz band

Personal Digital Communications (PDC)

Popular in Japan

IS-95
CDMA
US/South Korea
11

Wireless Communications

Cellular Networks : Evolution (3)

Limitations of Second Generation
(2G)
Developed for Voice Communications
(unsuitable for data traffic)
Average rate of the order of tens of kbps.
Not suitable for internet (packet switched
services)
Multiple standards (no true global
coverage)
12

Wireless Communications

Cellular Networks : Evolution (4)

2.5 G
The effort to remove the impediments of
2G systems resulted in 2.5 G.
Digital Systems
Voice + Low data-rate
Internet Access through GPRS (General
Packet Radio Service)
Enhanced data rates for Global
Evolution (EDGE): Uses better
modulation techniques
13

Wireless Communications

Cellular Networks : Evolution (5)

3G
Digital Modulation
Simultaneous Voice + High-speed data
Multi-megabit Internet Access
Voice-activated calls
Multimedia Transmission

14

Wireless Communications

Cellular Networks : Evolution (6)

Need for 4G

Present communications systems are primarily designed for

one specific application, such as speech on a mobile
telephone or high-rate data in a wireless local area network
(WLAN).
The Fourth Generation (4G) will integrate various networks,
functions and applications.
The 4G will create the global information multimedia village.
Will support a variety of data rates from 2G to 3G to 3G+,
WLAN systems to pico and small microcellular connectivity
and fixed line systems.

15

Wireless Communications

Satellite

Coverage Aspect of Next Generation

Mobile Communication Systems
In-Building
Urban
Suburban
Global

Picocell

Microcell

Macrocell Global

16

Wireless Communications

Global System for Mobile Communications

Transmission Capacity

Mobility

Vehicular

Pedestrian

Universal Mobile
Broadband radio
Telecommunications
System
Mobile Broadband System

Local Multipoint Distribution System

Satellite Universal Mobile
Telecommunications
System

Broadband Satellite Multimedia

Stationary
0.01

0.1

10

100

Data rate (Mb/s)

Transmission capacity as a function of mobility in some radio access systems

17

Wireless Communications

Terminology (1)

Mobile: A radio terminal attached to a high

speed mobile platform (e.g., a cell phone in a
fast moving vehicle).
Portable: A radio terminal that can be hand
held and used by someone at walking speed
(e.g., a cordless telephone).
Subscriber: A mobile or a portable user.
Base Stations: Fixed antenna units with
which the subscribers communicate. Base
stations are connected to a commercial power
source and a backbone network.
18

Wireless Communications

Terminology (2)

Cells: The area of coverage is divided into cells.

Each cell has a base station located at its centre
or an edge.
Control Channel: Radio channels used for
transmission of call setup, call request and call
initiation.
Forward channel (downlink): Radio channel
used for transmission of information from the
base station to the mobile.
Reverse Channel (uplink): Radio channel used
for transmission of information from the mobile to
the base station.
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Wireless Communications

Control and Traffic Channels

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Mobile Station

Base Station

20

Wireless Communications

Terminology (3)

Full Duplex Systems: Simultaneous two-way

communication. Transmission and reception on
two different channels.
Handoff: The process of transferring the mobile
station from one channel or base station to
another.
Page: A brief message that is broadcast over the
entire service area by many base stations at the
same time.
Roamer: A mobile station that operates in a
service area other than that from which service
has been subscribed.
21

Wireless Communications

Terminology (4)

Half Duplex Systems: Two-way

communicationis done by using the same radio
channel for both transmission and reception. At
any given time, the user can either transmit or
receive.
Mobile Switching Centre (MSC): Switching
centre which coordinates the routing of calls in a
large service area. In a cellular radio system, the
MSC connects the cellular base stations to the
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN).
Transceiver: A device capable of transmitting
and receiving radio signals.
22

Wireless Communications

Full Duplex Systems

Allow simultaneous transmission and
reception between the subscriber and
the base station.
Full duplex is provided either by:
Frequency Division Duplex (FDD), or,
Time Division Duplex (TDD).

23

Wireless Communications

Frequency Division Duplex (FDD)

Both the base station and the subscriber unit
transmit and receive signals simultaneously.
At the base station two separate transmit and
receive antennas are used.
At the subscriber unit only a single antenna is
used both for transmission and reception. A
device called a duplexer is used to enable the
same antenna for transmission and reception
simultaneously.
24

Wireless Communications

Time Division Duplex (TDD)

Uses the fact that it is possible to share a single
radio channel in time.
A portion of time is used to transmit from the BS
to the MS and the remaining time is used to
transmit from the MS to the BS.
Only possible with digital transmission formats
and digital modulation (very sensitive to timing).
Used only for indoor or small area applications
where the propagation delay are small.
25

Wireless Communications

Paging Systems (1)

Provide brief messages to a subscriber. The
message may be a numeric message, an
alphanumeric message, or a voice message.
Simple paging systems can cover a limited
range of 2 to 5 km.
Wide area paging systems can provide
worldwide coverage. They consist of a
network of telephone lines, BS transmitters
and large radio towers.
26

Wireless Communications

Paging Systems (2)

Simulcast transmitters may be located in
the same service area, in different cities
or even different countries.
Paging systems are designed to provide
reliable communications to subscribers,
wherever they may be: in buildings, on
the highway or in the airplane.
Necessitates large transmitter powers (in
kilowatts) and low data rates (in kbps).
27

Wireless Communications

Summary of Module 3
Multiple access
Evolution of Cellular Networks
Various Definitions and Terminologies

28

Wireless Communications

End of Module 3

29

Wireless Communications

Wireless Communications
Module 4

The Cellular Concept

System Design Issues
30

Wireless Communications

Outline of Module 4

The cellular concept

Anatomy of a cellular call
The cell shape
The hexagonal cell
Reuse distance

31

Wireless Communications

Cellular Systems - Basic

concepts (1)

High capacity is achieved by limiting the

coverage of each base station to a small
geographic region called a cell.
Same frequencies/timeslots/codes are reused
by spatially-separated base stations.
A switching technique called handoff enables
a call to proceed uninterrupted when one user
moves from one cell to another.
Resolves problem of limited radio spectrum
32

Wireless Communications

Cellular Systems - Basic

concepts (2)
Neighboring base stations are assigned
different group of channels so as to minimize
the interference.
By systematically spacing base stations and
the channel groups may be reused as many
number of times as necessary.
As demand increases, the number of base
stations may be increased thereby providing
additional capacity.
33

Wireless Communications

Cellular Telephone Systems

Base Stations

Subscriber
Unit

Cells

MSC

PSTN

34

Wireless Communications

Forward and Reverse

Channels

Forward Voice Channels (FVC) : Used for

voice transmission from BS to MS.
Reverse Voice Channels (RVC) : Used for
voice transmission from MS to BS.
Forward Control Channel (FCC) : Used for
initiatiating a call from BS to MS.
Reverse Control Channel (RCC) : Used for
initiatiating a call from MS to BS.
The FCC and RCC are also called setup
channels.
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Wireless Communications

Anatomy of a Cellular Call

A cell phone, when turned on, (though not yet
engaged in a call) scans the group of FCC to
determine the one with the strongest signal.
It monitors that channel until it drops below a
the usable thresold. It then scans for another
channel which is the strongest.
Control channels are defined and standardized
over the entire area of service. Typically the
control channels use up 5% of the total number
of channels.
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Wireless Communications

A Call TO a Mobile User (1)

The MSC dispatches the request to all base
stations. The Mobile Identification Number
(MIN) is broadcast as a paging message over all
FCC throughout the service area.
The MS receives the paging message from the
BS it is monitoring. It responds by identifying
itself over the RCC.
The BS conveys the handshake to the MSC.
The MSC instructs the BS to move to an unused
voice channel.
37

Wireless Communications

A Call TO a Mobile User (2)

The BS signals the MS to change over to an
unused FVC and RVC.
An data message (called alert) is transmitted
over the FVC to instruct the mobile to ring!
All of these sequence of events occur in just a
few seconds, are are not noticeable to the
user.
While the call is in progress, the MSC adjusts
the transmitted power in order to maintain the
call quality.
38

Wireless Communications

A Call FROM a Mobile User

A call initiation request is sent to the RCC.
Along with this, the MS transmits its MIN,
Electronic Serial Number (ESN) and the phone
number of the called party.
The MS also transmits the Station Class Mark
(SCM) which indicates the maximum transmitter
power level for the particular user.
The BS forwards the data to the MSC, which
validates the data and makes connection to the
called party through the PSTN.
39

Wireless Communications

Frequency Reuse : The Need

Fixed telephone network runs wires to every
household
Suppose we give every household their own
allocation of radio spectrum for analog
speech of 4 kHz bandwidth
12.5 million households (say Delhi) x 4 kHz =
50 GHz!
Clearly impractical!
no other services possible using radio
transmission
most of the spectrum unused most of the time

40

Wireless Communications

Frequency Reuse (2)

Cellular radio systems rely on intelligent
allocation and reuse of channels throughout
the coverage area.
Each base station is allocated a group of radio
channels to be used within the small
geographic area of its cell
Neighbouring base stations are given different
channel allocation from each other.

41

Wireless Communications

Frequency Reuse (3)

By design of antennas, the coverage area is
limited within the cell, and the same group of
frequencies is re-used to cover another cell
separated by a large enough distance to keep
co-channel interference within limits.
The design procedure of allocating channel
groups for all of the cellular BS within a system
is called Frequency Reuse or Frequency
Planning.

42

Wireless Communications

Example of Frequency Reuse

Cochannel
Cells

The cells with the same colour use the same set of
frequencies. The cell cluster is outlined in bold.
Here the cluster size is seven and the reuse factor is 1/7.

43

Wireless Communications

The Cell Shape

(1)
Signal
strength (in
dB)

Cell j

Cell i
-60
-70
-80
-90
-100

-60
-70
-80
-90
-100

Ideal Signal Strength/Cell Coverage

44

Wireless Communications

The Cell Shape

(2)
Signal strength
(in dB)

Cell j

Cell i

-60

-90
-100

-60
-70
-80

-70
-80
-90
-100

. Signal strength contours indicating actual cell coverage

This depends on terrain, presence of obstacles and signal
.attenuation in the atmosphere

45

Wireless Communications

The Cell Shape

(3)
Ideal cell
(2-10 km
radius)

Square
cell

BS
Triangular
cell

MS
Hexagonal
cell

MS

Other Cell Models

46

Wireless Communications

The Cell Shape (4)

Hexagonal cells are conceptual.
For most theoretical treatment, hexagonal
model of cells is universally adopted
because:
Hexagons are a geometric shape that
approximates a circle (for omni-directional
radiation)
Using a hexagon geometry, fewest number of
cells can cover the entire geographical region
47

Wireless Communications

The Geometry of Hexagons (1)

v

60

Hexagonal cell geometry and axes

48

Wireless Communications

The Geometry of Hexagons (2)

Axes u,v intersect at 60o
Unit scale is distance between cell centres
If cell radius to point of hexagon is R, then 2Rcos30o =
1, or
1
R=

3
To find the distance of a point P(u, v) from the origin
use x - y to u - v co - ordinate transformations :
r 2 x2 y2
x u cos 30o
y v u sin 30o
r (v uv u )
2

49

Wireless Communications

The Geometry of Hexagons (3)

Using this equation, to locate co-channel cells, we start from a
reference cell and move i hexagons along the u-axis then j
hexagons along the v-axis.
Hence the distance between cochannel cells in adjacent
clusters is given by:

D = (i2 + ij + j2)1/2
The number of cells in a cluster, N, is given by N = i2

+ ij + j2
where i and j are non-negative integers.

Hence, the possible values of N are 1, 3, 4, 7, 12,

50

Wireless Communications

Example

51

Wireless Communications

Cochannel Cell Location (1)

Method of locating cochannel cells
j=1

j direction

i=2

i=2
j=1

3 i

i=2

i=2

j=1

i=2

60
i direction
1

i=2

j=1

j=1

j=1

Finding the center of an adjacent

cluster using integers i and j
(direction of i and j can be
interchanged).

Formation of a cluster for N = 7

with i = 2 and j = 1

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Wireless Communications

Cochannel Cell Location (2)

i=3

j=2
j=2

i=2

i=2

j=2

i=3
j=2

j=2
j=2
i=3

i=2

i=3

i=2
j=2

i=2
j=2

i=2

j=2

j=2

i=3

j=2

A cluster with N = 12 with i = 2 and j =2

j=2

i=3

A Cluster with N = 19 cells with i = 3 and

j =2

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Wireless Communications

Reuse Ratio
For hexagonal cells, the
reuse distance is given by

Cluster

R
F7
F6

D 3N R

F2

F5

where R is cell side and N is the

cluster size

F3

F1
F1
F4

F7
F6

F2

Reuse factor is
q

F3

F1
F1

eu
R
st
di
se

F5

F4

ce
an
D

54

D
3N
R

Wireless Communications

Summary of Module 4

The cellular concept

Anatomy of a cellular call
The cell shape
The hexagonal cell
Reuse distance

55

Wireless Communications

End of Module 4

56

Wireless Communications

Wireless Communications
Module 5

Cell Capacity, Reuse and

Handoff Issues
57

Wireless Communications

Outline of lecture 5

Summary of what we have learnt so far

Cell Capacity and Reuse
Traffic Theory
Channel Assignement strategies
Handoff stategies

58

Wireless Communications

Recapitulation
High capacity is achieved by limiting the coverage of
each base station to a small geographic region called a
cell.
Same frequencies/timeslots/codes are reused by
spatially-separated base stations.
A switching technique called handoff enables a call to
proceed uninterrupted from one cell to another.
The hexagonal model of cells is universally adopted.
For hexagonal cells, the reuse distance is given by
D 3N R

D
The reuse factor is given by q 3 N
R
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Wireless Communications

Cell Capacity and Reuse (1)

Consider a cellular system with S duplex
channels.
Suppose each cell is allocated k channels. Let
these S channels be divided among N cells
(cluster). Therefore,
S = kN
If a cluster of N cells is replicated M times in
the system, the total number of duplex
channels, C, can be used as a measure of the
system capacity
C = MkN = MS
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Wireless Communications

Cell Capacity and Reuse (2)

If the cluster size N is reduced keeping the cell
size fixed, more clusters are required to cover
the entire area of interest, i.e.,
M C .
Smaller N (higher capacity) implies larger
cochannel interference, which may result in a
lower Quality of Service (QoS).

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Wireless Communications

Definition of some terms (1)

Setup Time: The time required to allocate a radio
channel to a requesting user.
Blocked Call: A call that cannot be completed at the
time of request due to congestion (lost call).
Holding Time: Average duration of a typical call.
Request Rate: The average number of calls per unit
time ().
Traffic Intensity: Measure of channel time utilization
(Erlangs)
Load: Traffic Intensity across the entire radio system.
A channel kept busy for one hour is defined as having a
load of one Erlang.
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Wireless Communications

Definition of some terms (2)

Grade of Service (GoS): A measure of
the congestion which is specified as a
probability.
The probability of a call being blocked
(Erlang B)
The probability of a call being delayed
beyond a certain amount of time (Erlang C)

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Wireless Communications

Traffic Theory (1)

Average no. of MSs requesting service (requests/time)
Average arrival rate =
Average time for which MS requires service
Average holdtime = T
Offered load a = T (Erlangs)
E.g., in a cell with 100 MSs, on an average 30 requests
are generated during an hour (3600 sec), with average
holding time T = 360 seconds (6 minutes).
Then, arrival rate = 30/3600 requests/sec.
A channel kept busy for one hour is defined as one Erlang
30 Calls 360 Sec
Offered load a

3 Erlangs
3600 Sec call
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Wireless Communications

Traffic Theory (2)

Average arrival rate during a short interval t is given by t
Assuming Poisson distribution of service requests, the
probability P(n, t) for n calls to arrive in an interval of
length t is given by

tn
P ( n, t )
n!

e t

Assuming to be the service rate, probability of each

call to terminate during interval t is given by t.
Thus, probability of a given call requires service for
time t or less is given by

S (t ) 1 e t
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Wireless Communications

Traffic Theory (3)

Probability of an arriving call being blocked is
aS
B S , a

S!

1
,
k
S
Erlang B formula
a

k 0 k !
where S is the number of channels in a group.

Probability of an arriving call being delayed is

aS
S 1 ! S a ,
C S, a
S 1 i
aS
a

S 1 ! S a i 0 i !

Erlang C formula

where C(S, a) is the probability of an arriving call

being delayed with a load and S channels.
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Wireless Communications

Traffic Theory (4)

Traffic nonblocked
Efficiency
Capacity
Erlangs portions of nonrouted traffic

Number of trunks (channels)

67

Wireless Communications

Traffic Theory: Example 1

Consider a cell with

S = 2 channels
100 Mobile Stations
Generating on an average 30 requests/hour
Average holding time T = 360 seconds (6 minutes).

Load a = (30 x 6)/60 = 3 Erlangs

Blocking probability, B(S, a) = 0.53
Total number of rerouted calls = 30 x 0.53 = 16
Efficiency = 3(1 - 0.53)/2 = 0.7

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Wireless Communications

Traffic Theory: Example 2

Consider a system with:

100 cells.
Each cell has S = 20 channels.
The users average = 2 calls/hour
The average duration of each call (T) is 3 min.
How many number of users can be supported if the allowed
probability of blocking is 2%?

From Erlang B chart, total carried traffic = 13 Erlangs

Traffic Intensity per user = T = 0.1 Erlangs
Total number of users that can be supported per cell =
13 / 0.1 = 130 users/cell
Total number of users that can be supported = 13,000
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Wireless Communications

Traffic Theory: Example 2 (contd)

Consider another system with:

100 cells.
Each cell has S = 20 channels.
The users average = 2 calls/hour
The average duration of each call (T) is 3 min.
How many number of users can be supported if the allowed
probability of blocking is 0.2%?

From Erlang B chart, total carried traffic = 10 Erlangs

Traffic Intensity per user = T = 0.1 Erlangs
Total number of users that can be supported per cell =
10 / 0.1 = 100 users/cell
Total number of users that can be supported = 10,000
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Wireless Communications

Traffic Theory: Example 3

Consider a system with:
Total number of channels = 20.
Probability of blocking constraint = 1%

Approach 1: Divide 20 channels in 4 trunks of 5

channels.
Traffic capacity for one trunk (5 channels) = 1.36 Erlangs
Traffic capacity for four trunks (20 channels) = 5.44 Erlangs

Approach 2: Divide 20 channels in 2 trunks of 10

channels.
Traffic capacity for one trunk (10 channels) = 4.46 Erlangs
Traffic capacity for two trunks (20 channels) = 8.92 Erlangs

Approach 3: Use 20 channels as such.

Traffic capacity for one trunk (20 channels) = 12.00 Erlangs

Allocation of channel has a major impact !

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Wireless Communications

Channel Assignment Strategies

A scheme for increasing capacity and
minimizing interference is required.
Channel assignment strategies can be
classified as either fixed or dynamic.
The choice of the channel assignment strategy
impacts the performance of the system,
particularly how a call is managed when a
mobile user is handed off from one cell to
another.
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Wireless Communications

Fixed Channel Assignment

Each cell is assigned a predetermined set of
voice channels.
Any call attempt within the cell can only be
served by the unused channels in that
particular cell.
If all the channels in the cell are occupied, the
call is blocked. The user does not get service.
In a variation of the fixed channel assignment,
a cell can borrow channels from its
neighbouring cell if its own channels are full.
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Wireless Communications

Dynamic Channel Assignment (1)

Voice channels are not allocated to different
cells permanently.
Each time a call request is made, the BS
requests a channel from the MSC.
MSC allocates a channel to the requested cell
using an algorithm that takes into account

the likelihood of future blocking,

the frequency of use of the candidate channel,
the reuse distance of the channel, and
other cost functions.
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Wireless Communications

Dynamic Channel Assignment (2)

To ensure the minimum QoS, the MSC only
allocates a given frequency if that frequency is
not currently in use in the cell, or any other cell
which falls within the limiting reuse distance.
DCA reduces the likelihood of blocking, thus
increasing the capacity of the system.
DCA strategies require the MSC to collect real
time data on channel occupancy and traffic
distribution on a continuous basis.
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Wireless Communications

Handoff
When a mobile moves into a different cell while
the call is in progress, the MSC automatically
transfers the call to a new channel belonging to
the new BS.
The handoff operation involves identifying a
new BS and the allocation of voice and control
signals associated with the new BS.
Handoffs must be performed successfully, as
infrequently as possible, and must be
imperceptible to the user.
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Wireless Communications

Handoff Region (1)

Signal
strength due
to BSj

Signal
strength due
to BSi
BSi

Pj(x)

Pi(x)

BSj

By looking at the variation of signal strength from either base station it is

possible to decide on the optimum area where handoff can take place.

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Wireless Communications

Handoff Region (2)

(Wireless Communications, T.S.Rappaport)

78

Handoff Region (3)

Wireless Communications

Handoff is made when the received signal at the

BS falls below a pre-specified threshold.
In deciding when to handoff, it is important to
ensure that the drop in the signal level is not due
to momentary fading.
In order to ensure this, the BS monitors the signal
for a certain period of time before initiating
handoff.
The length of the time needed to decide if handoff
is necessary depends on the speed at which the
mobile is moving.
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Wireless Communications

Handoff Strategies
In the first generation analog cellular systems,
the signal strength measurements are made by
the BS and are supervised by the MSC.
In the second generation systems that use
TDMA technology, Mobile Assisted HandOffs
(MAHO) are used.
In MAHO, every MS measures the received
power from the surrounding BS and continually
report these values to the corresponding BS.
Handoff is initiated if the signal strength of a
neighbouring BS exceeds that of the current BS.
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Wireless Communications

Soft Handoff
CDMA spread spectrum cellular system
provides a unique handoff capability.
Unlike chanelized wireless systems that assign
different radio channel during a handoff (called
hard handoff), the spread spectrum MS share
the same channel in every cell.
The term handoff here implies that a different BS
handles the radio communication task.
The ability to select between the insantantaeous
received signals from different BSs is called soft
handoff.
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Wireless Communications

Summary of Module 5

Cell Capacity and Reuse

Traffic Theory
Channel Assignment strategies
Handoff stategies

82

Wireless Communications

End of Module 5

83

Wireless Communications

Wireless Communications
Module 6
Interference and System
Capacity
84

Wireless Communications

Outline of Module 6
Summary of what we have learnt so far
Interference
Cochannel
Adjacent Channel

How to calculate Signal-to-Interference

Ratio
Examples

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Recapitulation
Cell Capacity and Reuse As N C
Traffic Theory
Erlang B formula Probability of an arriving call being blocked
Erlang C formula Probability of an arriving call being delayed

Channel Assignment strategies

Fixed
Dynamic

Handoff stategies
Hard Handoff
Soft Handoff

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Interference
Interference is a major limiting factor in the
performance of cellular radio. It limits capacity
and increases the number of dropped calls.
Sources of interference include
another mobile in the same cell,
a call in progress in a neighbouring cell and
other BS operating in the same frequency band.

Interference is more severe in the urban areas

due to greater RF noise floor and more number of
MS and BS.
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The Effect of Interference

Interference on Voice Channels causes
Crosstalk
Noise in the background

Interference on Control Channels causes

Error in digital signalling, which causes
Missed calls
Blocked calls
Dropped calls

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More on Interference
There are two major types of interferences:
Cochannel Interference (CCI)
Adjacent Channel Interference (ACI)
CCI is caused due to the cells that reuse the
same frequency set. These cells using the
same frequency set are called cochannel
cells.
ACI is caused due to the signals that are
adjacent in frequency.
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Cochannel Interference (CCI)

First tier
cochannel Base
Station

Second tier
cochannel Base
Station

D6

D5

D1

D4

D2
D3

Serving Base
Station

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Mobile Station

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CCI (2)
Unlike thermal noise, CCI cannot be overcome
by increasing the carrier power of the
transmitter.
This is because, any increase in the transmitter
power increases the interference to other
cochannel cells (creating our own noise!).
For similar sized cells, the CCI is independent
of the transmitted power and depends on the
cell radius, R, and the distance to the nearest
cochannel cell, D.
To reduce CCI the cochannel cells must be
physically separated.
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CCI (3)
The cochannel reuse ratio, Q = D/R.
It determines the spatial separation relative
to the coverage distance of the cell.
For a hexagonal cell pattern,
Q = D/R = (3N )
Thus, a smaller value of Q provides a larger
capacity, but higher CCI.
Hence there is a trade off between Capacity
and Interference.
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Calculation of Signal to Interference

Ratio: S/I (1)
The Signal-to-Interference ratio (S/I) for a mobile is
S
S
m
I

I
i 1

where S is the desired signal power and Ii is the

interference caused by the ith cochannel cell.
The average received power at a distance d is

Pr P0
d0

where P0 is the received power at a reference distance d0

and n is the path loss exponent.

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Calculation of S/I (2)

If Di is the distance of the ith interferer, the received
power at a given mobile is proportional to (Di)-n.
The path loss exponent, n, ranges between 2 and 4.
Thus the S/I for a mobile can
be written as
n
S

D
i
i 1

For only the first layer of equidistant interferers (m in all)

S D / R
3N

I
m
m
n

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Calculation of S/I (3)

For a hexagonal
cluster of cells
S 1 D

I 6 R

3N

D6

D5

MS D
1

D4
D3

Hence, S/I is
independent of the
Cell Radius

D2

BS

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Example (1)
Design Parameters:
Desired S/I = 15 dB
Path loss exponent, n = 4 (dense urban, e.g., CP)
What is the required reuse factor?

First try N = 4
D/R = 3.46 S/I = (1/6)(3.46)4 = 24.0 = 13.80 dB
Since this is greater than the desired 15 dB, we must
move to the next higher reuse distance.
Next try N = 7
D/R = 4.58 S/I = (1/6)(4.58)4 = 73.5 = 18.66 dB
Hence, the required reuse factor = 1/7.
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Example (2)
Design Parameters:
Desired S/I = 15 dB
Path loss exponent, n = 3 (suburban, south Delhi)
What is the required reuse factor?

First try N = 7
D/R = 4.58 S/I = (1/6)(4.58)3 = 16.04 = 12.05 dB
Since this is less than the desired 15 dB, we must move to
the next higher reuse distance.
Next try N = 12
D/R = 6.00 S/I = (1/6)(6.00)3 = 36 = 15.56 dB
Hence, the required reuse factor = 1/12.
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Example (3)
Design Parameters:

Desired S/I
S/I =
= 15
15 dB
dB
Desired
Path loss exponent, n = 2 (rural)
40

n=4

Signal-to-Interference

35
30
25

n=3

N=7

20

N = 12

15

n=2

10
5
0

10

15

20

25

30

Cluster Size

98

35

40

45

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Worst case calculation of S/I (1)

The MS is at the cell
boundary.
The approximate S/I
is given by

R
D-R
D

D-R

D+R
D+R

S
R n

I 2 D R n 2 D n 2 D R n

1
n
n
n
2 Q 1 2 Q 2 Q 1
99

MS

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Wireless Communications

Worst case calculation of S/I (2)

Worst case versus the Average scenario
Signal-to-Interference (dB)

30

n=4
Average

25

20

Worst Case

18 dB

n=3

15

n=2

10

N=7
0

10

N = 12
12

14

Cluster Size

100

16

18

20

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Wireless Communications

Adjacent Channel Interference

(ACI)
Results from signals that are adjacent in
frequency to the desired signal.
Results from imperfect receiver filters
that allow nearby frerquencies to leak in.
Problem can be severe if the interferer is
very close to the subcribers receiver.

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ACI (2)
Near Far effect: When an interferer
close to the BS radiates in the adjacent
channel, while the subcriber is far away
from the BS.
BS

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ACI (3)
ACI can be reduced by
Careful filtering
Careful channel assignment

The frequency separation between each

channel in a cell should be made as large as
possible.
If the subscriber is at a distance d1 and the
interferer is at d2, then Signal-to-Interference
ratio (prior to filtering) is
n
S d1

I d2
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ACI (4)
Example: Suppose the subscriber is d1 =
1000 m from the BS and an adjacent channel
interferer is at d2 = 100 m from the BS.
Path loss exponent is n = 3.
Prior to filtering the Signal-to-Interference
ratio will be
n
3
S d1
1000
3

10
30 dB

I d2
100

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ACI (5)
Example: The frequency separation
between each channel in a cell should be
made as large as possible while assigning
them.

Frequency band allocated in a cell

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Summary of Module 6
Types of Interference
Cochannel Interference
Cochannel Interference Calculations
Average case
Worst case

Adjacent Channel Interference

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End of Module 6

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Wireless Communications
Module 7
Improving Coverage and
System Capacity
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Outline of Module 7
Summary of what we have learnt so far
Improving capacity and coverage

Power control for interference reduction

Cell Splitting
Sectoring
Microcell Zone
Use of repeaters

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Recapitulation
Cell Capacity and Reuse As N C
Types of Interference
Cochannel Interference
Cochannel Interference Calculations
Average case
Worst case

Adjacent Channel Interference

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Power Control to reduce Interference

In practical systems, the power level of every
subscriber is under constant control by the
serving BS.
Power control not only reduces interference
levels but also prolongs battery life.
In CDMA spread spectrum systems, power
control is a key feature to ensure maximal
utilization of the system capacity.
Reduced interference leads to higer
capacity.
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Improving Capacity
As the demand for service increases, system
designers have to provide more channels per unit
coverage area.
Common techniques are: Cell Splitting, Sectoring
and Microcell Zoning
Cell splitting increases the number of BS deployed
and allows an orderly growth of the cellular system.
Sectoring uses directional antennas to further control
interference and frequency reuse.
Microcell Zoning distributes the coverage of a cell and
extends the cell boundary to hard-to-reach places.

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Cell Splitting (1)

Cell Splitting is the process of subdividing a
congested cell into smaller cells with
their own BS
a corresponding reduction in the antenna height
a corresponding reduction in the transmitter power
Splitting the cells reduces the cell size and thus more
number of cells have to be used.
More number of cells more number of clusters
more channels higher capacity.
Cell splitting allows a system to grow by replacing large
cells by small cells, without upsetting the channel
allocation.
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Cell Splitting (2)

Large cell (low density)
Small cell (high density)
Smaller cell (higher density)

Cells are split to add channels with no new spectrum usage.

Depending on traffic patterns the smaller cells may be
activated/deactivated in order to efficiently use cell resources.

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Example (1)
4 cell cluster

7 cell cluster
Smaller Cells

7 cell cluster

12 cell cluster

Typical city cellular radio cell plan - different cell sizes

and clusters
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Example (2)

Requirement for
higher capacity

Cell Splitting for Delhi

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Example (3)

Suppose the cell radius of the new cells are reduced by

half.
What is the required transmit power for these new cells?
n
We have Pr (old cell boundary) PT R
1

R
Pr (new cell boundary) PT2
2
PT1
PT2 n
2

For n = 3,

PT2

PT1
8

Thus, the transmit power of new cells should be 9 dB

lower than the original transmit power.

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Example (4)
Suppose the congested service
area is originally covered by
5 cells,
each cell with 80 channels.

Capacity = 5 x 80 = 400
After cell splitting, Rnew = R/2
We now have 24 cells
New Capacity = 24 x 80 = 19200
For n = 4, the transmit power for
the new BS = 12 dB lower.
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Cell Sectoring (1)

As opposed to cell splitting, where D/R is kept
constant while decreasing R, sectoring keeps
R untouched and reduces the D/R.
Capacity improvement is achieved by reducing
the number of cells per cluster, thus
increasing frequency reuse.
In order to do this, it is necessary to reduce the
relarive interference without decreasing the
transmitter power.
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Cell Sectoring (2)

The CCI may be decreased by replacing the
single omnidirectional antenna by several
directional antennas, each radiating within a
specified sector.
A directional antenna transmits to and receives
from only a fraction of the total number of
cochannel cells. Thus CCI is reduced.
A cell is normally partitioned into three 120
sectors, four 90 sectors or six 60 sectors.
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Wireless Communications

Cell Sectoring (3)

c

c
120o

120o

b
(a) Omni

(b) 120o sector

(c) 120o sector

(alternate)
f

d
90o

b
(d) 90o sector

60o

a
b

(e) 60o sector

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Cell Sectoring (4)

Placing directional transmitters at corners where three
adjacent cells meet
B
C

X
A

Sectoring improves S/I

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Cell Sectoring (5)

Problems with sectoring
Increased number of antennas at each BS
Decrease in trunking efficiency due to sectoring
(dividing the bigger pool of channels into smaller
groups)
Increased number of hand-offs (sector-to-sector).
Good news: Many modern BS support sectoring
and related handoff without the help of the MSC.

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Microcell Zone Concept (1)

The problems of sectoring can be addressed by
the Microcell Zone concept.
A cell is divided into microcells or zones.
Each microcell (zone) is connected to the same
base station (fiber/microwave link).
Each zone uses a directional antenna.
As a mobile travels from one zone to another, it
retains the same channel, i.e., no hand-off.
The BS simply switches the channel to the next
zone site.
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Microcell Zone Concept (2)

Let each cell be divided into three zones.

BS

Zone
Selector

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Microcell Zone Concept (3)

While the cell maintains a particular coverage
area, the CCI is reduced because:
The large central BS is replaced by several low
power transmitters.
Directional antennas are used

Decreased CCI improves

Signal quality
Capacity

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Microcell Zone Concept (4)

Example:
Suppose the desired S/I = 18 dB.
Path loss exponent n = 4
How much capacity increase can occur if we use
Microcell Zoning of 3 zones/cell?

To achieve S/I = 18 dB we need N = 7.

We use Microcell Zone concept and create 3
zones within 1 cell.
This makes the cluster size N = 3.
The capacity increase factor = 7/3 = 2.33
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Repeaters for Range Extension

Useful for hard-to-reach areas
Within buildings, basements
Tunnels
Valleys

Radio transmitters, called repeaters, can be used to

provide coverage in these areas.
Repeaters are bidirectional
Receive signals from the BS
Amplify the signals
Reradiates the signals

Received noise and interference is also reradiated!

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Summary of Module 7
Improving capacity and coverage

Power control for interference reduction

Cell Splitting
Sectoring
Microcell Zone
Use of repeaters

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End of Module 7

130