Disinfection
lecture outline
Purpose of disinfection
Types of disinfectants
Disinfection kinetics
Factors affecting disinfection
Purpose of disinfection
Disinfection
to inactivate pathogens so that they are not
infectious to humans and animals
achieved by altering or destroying structures
or functions of essential components within
the pathogens
proteins (structural proteins, enzymes, transport
proteins, etc)
nucleic acids (genomic DNA or RNA, mRNA, tRNA,
etc)
lipids (lipid bi-layer membranes, other lipids)
Different disinfectants
Properties of an ideal disinfectant
Versatile: effective against all types of pathogens
Fast-acting: effective within short contact times
Robust: effective in the presence of interfering
materials
particulates, suspended solids and other organic and inorganic
constituents
Properties of an ideal disinfectant
Handy:
easy to handle, generate, and apply (nontoxic,
soluble, non-flammable, non-explosive)
Compatible with various materials/surfaces in
WTPs (pipes, equipments)
Economical
Disinfectants in Water and Wastewater Treatment
Free chlorine
Chloramines (Monochloramine)
Ozone
Chlorine dioxide
Mixed oxidants
UV irradiation
Trend in disinfectant use (USA, % values)
Disinfectant 1978 1989 1999
Chlorine gas 91 87 83.8
NaClO2 (bulk) 6 7.1 18.3
NaClO2 (on- 0 0 2
site)
Chlorine dioxide 0 4.5 8.1
Ozone 0 0.4 6.6
Chloramines 0 20 28.4
Comparison of major disinfectants
Consideration Disinfect ants
Cl2 ClO2 O3 NH2Cl
Oxidation Strong Stronger? Strongest Weak
potential
Residuals Yes No No Yes
Mode of action Proteins/NA Proteins/NA Proteins/NA Proteins
Disinfecting Good Very good Excellent Moderate
efficacy
By-products Yes Yes Yes No
Individual disinfectants
Free chlorine - Background and History
first used in 1905 in London, in Bubbly Creek in
Chicago (in USA) in 1908
followed by dramatic reduction of waterborne disease
has been the disinfectant of choice in USA until
recently
being replaced by alternative disinfectants after
the discovery of its disinfection by-products
(trihalomethanes and other chlorinated organics)
during the 1970s
Recommended maximum residual concentration of free
chlorine < 5 mg/L in drinking water (by US EPA)
Free chlorine - Chemistry
Three different methods of application
Cl2 (gas)
NaOCl (liquid)
Ca(OCl)2 (solid)
Reactions for free chlorine formation:
Cl2 (g) + H2O <=> HOCl + Cl- + H+
HOCl <=> OCl- + H+ (at pH >7.6)
Chlorine application (I)
Chlorine application (II)
Chlorine application (III): Gas
Chlorine (effectiveness (I))
Chlorine (effectiveness (II))
Chlorine (advantages and
disadvantages)
Advantages
Effective against all types of microbes
Relatively simple maintenance and operation
Inexpensive
Disadvantages
Corrosive
High toxicity
High chemical hazard
Highly sensitive to inorganic and organic loads
Formation of harmful disinfection by-products (DBPs)
Chloramines - History and Background
first used in 1917 in Ottawa, Canada and in Denver, USA
became popular in 1930s to control taste and odor problems
and bacterial re-growth in distribution system
decreased usage due to ammonia shortage during World War II
increased interest due to the discovery of chlorination
disinfection by-products during the 1970s
alternative primary disinfectant to free chlorine due to low
DBP potential
secondary disinfectant to ozone and chlorine dioxide
disinfection to provide long-lasting residuals
Chloramines - Chemistry
Two different methods of application (generation)
pre-formed chloramines (monochloramine)
mix hypochlorite and ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) solution at Cl2 : N
ratio at 4:1 by weight, 10:1 on a molar ratio at pH 7-9
dynamic chloramination
initial free chlorine addition, followed by ammonia addition
Chloramine formation
HOCl + NH3 <=> NH2Cl + H2O
NH2Cl + HOCl <=> NHCl2 + H2O
NHCl2 + HOCl <=> NCl3 + H2O
Application of chloramines:
Preformed monochloramines
Chloramines (effectiveness)
Chloramines (advantages and
disadvantages)
Advantages
Less corrosive
Less toxicity and chemical hazards
Relatively tolerable to inorganic and organic loads
No known formation of DBP
Relatively long-lasting residuals
Disadvantages
Not so effective against viruses, protozoan cysts, and
bacterial spores
Chlorine Dioxide - History and
Background
first used in Niagara Fall, NY in 1944
used in 84 WTPs in USA in 1970s mostly for taste and
odor control
increased usage due to the discovery of chlorination
disinfection by-products
increased concern over its toxicity in 1970s & 1980s
thyroid, neurological disorders and anemia in
experimental animals by chlorate
recommended maximum combined concentration of chlorine
dioxide and its by-products < 0.5 mg/L (by US EPA in 1990s)
Chlorine Dioxide - Chemistry
The method of application
on-site generation by acid activation of chlorite or reaction of chlorine gas
with chlorite
Chlorine dioxide
very soluble in water
generated as a gas or a liquid on-site: usually by reaction of Cl2 gas with
NaClO2
2 NaClO2 + Cl2 2 ClO2 + 2 NaCl
2ClO2 + 2OH- = H2O + ClO3- (Chlorate) + ClO2-(Chlorite) (in
alkaline pH)
Strong Oxidant; high oxidative potentials
2.63 times greater than free chlorine, but only 20 % available at neutral
pH
ClO2 + 5e- + 4H+ = Cl- + 2H2O (5 electron process)
2ClO2 +2OH- = H2O +ClO3- + ClO2- (1 electron process)
Generation of chlorine dioxide
Application of chlorine dioxide
Chlorine dioxide (effectiveness)
Chlorine dioxide (advantages and
disadvantages)
Advantages
Very effective against all type of microbes
Disadvantages
Expensive
Unstable (must produced on-site)
High toxicity
2ClO2 + 2OH- = H2O + ClO3- (Chlorate) + ClO2-
(Chlorite) (in alkaline pH)
High chemical hazards
Highly sensitive to inorganic and organic loads
Formation of harmful disinfection by-products (DBPs)
No lasting residuals
Ozone - History and Background
first used in 1893 at Oudshoon, Netherlands and at
Jerome Park Reservoir in NY (in USA) in 1906
used in more than 1000 WTPs in European countries,
but was not so popular in USA
increased interest due to the discovery of chlorination
disinfection by-products during the 1970s
an alternative primary disinfectant to free chlorine
strong oxidant, strong microbiocidal activity, perhaps less toxic DBPs
Ozone - Chemistry
The method of application
generated by passing dry air (or oxygen) through high voltage
electrodes (Ozone generator)
bubbled into the water to be treated.
Ozone
colorless gas
relatively unstable
highly reactive
reacts with itself and with OH- in water
Generation of ozone
Application of ozone
Application of ozone (II)
Ozone (effectiveness)
Ozone (advantages and
disadvantages)
Advantages
Highly effective against all type of microbes
Disadvantages
Expensive
Unstable (must produced on-site)
High toxicity
High chemical hazards
Highly sensitive to inorganic and organic loads
Formation of harmful disinfection by-products (DBPs)
Highly complicated maintenance and operation
No lasting residuals
Ultraviolet irradiation
has been used in wastewater disinfection for
more than 50 years
Increased interest after the discovery of its
remarkable effectiveness against
Cryptosporidium parvum and Giardia lamblia
in late 1990s
Ultraviolet irradiation
physical process
energy absorbed by UV
DNA
pyrimidine dimers,
strand breaks, other
A
damages C T
C A A T G G
inhibits replication G T T A C DNA
UV disinfection: wastewater
UV Disinfection: Drinking water
UV disinfection (effectiveness)
UV disinfection (advantages and
disadvantages)
Advantages
Very effective against bacteria, fungi, protozoa
Independent on pH, temperature, and other materials
in water
No known formation of DBP
Disadvantages
Not so effective against viruses
No lasting residuals
Expensive
Disinfection Kinetics
Disinfection Kinetics
Chick-Watson Law:
ln Nt/No = - kCnt
where:
No = initial number of organisms
Nt = number of organisms remaining at time = t
k = rate constant of inactivation
C = disinfectant concentration
n = coefficient of dilution
t = (exposure) time
Assumptions
Homogenous microbe population: all microbes are identical
single-hit inactivation: one hit is enough for inactivation
When k, C, n are constant: first-order kinetics
Decreased disinfectant concentration over time or heterogeneous
population
tailing-off or concave down kinetics: initial fast rate that decreases over time
Multihit-hit inactivation
shoulder or concave up kinetics: initial slow rate that increase over time
Chick-Watson Law and deviations
First
Multihit
Order
Log Survivors
Retardant
Contact Time (arithmetic scale)
CT Concept
Based on Chick-Watson Law
disinfectant concentration and contact time
have the same weight or contribution in the
rate of inactivation and in contributing to CT
Disinfection activity can be expressed as
the product of disinfection concentration
(C) and contact time (T)
The same CT values will achieve the same
amount of inactivation
Disinfection Activity and the CT Concept
Example: If CT = 100 mg/l-minutes, then
If C = 1 mg/l, then T must = 100 min. to get CT
= 100 mg/l-min.
If C = 10 mg/l, T must = 10 min. in order to get
CT = 100 mg/l-min.
If C = 100 mg/l, then T must = 1 min. to get
CT = 100 mg/l-min.
So, any combination of C and T giving a
product of 100 is acceptable because C and T
are interchangeable
C*t99 Values for Some Health-related
Microorganisms (5 oC, pH 6-7)
Organism Disinfectant
Free Chloramines Chlorine Ozone
chlorine dioxide
E. coli 0.03 95 - 180 0.4 0.03
0.05 0.75
Poliovirus 1.1 2.5 768 - 3740 0.2 6.7 0.1 0.2
Rotavirus 0.01 3806 - 6476 0.2 2.1 0.06-0.006
0.05
G. lamblia 47 - 150 2200 26 0.5 0.6
C. parvum 7200 7200 78 5 - 10
I*t99.99 Values for Some Health-Related
Microorganisms
Organism UV dose Reference
(mJ/cm2)
E.coli 8 Sommer et al,
1998
V. cholera 3 Wilson et al, 1992
Poliovirus 21 Meng and Gerba,
1996
Rotavirus-Wa 50 Snicer et al, 1998
Adenovirus 40 121 Meng and Gerba,
1996
C. parvum <3 Shin et al, 1999
G. lamblia <1 Shin et al, 2001
Factors affecting disinfection efficacy
Factors Influencing Disinfection
Efficacy and Microbial Inactivation
Disinfectant type
Microbe type
Physical factors
Chemical factors
Physical factors
Aggregation
Particle-association
Protection within membranes and other solids
Chemical factors
pH:
selecting the most predominant disinfecting species
Salts and ions
Soluble organic matter
Particulates
reacting with chemical disinfectants or absorbing
UV irradiation
