MITE 025

MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING

(An ISO 9001:2008 Certified Institution)

MATERIAL SCIENCE AND METALLURGY

Mr. Vikranth Kannanth M S

Assistant professor
Dept. of mechanical engineering
MITE, Moodabidri
 Prerequisites of MSM
(require in advance)
 Basics of materials
 Basic principle of physics
 Basic principle chemistry

2 Computer Integrated Manufacturing 10/13/2019

 Relevance of course
 Element of mechanical Engineering

 Smart Material

3 Computer Integrated Manufacturing 10/13/2019

 Application of course
 PG Course
 Industry
-automobile
-aircraft

4 Computer Integrated Manufacturing 10/13/2019

MATERIAL SCIENCE AND METALLURGY
[As per Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) scheme]
SEMESTER – III

Subject Code 15ME32 IA Marks 20

Number of Lecture Hours/Week 04 Exam Marks 80

Total Number of Lecture Hours 50 Exam Hours 03

CREDITS – 04
Course objectives:
 To understand the fundamentals of materials, structures and
its related mechanical properties
 To understand the concepts of deformation, Fracture, Creep
and Fatigue under different loading conditions
 To impart knowledge on different solidification mechanism
and thereby construct the different types of phase diagram
 To familiarize the concept of Iron Carbon equilibrium
diagram and study the microstructure for various kinds of
heat treatment and classify Ferrous Nonferrous and
Composite materials
 Course outcome
 To understand the fundamentals of materials, structures and
its related mechanical properties
 To understand the concepts of deformation, Fracture, Creep
and Fatigue under different loading conditions
 To impart knowledge on different solidification mechanism
and thereby construct the different types of phase diagram
 To familiarize the concept of Iron Carbon equilibrium
diagram and study the microstructure for various kinds of
heat treatment and classify Ferrous Nonferrous and
Composite materials

7 10/13/2019
Module -1

 Crystal Structure
 BCC, FCC and HCP Structures, coordination number and
atomic packing factors, crystal imperfections -point line and
surface imperfections. Atomic Diffusion: Phenomenon, Ficks
laws of diffusion, factors affecting diffusion.
 Mechanical Behaviour
 Stress-strain diagram for ductile and brittle materials,
mechanical properties in plastic range, yield strength offset
yield strength, ductility, ultimate tensile strength, toughness.

10 Hours
  Module -2
 Plastic deformation: of single crystal by slip and twinning.
 Fracture: Types, Griffith’s criterion of brittle fracture,
 Creep: Description of Creep phenomenon with examples.
three stages of creep, creep properties, stress relaxation.
 Fatigue: Types of fatigue loading with examples,
 Mechanism of fatigue, fatigue properties, fatigue testing and S-
N diagram.

10 Hours
  Module -3
 Solidification
 Mechanism of solidification, Homogenous and
 Heterogeneous nucleation, crystal growth, cast metal
 structures. Phase Diagram I: Solid solutions Hume Rothary
 rule substitution, and interstitial solid solutions,
 intermediate phases, Gibbs phase rule.
 Phase Diagram II
 Construction of equilibrium diagrams involving complete
 and partial solubility, lever rule. Different types invariant
 reactions – Eutectic, Eutectoid, Peritectic, Peritectectoid
 reactions etc.
10 Hours
  Module -4
 Iron carbon equilibrium diagram
 Description of phases, solidification of steels and cast irons,
 invariant reactions.

 Heat treating of metals

 TTT curves, continuous cooling curves, description of the
 following heat treatment processes with industrial
 applications: annealing and its types. normalizing,
 hardening, tempering, martempering, austempering,
 hardenability, surface hardening methods like carburizing,
 cyaniding, nitriding, flame hardening and induction
 hardening, age hardening of aluminum-copper alloys.

 10 Hours
Module -5
Ferrous and non ferrous materials
Properties, Composition and uses of
• Grey cast iron, malleable iron, SG iron and steel
• Copper alloys-brasses and bronzes.Aluminum alloys-Al-
Cu,Al-Si,Al-Zn alloys.Titanium alloys
Composite Materials
Definition, classification, types of matrix materials &
reinforcements, fundamentals of production of FRP's and
MMC's advantages and application of composites.
Question paper pattern:
Text Books:
1. Foundations of Materials Science and Engineering, Smith, 4th Edition McGraw
Hill,
2009
2. Materials Science, Shackleford., & M. K. Muralidhara, Pearson Publication –
2007.
Reference Books:
1. An Introduction to Metallurgy; Alan Cottrell, Universities Press India
OrientalLongman Pvt. Ltd., 1974.
2. Engineering Materials Science, W.C.Richards, PHI, 1965
3. Physical Metallurgy; Lakhtin, Mir Publications
4. Materials Science and Engineering, V.Raghavan , PHI, 2002
5. Elements of Materials Science and Engineering, H. VanVlack, Addison-
WesleyEdn., 1998
6. Materials Science and Engineering,William D. Callister Jr., John Wiley & Sons.
Inc,5th Edition, 2001.
7. The Science and Engineering of Materials, Donald R. Askland and
Pradeep.P.Phule, Cengage Learning, 4lh Ed., 2003.
 Module -1

Crystal Structure and Mechanical Behaviour

Brain storming session
 Daily life materials......?
What is material...?
 Material is a substance or mixture of substance that

constitute of thing

 In the scientific materials are any non leaving matter

whether natural or manmade
Material science & Engineering
Materials Science – Investigating relationships that
exist between the structure and properties of
materials

Material science is the interdisciplinary field, it involve

discovery & design of new material

Material science deals with study of structure,

property, processing of material
Structure
Structre of material related to arrangement of its
internal component
Property
all material are exposed to some external force
that result in some type of response
Materials Engineering
 on the basis of these structure-property correlations,

designing or engineering the structure of a material to

produce a pre-determined set of properties

Metallurgy
 Is a domain of materials science & Engineering that

studies the physical & chemical behaviour of metallic

element & their intermettalic compound & their
mixture which is called alloy.
 Structure
 Sub atomic – electrons and nuclei (protons and neutrons)

 Atomic – organization of atom or molecule

 Microscopic – groups of atoms that are normally

agglomerated together

 Macroscopic – viewable with the un-aided eye

Terminology
 mil = 1 / 1000 inch = 25.4 μm
 micrometer = 1 / 1,000,000 meter = 1μm
 Angstrom = 1 / 10,000,000,000 meter = 1Å
properties
 mechanical
 electrical
 Chemical
 Physical
 Thermal
 Types of Materials
 Metals and Alloys:
 Ceramics and glasses:
 Organic Polymers:
 Composites:
metals
 Materials in this group are composed of one or more metallic
element (iron, aluminium copper etc) and often also non
metallic element (carbon, nitrogen &oxygen) in relatively
small amounts .
 Atoms in metals and their alloy are arranged in a very orderly
manner
ceramics
 Ceramics are compound between metallic and non metallic
elements.
 These are most frequently oxides, nitrides & carbide
 Ex :-aluminium oxide(Al2O3) silicon oxide (SiO2)
polymers
 Polymer include the familiar plastic & rubber material.
 Many of them are organic compounds that are chemically
based on carbon, hydrogen and other non metallic element.
 Ex :polyethylene, nylon
composite
 Composite is combination of two material.
 One phase is matrix material
 Another phase reinforcing phase
 Used to achieve properties of two material.
 Atomic structure

 In order to understand the structure of materials and

its correlation to property, we have to start form the
basic element of matter – The Atom
 Atomic arrangement

Crystalline – periodic arrangement of atoms: definite repetitive pattern

Non-crystalline or Amorphous – random arrangement of atoms.

The periodicity of atoms in crystalline solids can be

described by a network of points in space called lattice.
 Crystal Structure
Crystal structure: the manner in which atoms, ions, or
molecules are spatially arranged.
 Crystal structure is one of the most important aspects of materials
science and engineering as many properties of materials depend
on their crystal structures.
 The basic principles of many materials characterization techniques
such as X-ray diffraction (XRD), Transmission electron microscopy
(TEM) are based on crystallography.
 Therefore, understanding the basics of crystal structures is of
paramount importance.
 Crystalline structures
 A crystalline material is one in which the atoms are situated in a
repeating over large atomic distances.
 The basic structural unit is a crystal and a number of crystals
come together to form a crystalline solids.
 Each of these crystals contain a number of repetitive blocks
called unit cells which are arranged neatly in an order.
 Compare with military parade where all soldiers are
arranged in order

Example: Metals and ceramics(stable)

Amorphous solids(noncrystalline)

 In which the basic structural unit here is a molecule and a

chain of those molecules come together to form an
amorphous solid.
 These chains of molecules are random within the solids and
occur in no particular order.
 Example: glass Polymers Elastomers (Unstable)
 Compare with a crowd where people are random
Aggeregates
 Although all material can be classified as either crysatalline or

non crystalline there are some material which can occur in

both .

 They have short range order but no long range order are

termed as aggregates
 Unit cell
A number of crystals come together to form a crystalline solid
and each of these crystals in turn contains a number of repetitive
blocks called Unit cells.
Simple cubic
BCC
FCC
HCP
Space Lattice
The three dimensional pattern where the atoms arranged
themselves in an orderly manner along various directions is
known as Space lattice.
A distribution of atoms in three dimensions such that, the
number of atoms, their location and their particular arrangement
in a unit cell is known as space lattice.
Cubic Space lattices
Crystal Systems
The unit vectors a, b and c are called lattice parameters.
Based on their length equality or inequality and their orientation
(the angles between them α,β,Ƴ) a total of 7crystal systems can
be defined.
With the centering (face,base and body centering) added to these,
14 kinds of 3D lattices, known as Bravais lattices, can be
generated.
Coordination number
The number of nearest and equidistant neighbouring atoms
that each atom has in a space lattice.
Eg: SC-6, BCC-8, FCC-12
Metallic Crystal Structures
Faced-centered cubic (FCC)
Body-centered cubic (BCC)
Hexagonal close-packed (HCP).
Atomic packing factor
 It is the ratio of volume of atom contained in each unit cell to
volume of unit cell itself

 APF=
Calculation for some unit cell
 Simple cubic
Face cantered cubic
Body cantered cubic
HEXAGONAL CLOSE PACKED(c=1.633a)
Crystal Imperfections(Defects)
Defects exists any all solid materials. For ease of their
characterization, defects are classified on the basis of their
geometry, which is realistic as defects are disrupted region in a
volume of a solid.
Defects are:
a. Point defects (zero-dimensional)
b. Line defects (single dimensional)
c. Surface defects (two dimensional)
d. Volume defects (three dimensional)
VACANCY
 Vacancy
 A vacancy is a vacant lattice position from where the atom is
missing.
 It is usually created when the solid is formed by cooling the
liquid. There are other ways of making a vacancy, but they also
occur naturally as a result of thermal excitation, and these are
thermodynamically stable at temperatures greater than zero.
Interstitial Imperfections
 Interstitialcy
An interstitial atom or interstitialcy is an atom that
occupies a place outside the normal lattice position. It may be the
same type of atom as the rest surrounding it (self interstitial) or
a foreign impurity atom.
Interstitialcy is most probable if the atomic packing factor is
low.
Another way an impurity atom can be fitted into a crystal
lattice is by substitution. A substitutional atom is a foreign atom
occupying original lattice position by displacing the parent atom.
 Frenkel defect and Schottky defect
When an ion displaced from a regular position to an interstitial
position creating a vacancy, the pair of vacancy-interstitial is called
Frenkel defect.
A pair of one cation and one anion can be missing from an ionic
crystal, without violating the condition of charge neutrality when
the valency of ions is equal. The pair of vacant sites, thus formed, is
called Schottky defect.
This type of point defect is dominant in alkali halides. These
ion-pair vacancies, like single vacancies, facilitate atomic diffusion.
SUBSTITUTIONAL IMPURITIES
Electronic defect
Line defects(Dislocations)
Edge dislocation
Screw dislocation
Edge dislocation
Grain Boundaries
1) Grain Boundaries
2) Tilt Boundary
3) Twin Boundaries
4) Stacking Faults
Atomic Diffusion
The migration of atoms from their original lattice sites
in a crystal structure to other sites is known as Diffusion.

Reason for Diffusion:

1)Thermal agitation
2)Concentration gradient
Mechanisms of Diffusion
 Vacancy migration
 Interstitialcy migration
 Interchange of atoms
Vacancy migration
Interstitialcy migration
Interchange of atoms
FICKS I LAW OF DIFFUSION


 Diffusivity: It is defined as the amount of substance
diffusing in unit time across a unit area through a unit
concentration gradient .
unit of diffusivity m2/sec
 Activation Energy: The minimum energy required by the
atoms to overcome the energy barrier between atoms is
called as activation energy.
Activation Energy Depends on number
of factors
 A small atom has lower activation energy than a large atom
or molecule.
 Interstitial movements require more energy than vacancy
movements.
 High activation energies are required for atomic diffusion for
those materials which are strongly bonded and have higher
melting points. ex: Tungsten ,Boron carbide,silicon carbide.
 Arrhenious equation

 D= Diffusion co-efficient (m2/sec)

 D0= constant (m2/sec)
 Q= Activation energy for diffusion(J/mol)
 R= Universal gas constant(8.314J/mol-k)
 T= absolute temperature(k)
Factors affecting atomic diffusion
 Temperature
 Crystal structure
 Atomic packing factor
 Grain boundaries
 Grain size
 Atomic size
 Concentration gradient
Questions
 Define atomic packing factor and calculate atomic radius and packing factor for
BCC structure. (10 Mark)
 Explain with neat sketch various types of line imperfections.
(10 Mark)
 What are the difference between crystalline solids and non-crystalline solids. (5
Mark)

 Explain with neat sketch various types of surface imperfections. (5 Mark)

 What is diffusion ? Explain with neat sketch various forms of diffusion.
(10 Mark)
MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR
Contents
 Stress – Strain diagram showing ductile and brittle
behaviour of materials.
 Linear and non linear elastic behaviour and properties.
 Mechanical properties in plastic range.
 Yield Strength – offsetYield Strength.
 Ductility, Ultimate tensile strength,Toughness.
 Plastic deformation of single crystal by slip and twinning.
 Stress
 Strain
 Deformation
 Young's modulus
 Elastic deformation
 Plastic deformation
 Yield point
 Upper yield point
 Lower yield point
Stress – Strain Relationship.
Stress-Strain Curve for Ductile materials
(Mild steel)
Mechanical Properties in Elastic Region
1) Linear Elastic properties
-Stiffness
-Elastic Strength
-Resilience
1) Non-Linear Elastic properties
-Secant Modulus
-Tangent Modulus
-Resilience
 Linear Elastic properties
1) Stiffness
The resistance offered by the material to elastic
deformation.
2) Elastic Strength
The highest stress at which the behavior of material
remains elastic.
OR
The minimum stress at which the material starts to
undergo plastic deformation
3) Resilience
Ability of the material to absorb the energy when it is
loaded elastically and give back the same energy when the load is
removed.
Eg: Spring
Modulus of resilience
It is a measure of elastic resilience.
Strain energy stored by the material per unit
volume at the elastic limit.
Non-Linear Elastic properties
1) Secant Modulus (Average stiffness)
2) Tangent Modulus (Instantaneous Stiffness)
3) Resilience
The strain energy absorbed is not fully recovered.
So Resilience is the ratio of area under curve-2 to the
area under curve-1.

•Low
resilience-
Good damping
•High
resilience- Low
internal heat
generation
End of elastic region
Mechanical Properties in Plastic Region
Yield Point Phenomenon
1.Yield strength
2) Offset Yield Strength (Proof Strength)
3) DUCTILITY
It is the ability of the materials to undergo plastic
deformation under tensile load.
It is a property of a material by which it can be drawn into
thin wires.
Eg: Copper, Alluminium

% Elongation= (L-Lo)/Lo*100
4) Malleability
It is the ability of the materials to undergo plastic
deformation under compressive load.
It is a property of a material by which it can be flattened
into thin sheets without cracking.
Eg: Lead
5.Ultimate tensile strength
6. Fracture strength
Toughness
It is the resistance offered by the materials to undergo
elastic and plastic deformation.
True stress and True strain
True stress is the ratio of load and instantaneous cross-
sectional area.

σ’ = P/A’
where σ’= true stress
P = Load
A’= Instantaneous c/s area
True Strain
It is the ratio of change in length to the immediately
previous length of the specimen rather than the original length.
Engineering and True Stress-Strain
curves
PLASTIC DEFORMATION OF SINGLE
CRYSTAL
 Plastic deformation by Slip
 Plastic deformation by Twinning
 Combination of both
Plastic deformation of single crystal
by slip and twinning
 What is elastic deformation....?

 What is plastic deformation....?

 Plastic deformation of single crystal
 Plastic deformation of polycrystalline material
Plastic deformation of single crystal
 Single crystal or single grain has a no grain boundaries

 A number of such boundaries comes together polycrystalline

material

 there is grain boundaries between the two grain

 Plastic deformation of single crystal study of one single

crystal and observing how it behave under stress

Continued...
 Plastic deformation by single crystal take by
 SLIP
 TWINNING
 A COMBINATION OF BOTH
Plastic deformation by slip
 When a single crystal in tension is stresses beyond its elastic

limit a single crystal is divided into two block

 One block will move with respect other

 This due to pure shear stress

Plastic deformation by slip
Slip governed by following rules
 Slip occurs only along certain crystallographic planes &

direction

 Slip occur only along most closely packed set of planes

ex(111)plane in fcc

 Slip direction direction on which atoms are closely

spaced(110) direction of fcc

 For given set of slip system slip occur on that system where

the shear stress is maximum

 Plastic deformation by Slip
Slip is the process by which plastic deformation is produced by
dislocation motion.

Dislocation motion  plastic deformation

Dislocation motion  plastic deformation
Single Crystal Slip due to dislocation
movement

146
Critical Resolved Shear Stress(CRSS)
Critical Resolved Shear Stress(CRSS)
Plastic deformation by Twinning
Slip and Twinning
Slip and Twinning
Difference between slip and twinning
Slip Twinning
Strain Hardening (Work Hardening)
Fracture
 Fracture is the separation or fragmentation of solid body into

two or more part under the action of load.

 During the fracture atomic bonds are broken and new surface

are formed
Types of fracture
1. Ductile or type I fracture

2. Brittle or type II fracture

3. Shear or type III fracture

Ductile or type I fracture

 It is characterised by appreciable amount of plastic deformation .

 The fracture proceeds relatively slowly and the fracture surface is

dull in appearance
 Ductile fracture is two type
 Highly ductile fracture

 Moderately ductile fracture or cup and cone fracture

 Highly ductile fracture

 In this material necks down to a point fracture and yields to

100% reduction in cross sectional area

Cup and cone fracture
 Brittle fracture or typeII fracture
 Like in the ductile fracture small cavities join together to

form a crack and crack propagates.

 But all these stages happen instantly and the material

failure take place suddenly.

 Fracture surface is granular and almost normal to direction

of tensile load.
 Tendency of brittle fracture

1. Decreasing temp

2. Increase in strain rate

3. tri-axial stress.
 Intergranular fracture:-in this the crack propagate along the

grain boundaries and fracture occur.

 Intragranular fracture:-in this the fracture passes through

grain and fracture surface like granular this is also known as

Transgranular fracture
Shear fracture or type III fractue
 This type of fracture is found in ductile single crystals. This is
promoted by shear stresses and occurs as a result of extensive
slip on the active slip plane.
 Fracture surfaces are normally at 45° to the direction of
tensile load
Preference of ductile over brittle failure
 Ductile fracture is almost preferred over brittle failure.

 Because brittle fracture occurs spontaneously and suddenly without any

warning which is due to the rapid propagation.
 In ductile fracture which is preceded by considerable deformation
preventive measures can be taken to avoid fracture
Ductile to brittle transition
FATIGUE
 In several application component have to withstand different kind
of load at different time.
 Material subjected to these fluctuating or repeated load tends to
show a behaviour which is different from what they show under
steady load.
 This behaviour is known as fatigue due to this strength and service
life is reduced
 Fatigue is the general term used to describe the behaviour of
material under repeated loading.
 Springs deflecting to various amount, aircraft wings
subjected to repeated gust load, rubber tyre deforming
Type of fatigue loading with example
i).Completely reversed cycle of
stress
 Type of fatigue loading where member is subjected to opposite
load alternately with a mean of zero.
 For example bending of steel wire continuously in either direction
leads to alternate tensile and compressive stress on surface
ii)Repeated stress cycle
 The type of fatigue loading where member is subjected to
only tension but to various degree.
 The spring subjected to repeated tension in toy
iii)Irregular or random stress cycle
 Type of fatigue loading where a member could be subjected

to irregular loads as in the case of an aircraft wing subjected

to wind loads
Stages of fatigue failure
 Material which subjected to simple alternating tensile and
compressive stress.
1. Crack nucleation
2. Crack growth.
3. Fracture
1.Crack nucleation
 During fist few cycle of loading localized changes take place
at various places within material.
 These changes lead to the formation of submicrscopic cracks.
 These cracks are usually formed at the surface of the
specimen.
2.Crack growth
 The submicroscopic cracks formed grow as the cycle of loading
continue and become microscopic cracks

3.Fracture
When critical size is reached the crack propagates . The area supporting
load gets reduced thus increasing stress and fracture occur
Mechanisms of fatigue failure
a)woods theory
b)Orowans Polycrystalline Model theory
Fatigue testing by R R MOORE
Reversed bending machine
S-N Diagram
Fatigue properties
1).Fatigue life(N):- it is the total no of cycle required to bring
about final fracture in a specimen at given stress.

Fatigue life for a given condition is a property of the individual

specimen and is arrived at after testing a number of specimen at
the same stress
2).Fatigue life for P percent survival
(Np)
 It is the fatigue life for which P percent of the population of
sample tested have a longer life then rest.
 For example N90 is the fatigue life for which 90% of the
samples would expected to survive and 10%to fail at
particular stress
3).Median fatigue life
 It is the fatigue life for which 50% of the population of

samples fail and the other 50% survive at particular stress

4).fatigue strength (σn)
 It is the stress at which a material can withstand repeatedly

‘N’ no of cycle before failure.

5).Fatigue limit or Endurance Limit(σE)
 It is the stress below which a material will not fail for any no
of cycle.
 Ferrous material is half of ultimate tensile strength.
 Non ferrous no fatigue limit endurance limit taken
Factor affecting fatigue life
Fatigue protection method

1.Design for fatigue

Fatigue performance can be improved by avoiding sharp corner
 Creep
 When material under several service conditions are required to sustain
steady loads for long periods of time they undergo time dependent
deformation this is known as creep.
 This can also define as slow and progressive deformation of a material
with time at a constant stress
Three stages of creep-through creep
curve
 The creep curve is obtained by applying a constant tensile load below the
yield point to a specimen maintained at constant temp.
 The strain or elongation of the specimen determined as the function of time

 As soon as the specimen is loaded there will be instantaneous strain which

denote by Є0 on the creep curve.
 Further deformation consider as creep deformation
Primary creep
Secondary creep
Tertiary creep
THANK YOU