Organic Chemistry

Second Edition
Instructor : Maher Qaddoura

Chapter 2
Molecular Representations

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Klein, Organic Chemistry 2e
 2.1 Representing Molecules
• There are many ways to represent molecules

• If you were representing a large molecule with 20 or

more atoms, which structure would be most time
consuming to draw?
• Which structures give you the most information
about the structure?

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 2.1 Representing Molecules

• Given that there are three isomers of propanol

(below), which structures above are adequate to
represent only isopropanol and not its isomers?

• Practice with SkillBuilder 2.1

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 2.1 Representing Molecules
• To draw large molecules quickly, a different type of
representation is needed
• Consider the antibiotic Amoxicillin. Its Lewis
structure looks cluttered, and it would be very time
consuming to draw

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 2.2 Bond-line Structures

• The Bond-line structure is easier to read and to draw

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 2.2 Bond-line Structures
• It may seem like a foreign language at first, because
many of the atoms are not labeled
• This type of representation is THE main way that
chemists communicate, so it is a language you MUST
master to be successful in organic chemistry

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 2.2 Bond-line Structures
• Like Lewis structures, lines are drawn between atoms
to show covalent bonds

• Atoms are bonded at angles (zigzag) that represent

the actual geometry of the bond angles
– What is the bond angle for sp3 hybridized carbon?
• Carbon atoms are not labeled, but a carbon is
assumed to be located at every corner or endpoint
on the zigzag.

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 2.2 Bond-line Structures
• Like Lewis structures, lines are drawn between atoms
to show covalent bonds

• Carbon-Hydrogen bonds are omitted. WHY?

• If the H atoms are omitted, how will we know how
many H atoms are attached to a carbon?

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 2.2 Bond-line Structures
• Practice identifying the location of and counting the
number of carbon atoms in the structures below

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 2.2 Bond-line Structures
• Double bonds and triple bonds are represented as
you might expect

• Why is a triple bond written without zigzagging?

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 2.2 Bond-line Structures
• You must also be able to use the bond-line structure
language to interpret the number and location of H
atoms in a molecule
• H atoms are not shown, but we can assume there are
enough to complete the octet (4 bonds) for each
carbon

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 2.2 Bond-line Structures
• You should practice bond-line structures until it
becomes natural for you to see all of the carbon and
hydrogen atom locations.
• How many carbon and hydrogen atoms are in the
following molecule?

• Practice with SkillBuilder 2.2

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 2.2 Bond-line Structures
• If you are given a Lewis structure or condensed
structure, you must also be able to draw the
corresponding bond-line structure
– Represent the bond angles with zigzags

– Follow VSEPR and spread out the electron pairs on a

central atom

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 2.2 Bond-line Structures
• If you are given a Lewis structure or condensed
structure, you must also be able to draw the
corresponding bond-line structure
– Single bonds are axes of rotation, so be aware that they can
rotate

– Give alternative bond-line structures for the molecule below

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 2.2 Bond-line Structures
– Give alternative bond-line structures for the molecule below

– A few more rotational

conformations exist

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 2.2 Bond-line Structures
• If you are given a Lewis structure or condensed
structure, you must also be able to draw the
corresponding bond-line structure
– Heteroatoms (atoms other than C and H) should be labeled
with all hydrogen atoms and lone pairs attached

– NEVER draw a carbon with more than 4 bonds!!

• Practice with SkillBuilder 2.3

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 2.2 Bond-line Structures
• Draw bond-line representations for the following Lewis
structures

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 2.2 Bond-line Structures
• Draw bond-line representations for the following Lewis
structures

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-16 Klein, Organic Chemistry 2e
 2.2 Bond-line Structures
• Draw bond-line representations for the following Lewis
structures

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 2.2 Bond-line Structures
• Draw bond-line representations for 3 possible isomers
given the formula: C5H9ClO

• Draw bond-line structures for 3 different rotational

conformations for the molecule: CH2CH(CH2)4CH3

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 2.2 Bond-line Structures
• Draw bond-line representations for 3 possible isomers
given the formula: C5H9ClO

There are many more than just these three. They illustrate
the relationship between constitutional isomers.

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 2.2 Bond-line Structures
• Draw bond-line structures for 3 different rotational
conformations for the molecule: CH2CH(CH2)4CH3

Illustrates how the condensed formula above defines the

identity of the molecule, but single bonds can rotate, so
there are multiple ways to represent the same
molecule.

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 2.3 Indentifying Functional Groups
• Bond-line structures allow chemists to quickly examine
how a chemical reaction has changed a molecule
• Compare the condensed formula with the bond-line
structure below for the same reaction

• Which representation makes it more apparent that the

H2 is reacting to convert the double bond to a single
bond?

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 2.3 Indentifying Functional Groups
• When certain atoms are bonded together in specific
arrangements, they undergo specific chemical reactions
• Such
arrangements of
atoms are called
functional
groups. WHY are
such groups
called
FUNCTIONAL?

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 2.3 Indentifying Functional Groups
• More functional groups are listed in table 2.1

• Practice with conceptual

checkpoint 2.11

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 2.4 Bond-line Structures with
Formal Charge
• Formal charge (section 1.4) affects the stability and
reactivity of molecules, so you must be able to identify
formal charges in bond-line representations
• Label all of the formal charges in the following molecule

• Practice with conceptual checkpoints

2.12 and 2.13
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 2.4 Bond-line Structures with
Formal Charge
• Label all of the formal charges in the following molecule

• Practice with conceptual checkpoints

2.12 and 2.13
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 2.4 Bond-line Structures with
Formal Charge
• Most carbon atoms will have 4 covalent bonds and no
lone pairs to avoid carrying a formal charge
• Sometimes carbon will have a +1 charge. In such cases,
the carbon will only have 3 bonds.

• Is there anything especially unstable about

CARBOCATIONS?
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 2.4 Bond-line Structures with
Formal Charge
• Most carbon atoms will have 4 covalent bonds and no
lone pairs to avoid carrying a formal charge
• Sometimes carbon will have a -1 charge.

• Is there anything especially unstable about

CARBANIONS?

• If carbon carries a charge in a molecule, the charge

MUST be shown on the bond-line structure

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 2.5 Bond-line Structures and Lone
Pair Electrons
• Sometimes lone pairs are omitted from bond-line
structures.
• For example…
• You can’t determine the formal charge on the N atom
unless you know how many electrons there are on the N
• It could be…

• You must ALWAYS draw formal charges on a bond-line

structure to eliminate confusion

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 2.5 Bond-line Structures and Lone
Pair Electrons
• If the formal charge is indicated on an atom, you can
determine how many lone pairs are present
• To calculate the number of lone pair electrons for an
atom, compare the number of valence electrons that
should be associated with the atom to the number of
valence electrons that are actually associated with an
atom (section 1.4)

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 2.5 Bond-line Structures and Lone
Pair Electrons
• How many lone pairs are on the oxygen atom below?

• Oxygen should have 6 valence e-s assigned to it, because

it is in group VIA on the periodic table.
• It is carrying a -1 charge, so it must actually have one
additional electron (6+1=7) assigned
• 1 electron is assigned to the oxygen from its bond with
carbon. WHY?
• HOW many lone pairs should it have?

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 2.5 Bond-line Structures and Lone
Pair Electrons
• You can also determine the formal charge on an O atom
by matching its bonding pattern with its formal charge
according to table 2.2

• Practice with SkillBuilder 2.4

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-33 Klein, Organic Chemistry 2e
 2.5 Bond-line Structures and Lone
Pair Electrons
• The formal charge on a N atoms can be calculated the
same way or by matching its bonding pattern with its
formal charge according to table 2.3

• Practice with SkillBuilder 2.5

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 2.6 3D Bond-line Structures
• The vast majority of molecules are 3-dimensional, but it
is difficult to represent a 3D molecule on a 2D piece of
paper or blackboard
• We will use dashed and solid wedges to show groups
that point back into the paper or out of the paper

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 2.6 3D Bond-line Structures
• Imagine the thin lines as being flat in the plane of the
board/paper
• Dashed and solid wedges to show groups that point
back into the paper or out of the paper

• We will focus on this type of representation in Chapter 5

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 2.6 3D Bond-line Structures
• Here are some other ways to show 3D structure

• Read the “Medically Speaking” section of Chapter 2 to

see one example of how 3D structure is important

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 2.7 Resonance
• Drawing lines between atoms inadequately represents
covalent bonds in molecules with resonance
• Remember from General Chemistry, what is resonance?

• Consider the allyl carbocation:

• How is the bond-line structure inadequate in

representing the allyl carbocation’s TRUE structure?

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 2.7 Resonance
• Let’s look at the hybridization of the carbons in the allyl
carbocation
– Calculate the steric number (# of σ bonds + lone pairs)

– When the steric number is 3, it is sp2 hybridized

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 2.7 Resonance
• If all of the carbons have unhybridized p orbitals, they
can overlap

• All three overlapping p orbitals allow the electrons to

move throughout the overlapping area simultaneously
• That’s RESONANCE

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 2.7 Resonance
• How do we represent the complete picture of the allyl
carbocation provided by valence orbital and MO
theories using a bond-line structure?
• The pi electrons can exist on both sides of the molecule,
so we can use two resonance contributors to represent
the structure

• The brackets indicate that both resonance contributors

exist simultaneously
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 2.7 Resonance
• Because neither of the contributors exists (look at MOs),
the average or hybrid is much more appropriate

vs.
δ+ δ+
two contributors resonance hybrid
• How is a resonance arrow different from equilibrium?
• Analogy: a nectarine is a hybrid formed by mixing a
peach and a plum. A nectarine is NOT sometimes a
peach and sometimes a plum.
It is always a nectarine.
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 2.7 Resonance
• Resonance makes a molecule MORE stable
• Delocalization of electrons
– Electrons exist in orbitals that span a greater distance giving
the electrons more freedom minimizing repulsions
– Electrons spend time close to multiple nuclei all at once
maximizing attractions
• Delocalization of charge
– The charge is spread out over more than one atom. The
resulting partial charges are more stable than a full +1 charge.

δ+ δ+
resonance hybrid
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 2.8 Curved Arrows in Resonance
• Throughout Organic Chemistry, we will be using curved
arrows to show electron movement
• The sooner you master this skill, the easier the course
will be
• Curved arrows generally show electron movement for
pairs of electrons
– The arrow starts where the electrons are currently located
– The arrow ends where the electrons will end up after the
electron movement

• We will explore curved arrows to show other reactions in

Chapter 3
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 2.8 Curved Arrows in Resonance
• Rules for using curved arrows to show RESONANCE
1. Avoid breaking a single bond

• Single bonds can break, but NOT in RESONANCE

• Resonance occurs for electrons existing in overlapping
p orbitals, while electrons in single bonds are
overlapping sp, sp2, or sp3 (sigma) orbitals.

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 2.8 Curved Arrows in Resonance
• Rules for using curved arrows to show RESONANCE
2. Never exceed an octet for 2nd row elements (B, C, N, O, F)
• Atoms in the 2nd row can only have four 2nd energy level
orbitals holding a max. of 8 electrons
• Examples of arrows that violate rule 2.

• How does this arrow look?

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 2.8 Curved Arrows in Resonance
• Rules for using curved arrows to show RESONANCE
3. 2nd row elements (B, C, N, O, F) will rarely but sometimes
have LESS than an octet

• What will the resonance hybrid look like for this

structure?
• Practice with SkillBuilder 2.6

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-47 Klein, Organic Chemistry 2e
 2.8 Curved Arrows in Resonance
• Rules for using curved arrows to show RESONANCE
3. 2nd row elements (B, C, N, O, F) will rarely but sometimes
have LESS than an octet
δ-

δ+

• What will the resonance hybrid look like for this

structure?
• Practice with SkillBuilder 2.6

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-43 Klein, Organic Chemistry 2e
 2.9 Formal Charge in Resonance
• When using curved arrows to show RESONANCE, often
structures will carry a formal charge that must be shown
• Draw the resonance contributor indicated by the arrows
below

• Are any of the rules violated?

• Show any formal charges on the contributors

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 2.9 Formal Charge in Resonance
• In the resonance, the arrows tell us how to move the
electrons to create the other contributor

• Draw arrows showing the resonance in the reverse

direction
• You can also think of the arrows as showing the direction
that charge will flow
• Practice with SkillBuilder 2.7

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 2.10 Patterns in Resonance
• There are 5 main bonding patterns in which resonance
occurs. Recognize these patterns to predict when
resonance will occur
1. Allylic lone pairs
2. Allylic positive charge
3. Lone pair of electrons adjacent to a positive charge
4. A pi bond between two atoms with different
electronegativities
5. Conjugated pi bonds in a ring
• We will see many examples in the next few slides

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Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-52 Klein, Organic Chemistry 2e
 2.10 Patterns in Resonance
• Vinyl and allyl refer to positions directly bonded to or
one atom away from a C=C double bond

• Label the vinylic chlorides and the allylic chlorides

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 2.10 Patterns in Resonance
• Vinyl and allyl refer to positions directly bonded to or
one atom away from a C=C double bond

• Label the vinylic chlorides and the allylic chlorides

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 2.10 Patterns in Resonance
1. Identifying allylic lone pairs

• Circle all of the allylic lone pairs

• Draw arrows on each structure to show resonance

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 2.10 Patterns in Resonance
1. Identifying allylic lone pairs
• For each, show the resulting resonance contributor
and all formal charges

• Practice with conceptual check point 2.25

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 2.10 Patterns in Resonance
2. Dealing with allylic positive charge
• Only one curved arrow is needed

• If there are multiple double bonds (conjugated), then

multiple contributors are possible. Show the
resonance contributors and curved arrows below

• Draw a resonance hybrid

• Practice with conceptual checkpoint 2.26
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 2.10 Patterns in Resonance
3. A lone pair adjacent to a positive charge
• Only one arrow is needed
• Explain how the formal charges are affected by the
electron movement in the following examples

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 2.10 Patterns in Resonance
3. A lone pair adjacent to a positive charge
• Consider the resonance in the NITRO group
• Why can’t ONE arrow be used to cancel out the formal
charge and create a resonance contributor?

• Draw all possible resonance contributors

• Practice with conceptual checkpoint 2.27

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-59 Klein, Organic Chemistry 2e
 2.10 Patterns in Resonance
3. A lone pair adjacent to a positive charge
• Consider the resonance in the NITRO group
• Why can’t ONE arrow be used to cancel out the formal
charge and create a resonance contributor?

• Draw all possible resonance contributors

• Practice with conceptual checkpoint 2.27

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 2.10 Patterns in Resonance
4. A pi bond between atoms of different electronegativity
• The pi electrons will be more attracted to the more
electronegative atom
• Explain how the formal charges are created by the
electron movement in the following examples

• Practice with conceptual checkpoint 2.28

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 2.10 Patterns in Resonance
5. Conjugated pi bonds in a ring
• Each atom in the ring MUST have an unhybridized p
orbital that can overlap with its neighbors

• Electrons can be shown to move clockwise or

counterclockwise
• What type of motion do the electrons actually have?
• Practice with conceptual checkpoint 2.31

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 2.10 Patterns in Resonance
• Summary figure 2.5

• Practice with conceptual checkpoint 2.32

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 2.10 Patterns in Resonance

• Show all of the resonance contributors for the

following molecule

• Notice that carbons with 4 bonds (sp3) isolate areas of

resonance from one another
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 2.10 Patterns in Resonance
• Show all of the resonance contributors for the
following molecule

• Other combinations of these structures exist

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 2.11 Stability of Contributors
• Remember our nectarine analogy. Is a nectarine more
like a peach or more like a plum?
• What if we made a fruit that was 65% peach, 34%
plum, and 1% kiwi? How would that look?
• Similarly, there are many molecules that have multiple
resonance contributors where not all resonance
structures contribute equally
• The resonance hybrid will most resemble the more
stable contributor(s)

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 2.11 Stability of Contributors
• How do we assess the stability of resonance
contributors?
1. Formal charge generally DECREASES stability, especially a +1
charge on an electronegative atom or -1 on a low
electronegativity atom
2. COMPLETE OCTETS INCREASE stability
• Draw the three resonance contributors for acetic acid

• Assess the stability of each contributor, and draw a

resonance hybrid

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 2.11 Stability of Contributors
• How do we assess the stability of resonance
contributors?
1. Formal charge generally DECREASES stability, especially a +1
charge on an electronegative atom or -1 on a low
electronegativity atom
2. COMPLETE OCTETS INCREASE stability
• Draw the three resonance contributors for acetic acid

• Assess the stability of each contributor, and draw a

resonance hybrid

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-58 Klein, Organic Chemistry 2e
 2.11 Stability of Contributors
• Draw the three resonance contributors for acetic acid

• Assess the stability of each contributor, and draw a

resonance hybrid δ-

δ+

• The oxygen of the –OH group will carry a partial

negative due to its electronegativity, despite it carrying
a partial positive in one resonance contributor

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-58 Klein, Organic Chemistry 2e
 2.11 Stability of Contributors
1. Formal charge generally DECREASES stability
2. A +1 charge on an electronegative atom or -1 on a low
electronegativity atom is especially unstable
3. COMPLETE OCTETS INCREASE stability
• Draw the three resonance contributors for the acetate
ion

• Assess the stability of each contributor, and draw a

resonance hybrid

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-70 Klein, Organic Chemistry 2e
 2.11 Stability of Contributors
• Draw the three resonance contributors for the acetate
ion

• Assess the stability of each contributor, and draw a

resonance hybrid δ-

δ-

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-59 Klein, Organic Chemistry 2e
 2.11 Stability of Contributors
1. Formal charge generally DECREASES stability
2. A +1 charge on an electronegative atom or -1 on a low
electronegativity atom is especially unstable
3. COMPLETE OCTETS INCREASE stability
• Draw the resonance contributors for the following
molecule

• Assess the stability of each contributor, and draw a

resonance hybrid

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-72 Klein, Organic Chemistry 2e
 2.11 Stability of Contributors
• Draw the resonance contributors for the following
molecule

• Assess the stability of each contributor, and draw a

resonance hybrid
δ- δ-

δ+

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-59 Klein, Organic Chemistry 2e
 2.11 Stability of Contributors
• The octet rule is usually a bigger factor than formal
charge when assessing stability
• For each structure, assess the stability of each
contributor, and draw a resonance hybrid

• Practice with SkillBuilder 2.8

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-74 Klein, Organic Chemistry 2e
 2.12 Delocalized vs. Localized
• Localized – electrons are NOT in resonance
• Delocalized – electrons ARE in resonance
– Delocalization increases stability
• There are a couple ways to recognize electrons that are
delocalized through resonance?
1. To be delocalized, electrons must exist in an unhybridized p
orbital that can overlap with p orbitals on neighboring atoms
2. To be delocalized, electrons must be on an sp or sp2
hybridized atom

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 2.12 Delocalized vs. Localized
• Does the delocalization of the electrons in the amide
create a more or less stable contributor?

• Delocalization must be a very stabilizing force if it can

favor sp2 hybridization over sp3 even when the
delocalization doesn’t involve two equally stable
contributors

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 2.12 Delocalized vs. Localized
• To allow for delocalization (resonance), some atoms
that would normally be sp3 will become sp2 hybridized
• Calculate the steric number and predict the
hybridization for Nitrogen atom of an amide
• If the Nitrogen atom were sp3, its lone pair
of electrons couldn’t engage in resonance

• The Nitrogen of an amide will be sp2 hybridized

– In this case, the stability of the delocalization outweighs the
stability difference between sp2 and sp3
– Why is sp2 generally less stable than sp3 ?

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-77 Klein, Organic Chemistry 2e
 2.12 Delocalized vs. Localized
• The sp2 hybridization of
the nitrogen atom causes
it to be trigonal planar
rather than tetrahedral

• To be delocalized, all
three atoms involved
MUST have p orbitals
overlapping

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 2.12 Delocalized vs. Localized
• Generally, lone pars adjacent to a
C=C double bond are capable of
resonance, but not in this case.

• The electron movement above does not violate any of

our rules, so why can’t the Nitrogen’s lone pairs be
delocalized? - see next slide

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-79 Klein, Organic Chemistry 2e
 2.12 Delocalized vs. Localized
• Recall that delocalized electrons must exist in an
unhybridized p orbital overlapping with p orbitals on
neighboring atoms
• The Nitrogen’s lone
pair is positioned
perpendicular to the
plane where the
other pi electrons
reside
• Practice with
SkillBuilder 2.9

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 Additional Practice Problems
• How many carbon and hydrogen atoms are in the
following molecule?

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-81 Klein, Organic Chemistry 2e
 Additional Practice Problems
• Draw the bond-line structures from the following
formulas:
• C(CH3)3CN

• Cl2CH(CH2)5CO2H

• CH3CHBrCH(NH2)C(CH3)3

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-82 Klein, Organic Chemistry 2e
 Additional Practice Problems
• Fill in any necessary formal charge on the molecule
below

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 Additional Practice Problems
• Fill in any necessary lone pairs in the structure below

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-84 Klein, Organic Chemistry 2e
 Additional Practice Problems
• Show all of the resonance contributors for the
following molecule and draw the resonance hybrid

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 Additional Practice Problems
• How many carbon and hydrogen atoms are in the
following molecule? 11 carbons and 18 hydrogens

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-68 Klein, Organic Chemistry 2e
 Additional Practice Problems
• Draw the bond-line structures from the following
formulas:
• C(CH3)3CN

• Cl2CH(CH2)5CO2H

• CH3CHBrCH(NH2)C(CH3)3

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-69 Klein, Organic Chemistry 2e
 Additional Practice Problems
• Fill in any necessary formal charge on the molecule
below

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-70 Klein, Organic Chemistry 2e
 Additional Practice Problems
• Fill in any necessary lone pairs in the structure below

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-51 Klein, Organic Chemistry 2e
 Additional Practice Problems
• Show all of the
resonance
contributors for the
following molecule
and draw the
resonance hybrid

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-72 Klein, Organic Chemistry 2e
 Additional Practice Problems
• Show all of the
resonance
contributors for the
following molecule
and draw the
resonance hybrid

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-72 Klein, Organic Chemistry 2e
 Additional Practice Problems
• Show all of the
resonance
contributors for the
following molecule
and draw the
resonance hybrid

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-72 Klein, Organic Chemistry 2e
 Additional Practice Problems
• Show all of the
resonance
contributors for the
following molecule
and draw the
resonance hybrid

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-72 Klein, Organic Chemistry 2e
 Additional Practice Problems
• Resonance hybrid. The
Nitrogen carries a full
charge plus one
δ-
additional partial δ+
charge. δ+ δ-
δ+
δ+

δ-

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 2-72 Klein, Organic Chemistry 2e