Unit –III

Measuring Instruments
Introduction:
•The instrument serves as an extension of human faculties and
enables the person to determine the value of unknown quantity which
his unaided human faculties cannot measure.

•A measuring instrument provides information about the physical

value of some variable being measured.
 Instrument senses a physical parameter (like temperature,
pressure, velocity) , process and translate it into a format and
range which can be interpreted by the observer.
The instrument should also provide the controls by which
the operator can obtain, manipulate and respond to the
information.
•An instrument must also provide the controls by which the operator can
obtain, manipulate and respond to the information.

•Under more complex measurement situations, a measuring instrument

may consist of transducing elements- which converts measurand to
analogous form.

•The analagous signal is then processed by some intermediate mean sand

then fed to the end devices for presenting the measurement results for the
purpose of display, record and control.
•Measurements involves the use of instruments as a physical means of
determining quantities and variables.
CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS:
•Absolute and secondary instruments.

•Analog and digital instruments.

•Mechanical, electrical and electronic instruments.

•Manual and automatic instruments.

•Self contained and remote indicating instruments.

•Self operated and power operated instruments.

•Deflection and null output instruments.

Electrical Instruments:
•The Quantity being measured.

•Kind of current.

•Accuracy limits.

•Principle of operation: (moving coil, moving iron, electrodynamic,

induction, hot wire, thermoelectric, rectifier types)

•Type of application:

•According to application:
Extended by number of shunts
, selected by a range switch
Precautions to be taken while using ammeter:

•Observe correct polarity.

•Never connect ammeter across an e.m.f source. Always

connect an ammeter in series with a load capable of limiting
the current.

•While using multirange meter, first use the higher current

range; then decrease the current range range until substantial
deflection is obtained.
ELECTRODYNAMOMETER TYPE WATTMETER
Dynamometer type wattmeter works on very simple principle and this
principle can be stated as "when any current carrying conductor is placed
inside a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force and due this
mechanical force deflection of conductor takes place".
There are two types of coils present in the electrodynamometer.
Moving Coil: Moving coil moves the pointer with the help of spring
control instrument.
A limited amount of current flows through the moving coil so as to avoid
heating.
So in order to limit the current we have connect the high value resistor in
series with the moving coil. The moving coil is air cored and is mounted
on a pivoted spindle and can move freely.
• In electrodynamometer type wattmeter, moving coil works as pressure coil.
Hence moving coil is connected across the voltage and thus the current flowing
through this coil is always proportional to the voltage.

•Fixed Coil: The fixed coil is divided into two equal parts and these are
connected in series with the load, therefore the load current will flow through
these coils. Now the reason is very obvious of using two fixed coils instead of
one, so that it can be constructed to carry considerable amount of electric
current. These coils are called the current coils of electrodynamometer type
wattmeter.
•Earlier these fixed coils are designed to carry the current of about 100 amperes
but now the modern wattmeter are designed to carry current of about 20
amperes in order to save power.
•Control System Out of two controlling systems i.e.
•Gravity control
•Spring control,
•only spring controlled systems are used in these types of wattmeter.
•Gravity controlled system cannot be employed because they will appreciable
amount of errors.
•Damping System:
•Air friction damping is used, as eddy current damping will distort the weak
operating magnetic field and thus it may leads to error.
•Scale :
There is uniform scale is used in these types of instrument as moving coil
moves linearly over a range of 40 degrees to 50 degrees on either sides.
The expressions for the controlling
torque and deflecting torques.
In order to derive these expressions
consider the circuit diagram,
Instantaneous torque in electrodynamic
type instruments is directly proportional
to product of instantaneous values of
currents flowing through both the coils
and the rate of change of flux linked
with the circuit.
 Let I1 and I2 be the instantaneous values of currents in pressure and
current coils respectively. So the expression for the torque can be
written as:

where x is the angle. Now let the applied value of voltage across the
pressure coil be

Assuming the electrical resistance of the pressure coil be very high hence
we can neglect reactance with respect to its resistance. In this the
impedance is equal to its electrical resistance therefore it is purely
resistive.
The expression for instantaneous current can be written as
I2 = v / Rp where Rp is the resistance of pressure coil.
Deflecting torque is due to interaction of the magnetic fields produced by
the currents in the fixed and moving coils

Controlling torque is given by Kx.

X-final steady state value of deflection.
K-spring constant.
Advantages of Electrodynamometer Type Wattmeter
Following are the advantages of electrodynamometer type wattmeters.
•Scale is uniform upto certain limit.
•They can be used for both to measure ac as well dc quantities as scale is
calibrated for both.
•Free from hysterisis and eddy current errors because of absence of iron
in the operating parts.
•Useful for accurate measurement.
•Errors in Electrodynamometer Type Wattmeter
•Following are the errors in the electrodynamometer type wattmeters:
•Errors in the pressure coil inductance.
•Errors may be due to pressure coil capacitance.
•Errors may be due to mutual inductance effects.
•Errors may be due connections.(i.e. pressure coil is connected after
current coil)
•Error due to Eddy currents.
•Errors caused by vibration of moving system.
•Temperature error.
•Errors due to stray magnetic field.
Disdavantages:
•Torque/weight ratio is small, so they have low sensitivity.

•Non uniform scale after certain limit θ α √I¯

•Cost is higher in comparison to moving iron instruments.

•Higher frictional losses.

•Sensitive t overloads and mechanical impacts.

•Operating current is large and higher power consumption than PMMC

instruments.
THE PRINCIPLE OF WORKING AND CONSTRUCTION OF INDUCTION TYPE METER

An instrument that is used to measure either quantity of electricity or

energy, over a period of time is known as energy meter or watt-hour
meter.

•For measurement of energy in a.c. circuit, the meter used is based on

“electro-magnetic induction” principle. They are known as induction
type instruments.

•The measurement of energy is based on the induction principle is

particularly suitable for industrial or domestic meters on the account of
lightness and robustness of the rotating element.

• Moreover, because of smallness of the variations of voltage and

frequency in supply voltage, the accuracy of the induction meter is
unaffected by such variations.
•If the waveform of the supply is badly distorted, the accuracy, however,
is affected.
•Basically, the induction energy meter may be derived from the induction
watt-meter by substituting for the spring control and pointer an eddy
current brake and a counting train, respectively.
• For the meter to read correctly, the speed of the moving system must be
proportional to the power in the circuit in which the meter is connected

•Induction type energy meter essentially consists of following

components :
•Driving system
• Moving system
• Braking system and
• Registering system.
Driving system: The construction of the electro magnet system is shown
in Fig. and it consists of two electromagnets, called “shunt” magnet and
“series” magnet, of laminated construction.
Driving system:
The construction of the electro magnet system is shown in Fig. and it
consists of two electromagnets, called “shunt” magnet and “series”
magnet, of laminated construction.
•A coil having large number of turns of fine wire is wound on the middle
limb of the shunt magnet.

•This coil is known as “pressure or voltage” coil and is connected across

the supply mains.

•This voltage coil has many turns and is arranged to be as highly

inductive as possible.

•The voltage coil produces a high ratio of inductance to resistance.

•This causes the current, and therefore the flux, to lag the supply voltage
by nearly 0-90º .

•An adjustable copper shading rings are provided on the central limb of
the shunt magnet to make the phase angle displacement between
magnetic field set up by shunt magnet and supply voltage is
approximately 0 -90º .
•The copper shading bands are also called the power factor compensator
or compensating loop.
•The series electromagnet is energized by a coil, known as “current” coil
which is connected in series with the load so that it carry the load
current.
•The flux produced by this magnet is proportional to, and in phase with
the load current.
Moving system:
•The moving system essentially consists of a light rotating aluminium
disk mounted on a vertical spindle or shaft.
•The shaft that supports the aluminium disk is connected by a gear
arrangement to the clock mechanism on the front of the meter to provide
information that consumed energy by the load.
•The time varying (sinusoidal) fluxes produced by shunt and series
magnet induce eddy currents in the aluminium disc.
•The interaction between these two magnetic fields and eddy currents set
up a driving torque in the disc.

•The number of rotations of the disk is therefore proportional to the

energy consumed by the load in a certain time interval and is commonly
measured in killowatt-hours (Kwh).
•Braking system:
•Damping of the disk is provided by a small permanent magnet, located
diametrically opposite to the a.c magnets.

•The disk passes between the magnet gaps.

•The movement of rotating disc through the magnetic field crossing the
air gap sets up eddy currents in the disc that reacts with the magnetic
field and exerts a braking torque.
•By changing the position of the brake magnet or diverting some of the
flux there form, the speed of the rotating disc can be controlled.

•Registering or Counting system:

•The registering or counting system essentially consists of gear train,
driven either by worm or pinion gear on the disc shaft, which turns
pointers that indicate on dials the number of times the disc has turned.

•The energy meter thus determines and adds together or integrates all the
instantaneous power values so that total energy used over a period is thus
known.

•Therefore, this type of meter is also called an “integrating” meter.

Basic operation Induction instruments operate in alternating-current
circuits and they are useful only when the frequency and the supply
voltage are approximately constant. The most commonly used technique
is the shaded pole induction watt-hour meter, shown in fig.
•The rotating element is an aluminium disc, and the torque is produced
by the interaction of eddy currents generated in the disc with the imposed
magnetic fields that are produced by the voltage and current coils of the
energy meter.

•Let us consider a sinusoidal flux φ ( )t is acting perpendicularly to the

plane of the aluminium disc, the direction of eddy current by Lenz’s law
is indicated in figure.

•It is now quite important to investigate whether any torque will

develope in aluminium disc by interaction of a sinusoidally varying flux
ei φ( )t and the eddy currents induced by itself.
•φ and e I are expressed in r.m.s and β= 0 (because the reactance of the
aluminium disc is nearly equal to zero).

•Therefore, the interaction of a sinusoidally varying flux φ(t) and its own
eddy current i.e (induced) cannot produce torque any on the disc.

• In all induction instruments we have two fluxes produce by currents

flowing in the windings of the instrument.

•These fluxes are alternating in nature and so they induce emfs in a

aluminium disc or a drum provided for the purpose.
•These emfs in turn circulate eddy currents in the disc. As in an energy
meter instrument, we have two fluxes and two eddy currents and
therefore two torques are produced by
i) first flux(φ1 ) interacting with the eddy currents ( Ie2) generated by
the second flux(φ2), and
ii) second flux ( φ2) interacting with the eddy currents (Ie1) induced by
the first flux (φ1 ).
•In the induction type single phase energy meter, the flux produced by
shunt magnet (pressure or voltage coil current) Φsh lags behind the
applied voltage V by almost 90°. The flux φse is produced by the load
current I and Φse is in the direction of I.
•The flux generated by the current coil is in phase with the current
and flux generated by the voltage coil is adjusted to be exactly in
quadrature with the applied voltage by means of the copper shading
ring on the voltage or shunt magnet.
•The average torque acting upon the disc
(i) The torque expression shows that for a large torque the eddy current
path resistance must be low which in turn the value of cosα will be
nearly equal to 1. Consideration of the torque-weight ratio shows
that the choice of aluminium disc will be superior to copper and
further it can be improved by properly selecting aluminium disc
thickness.
(ii) the torque expression does not involve ωt and it has same value at all
instants of time.
(iii) The resultant torque will act on the disc in such away so that it will
move from the pole with the leading flux towards the pole with
lagging flux.
Opposing or Brake Torque:
Now the breaking torque is produced by the eddy currents induced in the
disc by its rotation in a magnetic field of constant intensity, the constant
field being provided by the permanent magnet (called brake magnet).
The eddy current b i produced in the aluminium–disc by the brake
magnet flux φb is proportional to the speed ( N ) of rotation of the disc N
, as shown.
Thus braking torque
•The speed of rotation of the disc is proportional to the average power.
The integral of the number of revolutions of the disc is proportional to
the total energy supplied.
•The disc is connected via a gearing mechanism to a mechanical counter
that can be read directly in watt-hours.
Remarks:
(i) For a given disc and brake magnet, the braking torque varies with
the distance of the poles from the center of the disc. The maximum
braking torque occurs when the distance of the center of the pole
faces from the center of the disc is equal to 83% of the radius of the
disc.
(ii) a movement of the poles of brake magnet towards the center of the
disc reducing the braking torque (as the distance of brake magnet
reduces from the center of the disc), and vise versa.
Errors in the energy meter:
Speed error:
•Due to the incorrect position of the brake magnet, the braking torque is
not correctly developed.

•This can be tested when meter runs at its full load current alternatively
on loads of unity power factor and a low lagging power factor.

•The speed can be adjusted to the correct value by varying the position of
the braking magnet towards the centre of the disc or away from the
centre and the shielding loop.

•If the meter runs fast on inductive load and correctly on non-inductive
load, the shielding loop must be moved towards the disc.

•On the other hand, if the meter runs slow on non-inductive load, the
brake magnet must be moved towards the center of the disc.
Meter phase error:
•An error due to incorrect adjustment of the position of shading band
results an incorrect phase displacement between the magnetic flux and
the supply voltage (not in quadrature).
•This is tested with 0.5 p.f. load at the rated load condition.
•By adjusting the position of the copper shading band in the central limb
of the shunt magnet this error can be eliminated.

Friction error:
•An additional amount of driving torque is required to compensate this
error.
•The two shading bands on the limbs are adjusted to create this extra
torque.
•This adjustment is done at low load (at about 1/4th of full load at unity
p.f.).
Creep: In some meters a slow but continuous rotation is seen when
pressure coil is excited but with no load current flowing.
This slow revolution records some energy. This is called the creep error.
This slow motion may be due to
(a) incorrect friction compensation,
(b) to stray magnetic field
(c) for over voltage across the voltage coil.

• This can be eliminated by drilling two holes or slots in the disc on

opposite side of the spindle.
• When one of the holes comes under the poles of shunt magnet, the
rotation being thus limited to a maximum of 180⁰ .
• In some cases, a small piece of iron tongue or vane is fitted to the
edge of the disc.
• When the position of the vane is adjacent to the brake magnet, the
attractive force between the iron tongue or vane and brake magnet is
just sufficient to stop slow motion of the disc with full shunt
excitation and under no load condition.
Temperature effect:
•Energy meters are almost inherently free from errors due to
temperature variations.

•Temperature affects both driving and braking torques equally (with the
increase in temperature the resistance of the induced-current path in the
disc is also increases) and so produces negligible error.

•A flux level in the brake magnet decreases with increase in

temperature and introduces a small error in the meter readings.

•This error is frequently taken as negligible, but in modern energy

meters compensation is adopted in the form of flux divider on the break
magnet.

•Energy meter constant K is defined as K = No. of revolutions/ kwh .

•In commercial meters the speed of the disc is of the order of 1800
revolutions per hour at full load
Extension of Instrument Range:
•We have seen earlier M.C. instrument’s range can be extended by
properly designed non inductive shunts and multipliers in cases of
ammeter and voltmeter respectively.

•Similarly for MI instruments shunts and multipliers can be designed for

extension of range.

•Sometimes transformers are used in ac systems for the measurement of

the basic quantities such as current, voltage and power.

•The transformers used in connection with the instruments for

measurement purpose are referred to as Instrument Transformers.
They are classified as
•Current Transformer (C.T.) used for current measurement and
•potential Transformer (P.T.) used for voltage measurement.
These transformers are used not only for extension of the range of the
instrument, but also for isolating the instrument from a high current or
voltage line.

The advantages of these transformers are

• Single range instrument can be used to cover a wide range.

• Indicating instrument can be located at some distance from the circuit.

This is a great advantage particularly for high voltage situation.

• By use of CT with split core or hinged core, the current in heavy

current bus bar can be measured without breaking the circuit.
 **Is/n in P.T

Phasor diagram of P.T