NATURE OF

MATERIALS
 *TYPES OF ENGINNERING
MATERIALS
 *ENGINNERING MATERIALS
COMPOSITION
 *CHEMICAL BONDING
METALS
*FERROUS METALS
*NON-FERROUS METALS
NON- METALLIC MATERIALS
*SYNTHETIC MATERIALS
*NATURAL MATERIALS
 These are metals and alloys
containing a high proportion of the
element iron. They are the strongest
materials available and are used for
applications where high strength is
required at relatively low cost and
where weight is not of primary
importance. As an example of
ferrous metals such as : bridge
building, the structure of large
buildings, railway lines, locomotives
and rolling stock and the bodies and
highly stressed engine parts of road
vehicles.
These materials refer to the
remaining metals known to
mankind. The pure metals are
rarely used as structural
materials as they lack
mechanical strength. They are
used where their special
properties such as corrosion
resistance, electrical conductivity
and thermal conductivity are
required. Copper and aluminum
are used as electrical conductors
and, together with sheet zinc and
sheet lead, are use as roofing
materials. They are mainly used
with other metals to improve
their strength.
 These are non – metallic
materials that do not exist in
nature, although they are
manufactured from natural
substances such as oil, coal and
clay
 They combine good corrosion
resistance with ease of
manufacture by moulding to
shape and relatively low cost.
Synthetic adhesives are also
being used for the joining of
metallic components even in
highly stressed applications.
A natural material is any
product or physical matter that
comes from plants, animals, or
the ground. Minerals and
the metals that can be extracted
from them (without further
modification) are also
considered to belong into this
category. Natural materials are
used as building materials and
clothing
 The wide variety of structures, systems, and components found in DOE nuclear
facilities are made from many different types of materials. Many of
the materials are alloys with a base metal of iron, nickel,
or zirconium. The selection of a material for a specific application is based on
many factors including the temperature and pressure that the material will be
exposed to, the materials resistance to specific types of corrosion, the materials
toughness and hard ness,and other material properties. One material that has wide
application in the systems of DOE facilities is stainless steel. Thereare nearly 40
standard types of stainless steel and many other specialized types under various
trade names. Through the modification of the kinds and quantities of alloying
elements, the steel can be adapted to specific applications. Stainless steels are
classified as austenitic or ferriti cbased on their lattice structure. Austenitic
stainless steels, including 304 and 316, have a face-
centered cubic structure of iron atoms with the carbon in interstitial solid sol
ution. Ferritistainless steels, including type 405, have a body-centered cubic iron
lattice and contain no nickel.
Ferritic steels are easier to weld and fabricate and are less susceptible to stre
ss corrosion cracking than austenitic stainless steels. They have only
moderate resistance to other types of chemical attack.
Engineering materials refers to the group of materials that are used in the
construction of manmade structures and components. The primary function
of an engineering material is to withstand applied loading without breaking
and without exhibiting excessive deflection. The major classifications of
engineering materials include metals, polymers, ceramics, and composites.
The important characteristics of the materials within each of these classes are
discussed on this page, and tables of material properties are also provided.

Metals
 Ferrous Alloys
 Carbon Steel
 Low-Alloy Steel
 Tool Steel
 Stainless Steel
 Cast Iron
 Aluminum Alloys
 Nickel Alloys
 Copper Alloys
 Titanium Alloys
Polymers
 Thermoplastic Polymers
 Thermosetting Polymers
 Elastomers
Ceramics
 Glass
 Cements
 Clay Products
 Refractorie
 Abrasives
Composites
 Particulate Composites
 Fibrous Composites
 Laminated Composites
 Metals
 Metals are the most commonly used class of engineering material. Metal
alloys are especially common, and they are formed by combining a metal
with one or more other metallic and/or non-metallic materials. The
combination usually occurs through a process of melting, mixing, and
cooling. The goal of alloying is to improve the properties of the base
material in some desirable way.
 Metal alloy compositions are described in terms of the percentages of the
various elements in the alloy, where the percentages are measured by
weight.
 Ferrous Alloys
 Ferrous alloys have iron as the base element. These alloys and include
steels and cast irons. Ferrous alloys are the most common metal alloys in
use due to the abundance of iron, ease of production, and high versatility
of the material. The biggest disadvantage of many ferrous alloys is low
corrosion resistance.
 Carbon is an important alloying element in all ferrous alloys. In general,
higher levels of carbon increase strength and hardness, and decrease
ductility and weldability.
 Carbon Steel
 Carbon steels are basically just mixtures of iron and carbon.
They may contain small amounts of other elements, but
carbon is the primary alloying ingredient. The effect of
adding carbon is an increase in strength and hardness.
 Most carbon steels are plain carbon steels, of which there are
several types.
 Low-Carbon Steel
 Low-carbon steel has less than about 0.30% carbon. It is
characterized by low strength but high ductility. Some
strengthening can be achieved through cold working, but it
does not respond well to heat treatment. Low-carbon steel is
very weldable and is inexpensive to produce. Common uses
for low-carbon steel include wire, structural shapes,
machine parts, and sheet metal.
 Medium-Carbon Steel
 Medium-carbon steel contains between about
0.30% to 0.70% carbon. It can be heat treated to
increase strength, especially with the higher
carbon contents. Medium-carbon steel is
frequently used for axles, gears, shafts, and
machine parts.
 High-Carbon Steel
 High-carbon steel contains between about 0.70% to
1.40% carbon. It has high strength but low
ductility. Common uses include drills, cutting
tools, knives, and springs.
 Low-Alloy Steel
 Low-alloy steels, also commonly called alloy steels,
contain less than about 8% total alloying ingredients.
Low-alloy steels are typically stronger than carbon
steels and have better corrosion resistance.
 Some low-alloy steels are designated as high-strength
low-alloy (HSLA) steels. What sets HSLA steels apart
from other low-alloy steels is that they are designed to
achieve specific mechanical properties rather than to
meet a specific chemical composition.
 The table below provides representative mechanical
properties for several common alloy steels.
 Tool Steel
 Tool steels are primarily used to make tooling for use in
manufacturing, for example cutting tools, drill bits, punches,
dies, and chisels. Alloying elements are typically chosen to
optimize hardness, wear resistance, and toughness.

Stainless Steel
 Stainless steels have good corrosion resistance, mostly due
to the addition of chromium as an alloying ingredient.
Stainless steels have a chromium composition of at least
11%. Passivation occurs with chromium content at or above
12%, in which case a protective inert film of chromic oxide
forms over the material and prevents oxidation. The
corrosion resistance of stainless steel is a result of this
passivation.
 Austenitic Stainless Steel
 Austenitic stainless steel is the most common form of stainless steel. It has the
highest general corrosion resistance among stainless steels. It is also the most
weldable of the stainless steels due to its low carbon content. It can only be
strengthened through cold work. Austenitic stainless steels are generally more
expensive than other stainless steels due to nickel content. Austenitic stainless
steels are not magnetic, although ferritic and martensitic stainless steels are.
Common applications include fasteners, pressure vessels, and piping.
 Ferritic Stainless Steel
 Ferritic stainless steel has high chromium content and medium carbon content. It
has good corrosion resistance rather than high strength. It generally cannot be
strengthened through heat treatment, and can only be strengthened via cold work.
 Martensitic Stainless Steel
 Martensitic stainless steel has high carbon content (up to 2%) and low chromium
content. This higher carbon content is the primary difference between ferritic and
martensitic stainless steels. Due to the high carbon content, it is difficult to weld. It
can be strengthened through heat treatment. Common applications include cutlery
and surgical instruments.
 Duplex Stainless Steel
 Duplex stainless steel contains both austenitic and
ferritic phases. It can have up to twice the strength of
austenitic stainless steel. It also has a high toughness,
corrosion resistance, and wear resistance. Duplex
stainless steel is generally as weldabe as austenitic, but
it has a temperature limit.
 Precipitation-Hardenable Stainless Steel
 Precipitation-hardenable stainless steel can be
strengthened through precipitation hardening, which
is an age hardening process. These materials have high
strength as well as high resistance to corrosion and
temperature.
 Cast Iron
 Cast iron is a ferrous alloy containing high levels of carbon, generally
greater than 2%. The carbon present in the cast iron can take the form of
graphite or carbide. Cast irons have a low melting temperature which
makes them well suited to casting.
 Gray Cast Iron
 Gray cast iron is the most common type. The carbon is in the form of
graphite flakes. Gray cast iron is a brittle material and its compressive
strength is much higher than its tensile strength. The fracture surface of
gray cast iron has a gray color, which is how it got its name.
 Ductile Cast Iron (Nodular Cast Iron)
 The addition of magnesium to gray cast iron improves the ductility of the
material. The resulting material is called nodular cast iron because the
magnesium causes the graphite flakes to form into spherical nodules. It is
also called ductile cast iron. Nodular cast iron has good strength, ductility,
and machinability. Common uses include crankshafts, gears, pump
bodies, valves, and machine parts.
 White Cast Iron
 White cast iron has carbon in the form of carbide,
which makes the material hard, brittle, and
difficult to machine. White cast iron is primarily
used for wear-resisting components as well as for
the production of malleable cast iron.
 Malleable Cast Iron
 Malleable cast iron is produced by heat treating
white cast iron. The heat treatment improves the
ductility of the material while maintaining its high
strength.
 Aluminum Alloys
 Pure aluminum is soft and weak, but it can be alloyed to
increase strength. Pure aluminum has good corrosion
resistance due to an oxide coating that forms over the
material and prevents oxidation. Alloying the aluminum
tends to reduce its corrosion resistance.
 Aluminum is a widely used material, particularly in the
aerospace industry, due to its light weight and corrosion
resistance. Despite the fact that aluminum alloys are
generally not as strong as steels, they nevertheless have a
good strength-to-weight ratio.
 Aluminum alloys are named according to a 4-digit number,
where the first number indicates the major alloying element.
A processing code follows the 4-digit number, which
indicates the condition and treatment of the material.
The 2000, 6000, and 7000 series aluminum alloys can all be heat treated,
and therefore these can achieve the highest strengths. The other alloys can
be strengthened through cold work.
 Nickel alloys have high temperature and
corrosion resistance. Common alloying
ingredients include copper, chromium, and
iron. Common nickel alloys include Monel, K-
Monel, Inconel, and Hastelloy.
 The table below provides representative
mechanical properties for several common
nickel alloys.
 Copper alloys are generally characterized as being electrically
conductivity, having good corrosion resistance, and being
relatively easy to form and cast. While they are a useful
engineering material, copper alloys are also very attractive and are
commonly used in decorative applications.
 Copper alloys primarily consist of brasses and bronzes. Zinc is the
major alloying ingredient in brass. Tin is a major alloying element
in most bronzes. Bronzes may also contain aluminum, nickel, zinc,
silicon, and other elements. The bronzes are typically stronger
than the brasses while still maintaining good corrosion resistance.
 The aluminum bronze alloys are very hard and have good wearing
properties, and so are commonly used in bearing applications.
The beryllium copper alloys have good strength and fatigue
properties, and good wear resistance when lubricated properly.
Beryllium copper is commonly used for springs, bearings, and
bushings.
 Titanium alloys are light, strong, and have high
corrosion resistance. Their density is much lower than
steel, and their strength-to-weight ratio is excellent. For
this reason, titanium alloys are used fairly commonly,
especially in the aerospace industry. One primary
downside of titanium alloys is the high cost.
 There are three categories of titanium alloys: alpha
alloys, beta alloys, and alpha-beta alloys. Alpha alloys
do not respond to heat treatment and are instead
strengthened through solid-solution strengthening
processes. The beta and alpha-beta alloys can be
strengthened by heat treatment, primarily through
precipitation hardening.
 Titanium alloys are identified using the percentages of
alloying elements, for example Ti-6Al-4V.
 Polymers
 Polymers are materials that consist of molecules formed by long chains of
repeating units. They may be natural or synthetic. Many useful engineering
materials are polymers, such as plastics, rubbers, fibers, adhesives, and coatings.
Polymers are classified as thermoplastic polymers, thermosetting polymers
(thermosets), and elastomers.
 Thermoplastic Polymers
 The classification of thermoplastics and thermosets is based on their response to
heat. If heat is applied to a thermoplastic, it will soften and melt. Once it is cooled,
it will return to solid form. Thermoplastics do not experience any chemical change
through repeated heating and cooling (unless the temperature is high enough to
break the molecular bonds). They are therefore very well suited to injection
molding.
 Thermosetting Polymers
 Thermosets are typically heated during initial processing, after which they become
permanently hard. Thermosets will not melt upon reheating. If the applied heat
becomes extreme however, the thermoset will degrade due to breaking of the
molecular bonds. Thermosets typically have greater hardness and strength than
thermoplastics. They also typically have better dimensional stability than
thermoplastics, meaning that they are better at maintaining their original
dimensions when subjected to temperature and moisture changes.
 Elastomers
 Elastomers are highly elastic polymers with
mechanical properties similar to rubber.
Elastomers are commonly used for seals,
adhesives, hoses, belts, and other flexible parts.
The strength and stiffness of rubber can be
increased through a process called vulcanization,
which involves adding sulfur and subjecting the
material to high temperature and pressure. This
process causes cross-links to form between the
polymer chains.

 Ceramics
 Ceramics are solid compounds that may consist of metallic or nonmetallic
elements. The primary classifications of ceramics include glasses,
cements, clay products, refractories, and abrasives.
 Ceramics generally have excellent corrosion and wear resistance, high
melting temperature, high stiffness, and low electrical and thermal
conductivity. Ceramics are also very brittle materials.
 Glass
 Glasses are common materials and are seen in applications including
windows, lenses, and containers. Glasses are amorphous, whereas the
other ceramics are mainly crystalline. Primary advantages of glasses
include transparency and ease of fabrication. The base element of most
glasses is silica, and other components can be added to modify its
properties. Common processes used to form glass include:
 heating until melting, then pouring into molds to cast into useful shapes
 heating until soft, then rolling
 heating until soft, then blowing into desired shapes
 Cements
 Cements are materials that, after mixing with water, form a paste that
then hardens. Because of this characteristic, cements can be formed into
useful shapes while in paste form before they harden into rigid
structures. Plaster of paris is one common cement. The most common
cement is called Portland cement, which is made by mixing clay and
limestone and then firing at high temperature. Portland cement is used to
form concrete, which is made by mixing it with sand, gravel, and water. It
can also be mixed with sand and water to form mortar. Like other
ceramics, cements are weak in tension but strong in compression. Cement
is very inexpensive to produce, and it used widely in the construction of
buildings, bridges, and other large structures.
 Clay Products
 Clay is a very common ceramic material. It can be mixed with water,
shaped, and then hardened through firing at high temperature. The two
primary classifications of clay products include structural clay
products and whitewares. Structural clay products see applications
including bricks, tiles, and piping. Whitewares see applications including
pottery and plumbing fixtures.
 Refractories
 Refractory ceramics can withstand high temperatures and
extreme environments. They can also provide thermal
insulation. Brick is the most common refractory ceramic.
 Abrasives
 Abrasive ceramics are hard materials that are used to cut,
grind, and wear away other softer materials. Typical
properties of abrasives include high hardness, wear
resistance, and temperature resistance. Abrasives can either
be bonded to a surface (e.g. grinding wheels and sand
paper), or can be used as loose grains (e.g. sand blasting).
Common abrasives include cemented carbide, silicon
carbide, tungsten carbide, aluminum oxide, and silica sand.
Diamond is also an excellent abrasive, but it is expensive.
 Composites
 A composite material is a material in which one or more mutually
insoluble materials are mixed or bonded together. The primary
classes of composites are particulate composites, fibrous
composites, and laminated composites.
 Particulate Composites
 Particulate composites are created by adding particles of one
material to a matrix (the filler material). The particles will typically
account for less than 15% of the total material volume. The
particles are added to improve upon some shortcoming of the
matrix material.
 Fibrous Composites
 A fibrous composite is a material in which fibers of one material
are embedded within a matrix. The fibers carry most of the stress,
and the matrix serves to hold the fibers in place and to transmit
stress between the fibers. The fibers can be short and randomly
oriented, or they can be long and continuous.
 Laminated Composites
 Laminated composites are created by
combining layers of composite materials. The
layers will typically differ in the orientation of
the fibers, or they will differ in the material
itself. Sandwich materials are common, in which
a lightweight material (such as foam or a
honeycomb) will be placed in between layers of
a strong, stiff material.
 A chemical bond is a lasting attraction between atoms, ions or molecules that enables the
formation of chemical compounds. The bond may result from the electrostatic force of
attraction between oppositely charged ions as in ionic bonds or through the sharing of
electrons as in covalent bonds. The strength of chemical bonds varies considerably; there are
"strong bonds" or "primary bonds" such as covalent, ionic and metallic bonds, and "weak
bonds" or "secondary bonds" such as dipole–dipole interactions, the london dispersion
force and hydrogen bonding.
 Since opposite charges attract via a simple electromagnetic force, the negatively
charged electrons that are orbiting the nucleus and the positively charged protons in
the nucleus attract each other. An electron positioned between two nuclei will be attracted to
both of them, and the nuclei will be attracted toward electrons in this position. This attraction
constitutes the chemical bond. Due to the matter wave nature of electrons and their smaller
mass, they must occupy a much larger amount of volume compared with the nuclei, and this
volume occupied by the electrons keeps the atomic nuclei in a bond relatively far apart, as
compared with the size of the nuclei themselves.
 In general, strong chemical bonding is associated with the sharing or transfer of electrons
between the participating atoms. The atoms in molecules, crystals, metals and diatomic
gases—indeed most of the physical environment around us—are held together by chemical
bonds, which dictate the structure and the bulk properties of matter.
 How Chemical Bonds Form
 Atoms stick together because of chemical attraction, meaning that
various types of atoms are attracted to each other and come together in a
bond. This attraction is created because of the electrostatic force caused
by the attraction between electrons and nuclei.
 There are various types of chemical bonds including:
 Ionic Bonds
 Covalent Bonds
 Dative Bonds
 Network Covalent Bonds
 Ionic Bonds
 One type of chemical bond is an ionic bond. Ionic bonds are formed by
the electrostatic attraction of atoms that have opposite charges. An ion is
an atom that has gained or lost one or more of its electrons in its outer
shell, therefore giving the atom either a positive or negative charge.
 Ionic bonds are typically formed between one metallic and one
nonmetallic atom.
 Sodium chloride, or NaCl, is an example of an ionic bond.
 Another example of an ionic bond is found in lithium fluoride (LiF).
Lithium has one electron in its outer shell, and fluorine has seven
electrons in its outer shell. In this situation an electron will be traded so
that the outer shell of the lithium is full with eight electrons.
 A covalent bond is formed when two atoms
with electronegativities share their electrons,
rather than trading them as happens in ionic
bonds. Two hydrogen atoms can share an
electron to form the molecule H2, and they are
joined by a single covalent bond.
 A double covalent bond is found in ethylene
(C2H4), because two sets of valence electrons
are shared.
 A triple covalent bond is seen in atomic
nitrogen (N2).
 A dative bond, also called a coordinate covalent
bond, is created when one atom gives both
electrons needed to form a single covalent bond.
 This can be seen with ammonium (NH4+).
Nitrogen contributes the two electrons needed to
bond with hydrogen and therefore form the
ammonium with a dative bond.
 It can also be seen with hydronium (H3O+). In a
water molecule, the oxygen atom gives a pair of
electrons to create a dative bond with a hydrogen
ion, thus forming the hydronium.
 Sometimes elements will form covalent bonds over and
over in a material, repeating the same structure to form
very large molecules. When this occurs, the bonds
formed are described as a network covalent.
 An example of this is seen in diamonds. Carbon bonds
to itself, with each carbon atom forming four covalent
bonds to four other carbon atoms. This forms one large
molecule that is a diamond crystal.
 Silicates, which are found in quartz, sand, and many
other minerals, also bond together in network covalent
bonds.

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